1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
By:Ilona
Asst Prof

2. Definition: a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge
Redman & Mory define research as a “systematized effort
to gain new knowledge.

3.  Acc. To Clifford , research comprises defining &
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested; collecting, organizing & evaluating data;
making deductions & reaching conclusion & at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis.

4. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific procedures
Main aim is to find out the truth which is hidden & which
has not been discovered as yet
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it. (Studies with this object in view are termed
as exploratory or formulative research studies)

5. 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group ( descriptive research
studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else
(Diagnostic research studies)
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between
variables (Hypothesis testing research studies)

6. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
4. Desire to be of service to society
5. Desire to get respect

7. Other factors:
 Directives of government
 Curiosity about new things
 Desire to understand casual relationships
 Social thinking
 Awakening
 The like as well as motivate people to perform research
objectives

8. CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined &
common concepts be used
2. The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat
the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attached

9. 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance & the method of analysis used should
be appropriate

10. 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the
data of the research
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
research is experienced, has good reputation in research &
is a person of integrity.

11. THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH ARE:
1. Good research is systematic:
- It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence along with well
defined set of rules
2. Good research is logical:
- It should have logical reasoning & the logical process of
induction & deduction
- Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the
whole

12. -Deduction is the process of reasoning from some precise to
a conclusion.
3. Good research is empirical:
-It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation.
4. Good research is replicable:
- This characteristics allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study & thereby building a sound basis
for decisions.

13. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCERS IN
INDIA
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of
research
-Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing
research methods
-Efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive
courses for meeting this requirements

14. 2. There is insufficient interaction between the university
research departments on one side & business
establishments, govts departments & research institutions
on the other side
-There is a need for developing university- industry
interactions programme,
so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what
needs to be researched
& practitioners can apply the research done by the
academics

15. 3. Most of the business units do not have the confidence that
the material supplied by them to researchers will not be
misused & as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers.
- There is a need for generating the confidence that the
information/ data obtained from a business unit will not be
misused.

16. 4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken
quite often for want of adequate information
-This results in duplication & fritters away resources
-It can be solved by proper compilation & revision at
regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which & the places
where the research is going on.

17. 5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers &
inter-university & inter-department rivalries are also quite
common.
-there is a need for developing a code of conduct for
researchers

18. 6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty
of adequate & timely secretarial assistance, including
computer assistance.
- This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of
research studies
-efforts are made so that efficient secretarial assistance is
made available to researchers well in time.

19. 7. Library management & functioning is not satisfactory at
many places & much of the time & energy of researchers
are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports etc.
Rather than tracing out relevant material from them.
8.There is also the problem that many of our libraries are
not able to get copies of old & new acts/ rules , reports &
other govt publications in time.

20. - Efforts should be made for regular & speedy supply of all
govt publications to reach the libraries
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of
published data from various govt & other agencies.
10. There may at times take place the problem of
conceptualization & also problems relating to the process of
data collection & related things.

21. TYPES OF RESEARCH:
1. Descriptive v/s Analytical research:
 Main purpose– is description of state of affairs as it
exists at present
 Also known as Ex post facto research
 Researcher has no control over variables
 He can only report what has happened or what is
happening

22.  Researcher seeks to measure items like frequency of
shopping, preference of people or similar data
 Also to discover the causes
 Methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods including comparative & correlational
methods

23. Analytical research:
 The researcher has to use facts or information already
available & analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material

24. 2. Applied v/s Fundamental:
 Applied research: aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society / industrial/ business
organizations.
 Eg. A conclusion or solution
 Fundamental research: concerned with generalisations &
with the formulation of a theory
 Research regarding some natural phenomenon or relating
to pure mathematics

25. 3. Quantitative v/s Qualitative :
 Quantitative research: is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount
 Qualitative research: is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon like quality or kind eg. motivation research
 Attitude or opinion research i.e research designed to find
out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution.
 It is important in behavioural sciences

26. 4. Conceptual v/s Empirical research:
 Conceptual research:
 Related to some abstract idea or theory
 Used to develop new concepts or to interpret existing
ones
 Also called as experimental type of research

27.  Empirical research:
 Is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way
5. Other research types:
Based on purpose of research
Time required
On environment
Other similar factors

28. i. One-time research or longitudinal research:
 One-time research: confined to a single time period
 Longitudinal research: research is carried on over
several time-periods
ii. Field setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research:
 Depending on the environment in which it is carried
out

29. iii. Clinical or diagnostic research:
 They follow case-study methods or indepth approaches
iv. Historical research:
 Which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains
etc to study events or ideas of the past, including the
philosophy of persons & groups at any remote point of
time

30. v. Conclusion –oriented & decision-oriented :
 Conclusion-oriented research:
- A researcher is free to pick a problem
- Redesign the enquiry as he proceeds
- Is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes

31.  Decision-oriented research:
- Needs a decision maker
- The researcher is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination
- Eg. Operations research

32. RESEARCH APPROACHES:
1. Quantitative approach
a) Inferential approach
b) Experimental
c) Simulation
2. Qualitative approach: is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions & behaviour

33. a)Inferential approach: the purpose is to form a data base
from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population eg. Survey research
b) Experimental approach:
- Is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment & in this case some variables are
manipulated to observe their effect on other variables

34. c) Simulation approach: involves construction of an
artificial environment within which relevant information
& data can be generated

35. RESEARCH PROCESS:
RESEARCH PROCESS: consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carryout research & desired
sequencing of these steps.
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design

36. 5. Determining sample size
6.Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8.Analysis of the data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalisations & interpretation
11.Preparation of the report or presentation of results, i.e
formal write up of conclusions reached.

37. 1. Formulating the research problem:
• There are 2 types of research problems i.e those which
relate to states of nature & those which relate to
relationships between variables.
• Essentially 2 steps are involved in formulating research
problem i.e
1. Understanding the problem thoroughly
2. Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.

38. Best way of understanding the problem– to discuss it with
one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise
in the matter
In academic institutions– seek help from a guide who is
an experienced man & has several research problems in
mind
Examine all literature to get himself acquainted with the
selected problem

39. Review 2 types of literature:
1. Conceptual literature: concerning the concepts &
theories
2. Empirical literature: consisting of studies made earlier
which are similar to the one proposed

40. 2. Extensive literature survey:
Abstract & index journals & published or unpublished
bibliographies are 1st place to go to
Academic journals, conference proceedings, govt reports ,
books etc
Earlier studies if any which are similar to the study in
hand should be carefully studied

41. 3. Development of working hypothesis:
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made
Role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher & to keep
him on the right track
Developing working hypothesis can be done by
Discussion with colleagues & experts about the problem
Examination of data & records
Review of similar studies
Exploratory personal investigation

42. 4. Preparing the research design:
Function of research design –to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure
Several research designs:
Experimental non-experimental design

43. Experimental design :
Can be either informal design such as ( before-& after-
without control, after only with control, before & after with
control)
Or formal designs such as( randomized design, simple &
complex factorial designs)

44. The preparation of research design involves:
1. The means of obtaining information
2. The availability & skills of the researcher
3. Explanation & reasoning leading to the selection
4. Time available for research
5. Cost factor relating to research

45. 5. Determining the sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population
Samples
Probability Non-probability
-simple random - convenience
-Systematic - judgement
-Stratified - quota
-Cluster/area

46. i. Deliberate sampling:
- Known as purposive or non-probability sampling
- Participants are selected by the researcher subjectively
- The researcher will pick the sample that he believes is
representative to the population of interest

47. a) Convenience sampling / haphazard sampling:
- It is a technique often used in face to face interviewing
- The sample comprises of subjects who are simply
available in a convenient way to the researcher
- Eg students found on the street near your university

48. b) Judgement sampling:
-The researchers judgement is used for selecting items
which he considers as representative of the population.

49. ii. Simple random sampling:
-also known as chance or probability sampling
- Each person has same chance as any other of being
selected
- Suitable where population is relatively very small &
where sample frame is complete & up to date

50. iii. Systematic sampling/ interval sampling:
-Means there is a gap or interval between each selection
-Eg. Every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side
of the street
iv. Stratified sampling:
- Used for a heterogenous population
- Population is divided into groups or categories called
“strata”

51. -A sample is then drawn from within these strata
-A stratum is a subset of the population that share atleast
one common characteristics such as age, gender or socio-
economic status
v. Quota sampling:
-A quota is a share or an allocation of something
-Commonly used in face to face interviews

52. -Interviewers on the street are usually looking for a specific
type of respondent—age, gender are the most frequently
used “quota controls”
vi. Cluster sampling / area sampling:
- It involves grouping the population & then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for
inclusion in the sample

53. Area sampling: total area is divided into a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas, called geographical clusters
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected
& all units in these small areas are included in the sample
vii. Multistage sampling: this technique is meant for big
enquiries extending to a large geographical area like an
entire country

54. viii. Sequential sampling
-Its a complex sample design, ultimate size of the sample is
not fixed in advance
-But it is determined according to mathematical decisions
on the basis of information yielded as survey progress
ix. Mixed sampling: several methods of sampling are used
in the same study

55. 6. Collecting the data:
Primary data: collected through experiment or survey
In case of survey, data can be collected by anyone or more
of following ways:

56. 1. By observation:
 Implies collection of information by way of
investigators own observation
 Expensive method
 The information provided is very limited
 Is not suitable for enquiries where large samples are
concerned

57. 2. Through personal schedules:
The investigator follows a rigid procedure & seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through
personal interviews.
3. Through telephone interviews:
This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondent on telephone itself
Plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed
regions

58. 4. By mailing of questionnaires:
The researcher & respondents do not come in contact with
each other
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a
request to return after completing the same

59. 5. Through schedules:
The enumerators are appointed & given training
Provided with schedules containing relevant questions
Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents

60. 7. Execution of the project:
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner & in time
8. Analysis of data:
The analysis of data involves:
a) establishment of categories
b) Coding operations
c) Tabulation
d) Statistical inferences

61. Coding- categories of data are transformed into symbols
that maybe tabulated & counted
Editing- is the procedure that improves the quality of the
data for coding
Tabulation- the classified data are put inform of tables
Statistical inferences- by applying statistical formulae of
various % coefficients.

62. 9. Hypothesis testing:
Various tests such as Chi-square test, t-test , F-test has
been used
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or rejecting it
10. Generalisation & interpretation : i.e build a theory

63. 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
i. The layout of the report should be as follows
a) The preliminary pages
b) The main text
c) The end matter
a) Preliminary pages:
title & data
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs & charts

64. b) Main text:
Introduction ( objectives, methodology, the scope of study
& limitations)
Summary of findings
Main report
Conclusions
c)End of the report
Appendices
Bibliography

65. ii. The report should be written in concise & objective style
in simple language avoiding vague expressions
iii. Charts & illustrations should be used
iv. Calculated “ confidence interval” must be mentioned &
the various constraints experienced in conducting the
research operations should be stated.

67. RESEARCH METHOD V/S METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHOD:
-all methods or techniques used for conducting research are
called as research methods
- They belong to 3 groups
First group: those methods dealing with collecting data,
used where data is already available but not sufficient to
arrive at solution

68. Second group– those techniques in which statistical
techniques are used for establishing relationship between
data & unknown.
Third group– those methods used to evaluate accuracy of
results obtained.

69. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
 Methodology is the combination of all methods & also
philosophy behind using or not using a particular method
 A way to systematically solve the research problem
 Includes steps adopted in studying research problem with
logic
 Research methods are part of research methodology

70.  When we talk about research methodology we not only
talk about the methods but also consider the logic behind
the methods we use in the context of our research study
& explain why we are using particular methods & why
we are not using others, so that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by researcher himself
or by others

71. TYPE:
1. Library research-
METHODS:
1. Analysis of historical records
2. Analysis of documents
TECHNIQUES:
1. Recording of notes
2. Reference & abstract guides, content analysis

72. TYPE: METHODS: TECHNIQUES:
1. Library research- 1. Analysis of historical
records
2. Analysis of documents
1. Recording of notes
2. Reference & abstract
guides, content analysis
2. Field research 1. non-participant direct
observation
2. Mass observation
3. Mail questionnaire
1. Observational
behavioural scale
2. Recording mass
behaviour
3. Identification of social &
economic background of
respondent

73. 3. Laboratory research 1. Small group study of
random behaviour
1. Use of audio-visual
recording devices, use of
observers

74. For online explanation –contact Ilona,
Asst Prof
watsapp numb 8722369286