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THE SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE
The SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE is a term used to describe the stages in an IT project.
These are:
• Analysis
• Design
• Development & Testing
• Implementation
• Documentation
• Evaluation.
The term 'life cycle' is used. This is because
the process never ends. Systems are
created, they become mature, they grow
old and are replaced by new ones.
Why a new system?
1. The current system may no longer be suitable for its purpose.
•Changes in the way of work is carried out means the system is no longer
suitable.
•Starting out with only ten staff a few short years ago, the system could easily
cope with the workload. But now there are a thousand staff members in many
offices around the world. The system just can't cope.
•External influences. For example, new regulations have come along which insist
that certain records are kept for years. The existing system was never designed
for this.
2. Technological developments may have made the current system
redundant or outdated.
•Competitors are using more advanced systems that perhaps reduce their costs
compared to yours, thus placing the company at a disadvantage.
•Customers use more modern systems and insist that you upgrade yours to allow
for easier data transfer.
•The software supplier has warned that the version you are using will no longer
be supported after next year. You have to plan for change.
3. The current system may be too inflexible or expensive to maintain.
Why is SLC (systems life cycle) needed?
IT change is particularly risky!
What could have been done better?

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What could reduce the chances of failure?
As people have learnt from past mistakes, a model has to be developed and
refined over the years to try and maximise the chances of a successful project.
This method /model is called the SYSTEMS LIFE CYCLE.
It consists of a series of stages that take a project from its very first stages to
the final outcome of a fully working, fully integrated system.
Systems Development Life
Cycle
Preliminary
Investigation
Problem
Definition
Implementati
on
Training
Conversion Analysis
Ongoing Activities
Evaluation Gather data
Project Management
Maintenance Analyze data
Feasibility Assessment
Documentation Develop
Information Gathering. requirements
Development
Scheduling
Programming Design
Testing Preliminary
design
Detail design
4a-ANALYSIS (stage 1) [identifying and
investigating]
•1A-The different methods of researching (fact finding) about a
situation are:
- Observation: the point of observation is to see who does what in an organisation and
what information they do it with. By simply watching people working is also fairly
straightforward to watch how data flows around a system. Observers have to be careful
of the Hawthorne effect. This is where workers modify their behaviour because they

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know they are being watched. The aim of observation is to find out what actually
happens, not what the workers think observers expect to see.
- Examination of docs: All documents which are used within a system need to be
examined. These will be eventually duplicated or replaced with alternative versions or
even discarded in the new system. The types of document which need to be examined
are – Data capture forms, system documentation, business reports, invoices,
bills, letters etc.
- Questionnaires: The use of questionnaires is a very popular method of fact
finding. A great deal of time is spent on preparing questionnaires in order that the right
type of question is asked in order that the most relevant information is gathered.
- Interviews: This method is used in some form in gathering information in every
situation. A great deal of time and energy is spent on producing the most appropriate
‘script’ or lists of questions. An interview can take more time to organise and it is
extremely difficult to repeat so it is vital that the questions asked are the right ones. The
following things have to be kept in mind for a successful interview:
 determine the people to interview
 establish objectives for the interview
 prepare for the interview
 conduct the interview
 document the interview
 evaluate the interview
 causes for unsuccessful interviews.
• 1B- Establishing the inputs, outputs and processing in the existing
system:
After all the fact finding methods have been completed and the results
are collated, the next stage is to use these to define all the inputs,
outputs and processes which are employed in the existing system.
A system can be defined by using the definition of desired outputs to understand
what inputs are necessary. The following questions can be used for this method:
1. What essential outputs must the existing system produce in order
to satisfy the system users’ requirements?
2. What transformations are necessary to produce these outputs?
3. What inputs are necessary for these transformations to produce the
desired outputs?
4. What types of information does the system need to retain?
5. How to identify the sources and volume of input data and collection
methods?

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For reference goto: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Systems_Theory/Inputs-
Outputs#Systems_Defined
Identify the sources and volume of input data and collection
methods.
By examining all the documents, this will enable the systems analyst to
identify the documents which are currently being used to input data to the
existing system. Observation will enable the systems analyst to determine the
frequency of the addition and/or deletion of records. Identify manual and
computer procedures necessary to achieve the current output.
•1C- Recording information about the current system:
It follows that there is a need for recording the facts since keeping accurate
records is essential. The basic rule is to write them down. The following are
some guidelines for good documentation:
• The first is that information must be recorded as soon as possible.
• The simplest recording method should be used and the work must be
understandable.
• Documentation material must be organised.
The best way of doing this is by using data flow diagrams. Most systems
deal with information in one way or another. What really matters is how the
information flows through the system. How does it branch and re-join. What
outputs are created and so on.
The 'data flow' diagram seeks to show this movement through the
system.
DFD is agraphical representation of the flow of data through an implementation
system It is common practice for a designer to draw a contxt-level DFD first
which shows the interaction between the system and outside entities. Top DFD
would have components 1 2 3 4 5, the subcomponent DFD of component 3
would have component 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, 3.4.etc
Level-0 is the context diagram (concerning the current system).

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Data Flow Diagram Set
Level-0 DFD
Context Diagram
Level-1 DFDs
....
Level-n DFDs
.... ....
10/21/99
Primitive DFDs 1
Level-1 is the current system.

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* You should just know these two types of DFD and explain their
relevance for recording information about the current system in a
workplace scenario.
System flowcharts
These show the relationships between the various systems
in the company (or even outside if relevant) - how they
interact, what depends on what and so on.
1D- Identifying problems with the current system - The 'Problem
definition phase': In this stage, it is analysed that what are the
problems or limitations of the current system. This may be done through:
Observation
Examination of documents
Interviewing employees about their issues with the current system (also
through questionnaires)
Analysing the total costs of the current system
Checking the performance of the existing system.
(After having analysed the current system, its processing, its drawbacks, now
the new system to be created is analysed)
1E- Identifying suitable hardware and software for a new system
Analysing required outputs, storage and processing requirements using the DFDs
will allow the Systems Analyst to make generalised recommendations for
the software and hardware.
1F- Identifying the user and information requirements
By merging the interviews, answered questionnaires, and the investigation
documents, the system analyst will be able to identify what the users (in a
workplace) require from a new system and what information will the
new system require. This is also known as a ‘report to management’
which:

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1. Summarizes the problems found in the current system
2. Describes the user and information requirements for the new
system
3. Makes a recommendation about what to do next (includes a
cost-benefit analysis)
4b- Design (stage2)
Now that the project manager and the client have agreed on the basic
requirements, it is time to define how the project is going to be carried out. This
is the Design phase.
2A- Specifying the required hardware and software
Hardware configuration includes deciding on the type of computer, whether to
network them, peripheral devices and storage devices.
A company has to decide which software(s) to use. Someone could be hired to
write one or maybe a software package maybe bought from the market.
For example, a project planning company may have certain software and
hardware requirements, such as project management software, Gantt chart
software, planning software, high resolution printers, graph plotters, expensive
pointers, etc. The company may also require high storage capacity; therefore
storage devices and backup
devices will be listed too in
this stage. Therefore, the
system planners will make
a list.
The volume of data to be
stored and the data to be
printed or displayed
affects the choice of
storage devices and
output devices.
2B- Designing data
collection forms, screen
layouts

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Here is a data collection form, staff members fill these forms and then the
information given on these forms are input in the database of the new system.
So, these forms will be designed in such a way that they are easy to fill in and
the staff does not face any confusion.
This is a screen layout. The systems planners will design such a screen layout,
which is easy to understand and use, does not use too dark or too bright colours
and the overlapping of
windows is also allowed
for multi-tasking.
Both of these will be
designed according
to the database
requirements and
the system’s
requirements.
2C- Designing report layouts
and screen displays
Report layouts
These will depend upon the
system’s users’ requirements.
Whatever the sort of content
and presentation he wants, the
report layouts will be designed in
such a way.

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Screen displays
The users will list the sort of
screen displays that they will like
to work with. Some may want a
brighter display, some may ask
for a dull one, therefore such a
display will be designed which
will satisfy all users.
2D- Designing validation
routines
•Data preparation involves
getting the raw data into a form that can be processed by the computer.
Verification and validation are included in data preparation.
•Verification makes sure that, if a keyboard is being used, no typing mistakes
have been made.
•Various validation methods can be used to trap some of the errors. Remember
that a computer program performs validation.
•Codes can also be used to save typing time, reducing storage space and these
codes can then easily be checked for errors (validation).
2E- Designing the required data/file structures & programming
specification

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•The data structures and programming will depend on the types of processing
and input and output structures.
•How will files be organised? (File structure)
- Serial access, sequential access or random access?
•What about the database design?
- Table structure & data relationships
Programming
specifications
This shows a
diagram of a
system planner who
will make use of the
data entered, the
processing and the
output, and then
will make a
program according
to it.
4c- Development & testing (stage 3)
Now that the client has agreed on what needs to be done, and the Analyst has
defined precisely what needs to be done - it is time for the project to be actually
developed.
The development stage is about taking the design forward and putting it into
practice.

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3A- Creating data structures, program modules
Now the system analyst actually creates the file and data structures that he had
designed in the previous stage.
He also now starts to program according to the programming needs he had
listed in the previous stage.
He will use logic flowcharts and pseudocode to facilitate code development and
programming.
3B- Testing strategies
Each module will need to be tested with different types of test data.
Types of test data to be used are:
Testing each module with normal data - data which is acceptable and will
not generate error messages.
Testing each module with live data - data which is already being used in the
existing system.
Testing each module with abnormal data – data which is outside acceptable
ranges or is of the wrong data type.
Testing each module with extreme data – data which is at the extreme
boundaries of a range.
The system will also need to be tested as a whole.
•All the above kinds of data are input in the system to test it.
•The system is tested with data that contains no errors to see if it produces the
correct results (normal/live data).
•Then, known errors are introduced to the new system to see how the computer
reacts and processes the incorrect data (abnormal data).
•Then it is checked if huge amounts of data can be processed or not.
•Extreme data is entered to check if the validation routines are working or not.
3C- Improvements
Prior to the implementation any improvements which might be needed are made
to the system in the light of the testing of the system. These could be amended
data structures or even amended program modules.
If there are any errors or slow processing or any programming mistakes or
limitations, these are all amended.

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If all goes well, we move onto the next stage of implementation.
4d- Implementation (stage 4)
This is an interesting time.... the implementation stage has been reached.
The system has been developed and tested. It is working correctly and doing
everything that was agreed during the design stage. The business is waiting in
eager anticipation for the new system to be handed over to them
Identifying the different methods of system implementation
How does a company implement a new system really depends on its size.
Solutions range from a microcomputer or two, to a system that uses a number of
networked PCs or even a system based on large computers.
Systems may be introduced into an organization in three ways:
1. Parallel running: The existing system and the new system
are run together until there are no mistakes with the new
one.
o If the new system fails, then because the old system is
still there, the old system can be used until the problem
of the new system have been sorted out.
o Parallel running provides an ideal opportunity to compare
the results from the new system with those of the old
system.
o However, it has a drawback that since each job is done
twice, there is much more work for users.
2. Direct changeover: in this system, the users decide to
start using the new system on a given date. Basically the
existing system is replaced by the new one without any
‘running in’ period.
o This method is only used for small computer systems
since in larger ones problems reveal themselves during
the first month and the result can be a havoc.
o The number of staff needs to be less and trained too.
3. Phased implementation: This is parallel running on a
small scale only part of the system is introduced to run
alongside the existing system. When that works the next
part or phase of the system is introduced. The existing
system is gradually replaced by the new system. Each job is

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introduced separately rather than all jobs being introduced
in one go.
o Similar to parallel running except only part of the
system is run in parallel
o Limited size direct changeovers
o System is installed gradually
o Gives the opportunity of valuable feedback while the
system is being developed.
o Takes some of the pressure off the developer - small
parts of the system are delivered before the whole
system is completed
4. Pilot running: The new system is operated in one area of
the organisation only until it is working properly and then
another area has it introduced. The entire system is used by
a designated set of users.
o The system is run initially in one functional area only
o The advantages and disadvantages of pilot running
are a combination of those for direct changeover and
parallel running.
4e- Documentation (stage 5)
5A- Technical Documentation
-Technical documentation is used to explain a system to a specialist, either a
programmer or a systems analyst. Since these people understand computer
terminology, this guide need not be as simple as the user guide.

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-This documentation is extremely important since someone new to the project
might use it and there may be no one around who was involved with the original
project.
-This documentation will be needed later when the system is to be improved or
upgraded.
Technical documentation has two sub-documentations. Developing systems
documentation consists:
 Results of analysis stage
 Description of the system
 What is expected of the system
 System’s design’s specifications
 Screen layouts
 Test plan
 Test data
 This document is basically concerned about the system’s life cycle’s various
stages.
The other sort of technical documentation is the developing program
documentation, which consists:
 Software used
 Description of the software used
 Purpose of the software
 Data capture forms’ format
 Output
 Flowcharts
 Program listing
 Notes to assist future modifications
5B- User documentation:
-A guide to simple elements of use of the software and hardware making up the
system.
-This documentation or guide is prepared so that a user can turn to it for
learning a new procedure or for dealing with a problem that has arisen.
-Users are usually non-technical; therefore any specialist or technical language
should be avoided.
User documentation will consist:
-Minimum system requirements
-Login and logout procedure and access to system, save arrangements

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-Brief explanation of menu system
-Querying and finding information
-Data entering, updating and deleting procedure including - display screens etc
-Printing information including invoices, reports etc
-Backup and security
-Operating system information, error detection and corrections and on-line help/
procedure.
-Meaning of error messages
4f- Evaluation (stage 6)
The implementation stage is over: The system is up and running, staff is fully
trained and bugs have been ironed out.
This new stage is called the 'Evaluation phase'
It is at this point two key questions are considered:
Does the finished solution meet its requirements?
Does it solve the problem?
For example:
Analysis states that the system should be able read the data file in less than 3
seconds.
Question: Does the system meet this specification?
Answer: Yes, the data file is read in 2.8 seconds.
Evaluating a new system in terms of the efficiency, ease of use and
appropriateness of the solution
The new system is evaluated in terms of:
*Efficiency
*Ease of use
*Appropriateness
*Closeness to the expected solution
The new system may be evaluated by:

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 The analyst and someone from the organization
 An independent third party
The new system will be evaluated by:
Using test results. A comparison has to be made of the actual results
together with the expected results. If the results are not as expected,
refinements may be needed.
Asking the users of the system. They will be able to tell if a system does
have what they originally wanted or if there are any improvements needed?
Checking if the objectives and criteria listed beforehand are being met.
The results of evaluation are used to identify limitations of the new
system.
Using these limitations, improvements can be made to the new system
for ease of use and its appropriateness in usage.
Maintenance- maintaining the new system is a never-ending process and can
be done by:
-Enhancements to the system.
-Fix bugs and problems in the system as soon as they are identified.
For a better understanding, please visit
www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d07/cis105faculty/PPT_CIS105/ch
ap14.ppt And view the whole presentation.
References:
1. www.teach-ict.com
2. www.wikipedia.org
3. www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/about-infokits
4. Life cycle [1] presentation by Ritchie King c/o www.teach-ict.com
5. “Information systems for you” by Stephen Doyle
6. www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/.../FHIO_02/AppA.cfm?attr=0
7. www.iun.edu/.../dw-screen-layout.shtml
8. http://www.mistywindow.com/windows/win-pics/display-properties-
settings.png
9. http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cluster/enfman80/figures/eye-layout.png
10. www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d07/cis105faculty/PPT_CIS105/chap14.ppt
11. www.soc.staffs.ac.uk/jws1/MSc%20SAD/Lectures/System%20Testing.ppt