Lecture 6:
Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
2016- 2017
@ Hassan Harraz 2017

Sulfide mineralization are the main resource for exploiting
Pb, Zn, and Cu metals in Egypt.
Sulfide mineralization is represented by four sulfide types of
the different setting, lithology and ages, namely:
i) Lead-Zinc sulphide Deposits
ii) Cu-NiCo sulphide Deposits
This type of mineralization is well represented in Abu Swayel in South
Eastern Desert. The ore is closely related to mafic-ultramafic and gabbro
of ophiolitic rocks.
iii) Cu-Ni sulphide deposits
This type of mineralization occurs in layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions
like gabbro Akarem and El Geneina .
iv) Stratiform Massive Sulphide (Zn-Cu-Pb) Deposits
This type of mineralization is represented by a group of small lenses
associated with talc deposits in South Eastern Desert at: Um Samuki,
Helgit, Maakal, Atshan, Darhib, Abu Gurdi, and Egat.
2

i)
Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
2016- 2017

Outline of Lecture 6:
Distribution of Miocene zinc-lead deposits in Egypt.
Host Rocks
Ore form
Mineralogy
Classification
Origin
Um Gheig Zn-Pb
Abu Ghorban
4

This group of deposits, restricted to a certain stratigraphic horizon,
occurring with the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover.
Seven Middle Miocene zinc-lead occurrences are known in the Eastern
Desert between the Quseir and Ras Banas towns at the Red Sea
coastal:-
Zug El Bohar, Essel, Wizr, Um Gheig, Abu Ghorban,
Abu Anz, Gabal El Rusas and Ranga.
Distribution of Miocene
zinc-Lead deposits in
Egypt.
Distribution of Miocene Zinc-lead deposits in Egypt
Gebel El-Zeit area was a source for the
Galena, Lead and other minerals during the
Old and Neo Kingdoms periods. The old
mines and the ancient settlements at Gebel
El-Zeit represents a special kinds of
archaeological sites.
5

6

7

Landsat
ETM+ (bands
2, 4 and 7)
image and
geological
map after
Aref and
Amstutz
(1983) of
wadi Um
Gheig.
8

Host Rocks
Zinc-Lead occurs in the middle and upper parts of the
mineralized limegrit and is embedded as stratiform to
stratabound in limegrit and sandstone and/or secondary
Fe, Pb and Zn oxide, carbonate or silicate minerals.
Zn-Pb sulphide minerals also replaced and/or
filling limegrit and conglomeratic limegrit of the Abu
Dabbab Formation.
A relatively, high Zn-Cu-Pb sulphide minerals
replaced the stromatolitic and nodular dolomites facies of
the Abu Dabbab Formation.
Middle Miocene
Limegrit, sandstone, conglomeratic limegrit, marl and
dolomite
Age:
Abu Dabbab
Formation.
9

Fig.2: Geologic Map of the Zinc-Lead occurrences along the Red Sea
coastal zone, Egypt.
10

Ore form
1) Mineralization occurs in is in the lower part of Gabal El Rusas Formation ,
which rests unconformably on the peneplaned Basement rocks in Zug El
Bohar and Essel areas.
2) In other occurrences the mineralization is associated with the upper Abu
Dabbab Formation and may extend into younger sediments.
3) A prevailing sebkha environment during the deposition of the Abu Dabbab
Formation is apparent, which contributed to the deposition of zinc and lead
sulfide minerals.
4) A relatively, high Zn-Cu-Pb concentrations are recognized in the stromatolitic
and nodular dolomites of the Abu Dabbab Formation south of Mersa Alam on
the Red Sea coast.
5) The highest contents of Zn (up to 3400 ppm), Pb (up to 1270 ppm), and Mo
(up to 200 ppm) are recorded in the rocks of the fault zone. High content of
both Pb and Mo is recorded in the overburden located nearby the fault zone as
well.
6) Moreover, these ore minerals and element distribution favour that, this
oxidized mineralized zone represents an upper zone of a deposit. Its lower
zone chiefly sphalerite can be expected at deeper level.
7) The ore is best developed, the thickness of the mineralized zone is ~50 m and
extend in a NNW-SSE for ~200 m. Galena occurs in the middle and upper
parts of the mineralized limegrit and shows massive, lenticular, cockade and
network textures and is embedded in limegrit and/or secondary Fe, Pb and Zn
oxide, carbonate or silicate minerals.
11

 On the basis of detailed work on Um Gheig, Essel, and Zug El Bohar areas,
El Aref and Amstutz (1983) classified the mineralization into two groups:
a) Zn-Pb deposits of filling type: occurring in the Abu Dabbab Formation and
represented by Um Gheig, Ranga and Wizr, occurrences.
b) Stratiform to stratabound galena in sandstone : confined to the lower beds
of the Gabal El Rusas formation and represented by Zug El Bohar and
Essel occurrences.
 The ore is restricted on the filling mass extend along the rift taking NW-
SE rift fault apparently affiliated to an intercontinental rift zone (Mitchell
and Garson, 1981), and not necessarily related to magmatism during
rifting.
12

Mineralogy
The primary composed of sulfides whereas secondary
composed of carbonates and oxides.
Primary sulfide minerals include:-
Sphalerite, Galena , Pyrite and Marcasite.
On surface exposures, these are extensively altered (i.e.,
non-sulfide Minerals) into:-
Cerussite, Anglesite, Smithonite, Hemimorphite,
Hydrozincite, Jarosite, Wulfenite and Limonite.
• The sulphide and iron-sulphide mineralizations are
relatively enriched in depth as revealed from drilling
investigations.
Textures: Massive, lenticular, cockade and network
13

Origin
There are different theories of the origin of lead and zinc. Many opinions have
been expressed the origin of these zinc-lead deposits:-
 Most of the previous studies consider the lead-zinc deposits along the Red
sea coast to be of hydrothermal origin.
 Hassaan (1990), verified the hydrothermal origin of the lead zinc sulphide
mineralization in the Red Sea coastal zone based on their mode of
occurrence, the litho-structural controlling factors in its present position, the
conspicuous wall rock alteration, the associated elements and the vertical and
lateral local zoning controlling Pb, Zn and Fe distribution. In this respect, the
ore deposits are pitches and flats, gash veins and disseminations and are not
bedded .
 A syn-sedimentary origin (Kochin and others, 1968; El Ramly et al., 1970),
 A sedimentary-hydrothermal genesis of lead and zinc ore (Buschendorf,
1959).
 An exhalative sedimentary origin (Hilmy et al., 1972)
 A genesis through replacement of 'limegrit' and 'conglomeratic limegrit' by
hydrothermal solutions has been agreed upon by many authors (Amin, 1955, El Shazly
et al., 1956, Sabet et al., 1976).
 The mineralization took place in near-surface conditions of medium to low pressure
at a temperature between 90 and 150oC as 'telethermal to lepto-thermal' deposits
during pre-Upper Miocene and Policene time (Soliman and Hassan, 1969) .
14

Um Gheig Zn-Pb Mine
• The area of Um Gheig mine is a part of the coastal
plain of the Red Sea Coast, Egypt.
• It lies 55 km south of Quseir City (Fig.1).
• The area can be reached by Quseir-Mersa Alam
asphalet road. The Um Gheig mine is located in
Wadi Um Gheig, 7.5 km from the Red Sea Coast
(Fig. 1).
Host rock:
Middle Miocene strata:
Main host rocks are limegrit, conglomeritic limegrit,
gypsum and clayey limestone that associated
with oil-tained limestone
Limegrit intercalated with clayey limestone and
shale bed [ gypsum (bed or/and veinlets)]
15

Geology
• The deposits are occurrence in the basal series of Middle
Miocene, which lies unconformable the igneous-metamorphic
basement complex (Shazley, et al., 1959).
• The succession of the country rocks of the ore deposit as follows
(Geological Survey, 1963):
 Limestone. Top
 Conglomeratic lime-grit.
 Conglomeratic lime-grit with clay intercalations.
 Clay and calcareous sandstone.
 Basal Conglomerate. Bottom
• The thickness of this Middle Miocene (basal horizon) is 100-150 m
(Geological Survey, 1976).
• This horizon was deposited under coastal-marine shallow
environment and partly continental conditions. The Middle
Miocene sediments hosting the lead-zinc mineralization along the
Red Sea coast from Quseir to Ras Benas.
16

Geological map of Um Gheig mine area
17

Mineralogy
 The nonsulfide Zinc mineral association at Um Gheig mine consists mainly of smithsonite, hydrozincite and hemimorphite, which
replace both primary sulfide minerals and carbonate host rocks. The nonsulfide Zinc mineral association at Um Gheig mine
consists mainly of smithsonite, hydrozincite and hemimorphite, which replace both primary sulfide minerals and carbonate host
rocks.
 Smithsonite (ZnCO3) is the most abundant nonsulfide zinc mineral that occurs in two generations in the studied sample, the
first generation of smithsonite, occurs as dull, cryptocrystalline with visible crystals, is finely intergrown with goethite. A late
generation of smithsonite occurs as clear rhombohedral crystals.
 Hydrozincite (Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6) is less abundant compared with smithsonite, occurs in different generations in the studied
samples as veins, nodule and Botryodial.
 Hemimorphite Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O quite abundant, occurring in at least two generations:
i) A first generation occurs as small concretions with a dusty appearance growing in fine grained smithsonite.
ii) The second one appears as clear elongated crystals growing in veins and cavities.
 Gangue Minerals: Gypsum, calcite, barite, and goethite.
Egyptian Ore Deposits
Primary
Sulfide
Galena
(black)
PbS Sphalerite ZnS
Supergeneminerals
(Non-Sulfide)
Cerussite
(Colorless)
PbCO3
Smisthonite
(White crystal)
ZnCO3
Wulfenite
(Reddish-brown)
PbMoO4 Hydrozincite (Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6)
Shannonite Pb2O(CO3)
Hemimorphite
(Brittle crystal)
Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O
Lanarkite Pb2O(SO4)
Gangue
Minerals
Gypsum, Calcite, Barite, and Goethite
18

Ore Minerals
Ore form and shape:
Cavity filling, Veins, Lenses or Pocket zones inside limegrit rocks.
Ore body extend vertically for ~65 m and Laterally for: ~150 – 200
m.
The zinc and lead ores are generally replacing mainly of white
to brownish white massive the limestones or limegrit as
pockets or lenses.
The deposits may be rich in zinc and lead, which may be preferential by
the presence of a cover of hard limestone and bands of clay in the
limegrit.
Ore reserve:
 The Geological Survey of Egypt estimates the reserves in Um
Gheig as 1.5 million tons with an average assay of 13.8% Zn
and 2.3% Pb.
 Um Gheig ore is a nonsulfide Zn (Pb) deposit with estimated
reserves of about ~2 million tonnes with an average grade of
10% Zn, 2% Pb (El Aref and Amstutz,1983).
Age of Mineralization: Tertiary at time related to Red Sea tectonic
19

Source and Transportations of Zinc and Pb Elements
In the Um Gheig area after the progress of the crystalline basement, the
area was subjected to erosion for long epoch.
 During the Upper Cretaceous and Early Tertiary, submerged and
accumulation of the terrigenous-carbonate rocks were occurred.
 At that time and the beginning of the Miocene, the tectonic
movements occurred in the Red Sea depression.
 In this depression accumulated the Middle Miocene terrigenous
sediments.
 This was followed by a period of marine environment and deposited
the carbonate sediments.
Consequently, the basement in addition to Lower Miocene sediments
has been affected by tectonic processes and Um Gheig deposits may be
referred to one of tectonic zones of the fault type. Slightly crushed rocks
were subjected to mineralization more than the enclosing rocks.
Therefore, faults of the crystalline basement due to the Red Sea Rift
create a lot of temperature.
Waters from deep in the basin and geothermal fluids from the
Precambrian basement have been considered as sources of the ores
zinc and lead in the carbonate-hosted deposit, which is in agreement
with Hitcho, (2006), Charef and Sheppard, (1987) and Geldmacher, et al,
(2008).
 This condition assist the redistribution of the ore minerals and their
mobilization with the hosting carbonate sediments.
20

Origin Processes where sulphide and sulphate solutions move to zinc-Lead ore are mainly hosted
by are limegrit, conglomeritic limegrit, gypsum, clayey limestone and oil-tained limestone
 (i.e., Contiental to shallow marine facies or lagoonal facies (syngenetic origin)
 Source of mineralized solutions: volcanic exhalations from continental
 Telethermal high distance.
 Both waters from deep in the basin and geothermal fluids from the crystalline rocks (i.e.,
basement) have been considered as sources of the ores lead and zinc in the
carbonate-hosted deposit.
 Oxidation process is a main alteration and only observed south portion of the mine. Mine
extend to south which revealed to change in precipitation conditions from sulphide to oxidation
process.
 The Pb-Zn ores in Um Gheig confide the oxidation zone above the water level.
 Clay content of the hosted rocks play an important role in partitioning and up take the
zinc, furthermore, Fe–Mn oxy-hydroxides and the sulfide minerals play a significant role
for mobilizing and trapping the Pb at the oxic–suboxic in subsurface layers.
The genesis of Pb/Zn mineralization may be considered as epigenetic nature.
 Probable mechanism that leads to the formation of such deposits taking into consideration the
reactions which may be taken place as a result of interaction of the basement rocks with
different attacking reactant chemicals produced during the old geological ages.
21

Abu Ghorban
• Wadi Abu Ghorban is located in the Red Sea coastal zone, 55 km south of Quseir, 6.5 km SW of
the bay of Marsa Um Gheig about 3 km to the east of Um Gheig Pb-Zn mine. The downstream
of W. Abu Ghorban is located at about 3 km from that of W. Um Gheig.
• Abu Ghorban locality occupies about 6 km2 as narrow belt (1- 4 km) striking NW. It is covered
with Miocene clastic, carbonate and evaporite sediments occasionally to the east capped with
recent terrace deposits. These sediments rest with sharp angular dis-conformity upon the
Precambrian basement rocks that, exposed to the east of the occurrence.
22

23

References
El Aref, M.M. and Amstutz, G.C. (1983): Lead-zinc deposits along the Red Sea coast of Egypt, new
observations and enetic models on the occurrences of Um Gheig, Wizr, Essel and ZugEl
Bohar. Monogr. Ser. on Mineral Deposits, Borntraeger Stuttgart, 21, 103p
El Shazly, E. M.; Mansour, A.; Afia, M. S.; and Ghobrial, M. G. (1959). Miocene Lead and Zinc
Deposits in Egypt. 20th International Geological Congress, Mexico, pp.119-134.
Hassaan, M.M. (1990): Studies on lead -zinc sulphide mineralization in the Red Sea coastal zone,
Egypt: Proc. 8th Symp. IGADO, Otowa, Canada, pp. 835-847.
Hilmy, M. E.; Nakhla, F. M.; and Ramsy, M. 1972. Contribution to the Mineralogy, Geochemistry,
and Genesis of the Miocene Pb-Zn Deposits in Egypt. Chemie der Erde, Vol. 31, pp. 373-390.
Hitzman, M.W., Reynolds, N.A., Sangster, D.F., Allen, C.R., and Carman, C. (2003): Classification,
genesis, and exploration guides for non-sulfide zinc deposits, ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, Vol.
98, p.685–714
Large, D. , (2003): The geology of non-sulphide zinc deposits-an overview. Erzmetall,Vol. 54, p.
264–276
Boni, M. , (2005): The Geology and Mineralogy of Nonsulfide Zinc Ore Deposits. Proceedings of
LEAD and ZINC '05, Kyoto 17–19 October, pp. 1299–1314
Woollett, A. (2005): The processing of non-sulphide zinc deposits. In: Boni, M., Gilg, H.A.(Eds.),
European Science Foundation (ESF) Workshop on Nonsulfide Zn–Pb Deposits, Iglesias, 21–
23 April, Abstract 1 pp.
de Wet, K., and Singleton, J.D. (2008): Development of a viable process for the recovery of zinc
from oxide ores. The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Proceedings of
LEAD and ZINC '08, Durban, pp. 177–192
24

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25

Copper deposits in Egypt are well known since ancient
times.
Copper extraction is in all probability the first metal to be
mined in ancient Egypt during the Neolithic Period (6000-
2900 BC, also called New Stone Age).
Ancient Egyptian copper mines contain those at Wadi El-
Maghara, Wadi Samra and Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai (Fig.
20), and at Wadi Araba, Wadi Sitra, Hamash, Wadi Dara
and Buhen in the Eastern Desert. The amount of copper the
Egyptians produced annually was about four tons during the
Bronze Age.
The ancient mining complex of Serabit el-Khadim lies on a
small plateau north of Al-Tor city.
Introduction
26

To mine the turquoise and copper, the Egyptians would hollow
out large galleries in the mountains, carving at the entrance to
each a representation of the reigning pharaoh who was the
symbol of the authority of the Egyptian state over the mines. A
huge quantity of turquoise over that period was mined, carried
down the Wadi Matalla to a garrisoned port located at el-Markha
(south of Abu Zenima), and loaded aboard ships bound for Egypt.
The turquoise was then used both for jewelry and to make color
pigments for painting. Stone tool assemblages made up of flint
scrapers, hand axes, and pounders comprise the largest corpus
of mining tools found at the Serabit el-Khadim turquoise and
copper mines (Elizabeth, 2010).
Copper staining, Eastern Desert, Egypt
27

Maps Bible Archeology Timna
Serabit el-Khadim, Egyptian
mining copper-turquoise
28

Turquoise Mines at Sarabit el-Khadem,Sinai
29

Egyptian Turquoise
Egypt was a country rich in gold and precious stones.
2600 years BC, there were turquoise mines at Wadi Maghara in the Sinai.
30

Turquoise
Turquoise mining is known to have been carried on at Serabit el
Khadim, near Um Bogma, for an extended period. Engineers of
the Sinai Manganese Company stated that numerous additional
small turquoise mines occur in the region. Hume (1906) also
reported turquoise occurrences at Gebel Maghara. No other
information regarding turquoise mines and occurrences could be
obtained during our investigation. Turquoise mining is typically a
small, labor-intensive industry.
Deposits generally occur as thin seams along fractures or small
pockets of pebbly stone in a sandstone matrix. Owing to this
distribution and the fragile nature of the material, mass mining
techniques are not applicable and blasting must be minimized.
However, despite the labor intensive nature of turquoise mineral,
it can be a lucrative enterprise.
Top-quality turquoise brings up to LE 200 per kilogram on the
European wholesale market. Although, limited as a major
industrial growth resource, turquoise exploitation potential in
south Sinai should be investigated. If sufficiently rich deposits are
found, market development, minor financial aid, and technical
assistance could launch a cottage industry with long-term income
potential for numerous small mines.
31

Mode of Occurrences The copper deposits were encountered at several areas in Eastern Desert and Sinai, such as: Abu
Swayel, Gabbro Akarem, Geneina Gharbia, Hamash, Um Qareiyat, and Um Samuki.
 In Egypt, copper deposits expressed in different mode of occurrences and geologic settings as
following:
1) Mafic-Ultramafic Assemblages:
Copper extracted from sulphide deposits that is well known to occur in two petrological
assemblages of mafic-ultramafic assemblages:
a) Cu-NiCo Sulphide Deposits:
 This type of mineralization is well represented in Abu Swayel in South Eastern Desert.
The ore is closely related to mafic-ultramafic and gabbro members of ophiolite
sequence
b) Cu-Ni Sulphide Deposits :
 This type of mineralization occurs in layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions like gabbro
rocks at Akarem and El Geneina El Gharbia . An extensive program of exploration was
conducted in the two areas, and the occurrences were found to be uneconomic.
2) Felsic Assemblages Cu-porphyry deposits are known to occur in felsic assemblages at Hamash
and Um Garayiat areas.
3) Stratiform Massive Sulphide (Zn-Cu-Pb) Deposits
 This type of mineralization is represented by a group of small lenses highly enriched in Zn-Cu-
Pb mineralization that associated with talc deposits in South Eastern Desert (e.g., Um
Samuki, Helgit, Maakal, Darhib, Atshan, Abu Gurdi, and Egat).
4) Copper Sediments
 Several occurrences of copper were recorded in Phanerozoic sediments in Northern portion of
Eastern Desert (at Wadi Araba, Wadi Sitra, Hamash, Wadi Dara and Buhen) and in the Centre
and West Sinai (e.g., Wadi El-Maghara, Wadi Samra and Serabit el-Khadim) as secondary
malachite and in some places mixed with Manganese.
 The reserves are limited.
32

Mineral deposits
associated with
mafic-ultramafic
assemblages
1) In ophiolite
sequence
a)
b) Cu-Ni-Co sulphide deposits
c)
2) In layered
mafic-ultramafic
intrusions
a) Cu-Ni sulphide deposits
b)
33

1) Copper Associated Mafic-Ultramafic Assemblages
 The area was discovered by the ancient Egyptians who
exploited the oxidized top part for copper and malachite to a
depth of 10 m by open pits.
 No mining activities have been recorded in modern times;
however, geologic and feasibility studies were conducted by
DEMAG of West Germany in 1960.
 This work included deepening the shaft to 69 m, but the
results showed that the deposit is not economic.
 Abu Swayel is considered one of the most important Cu-Ni
occurrences known in Egypt were discovered and exploited by
ancient Egyptians thousands of years ago.
a) Cu-Ni±Co-SULPHIDE DEPOSITS
This type of mineralization is well represented in Abu Swayel in South
Eastern Desert. The ore is closely related to mafic-ultramafic and gabbro
members of ophiolite sequence
Abu Swayel Copper Occurrence
34

35

Schematic diagram of a typical sequence
of rock types and mineral depostis in
oceanic crust generated at a mid-ocean
ridge spreading center. Fragments of
ocean crust found in mountain belts are
called ophiolites. Ophiolites and their
associated mineral deposits are emplaced
in mountain belts when ocean crust is
subducted and continents collide (after,
Constantinou, 1980).
36

Abu Swayel Cu-Ni±Co Sulphide Deposit
Locality: This deposit is located at ~185 km southeastern of
Aswan, near the head of Wadi Haimour, and is located at
latitudes 22º 47' N and longitude 33º38' E (Fig.1).
Topographically: the area have been dissected by three
main wades (Haimur, Abu Swayel, and Mereikha) which are
tectonically controlled and possessing a direction roughly
NE-SW.
The Abu Swayel Cu-Ni deposit occurs in conformable, lens-
like bodies of mafic-ultramafic rocks in Proterozoic
metasediments. The mineralization and the enclosing rocks
have been metamorphosed to amphibolite facies.
The ore body includes both massive and disseminated
mineralization hosted in a lenticular sheet-like body of
amphibolite, ~500 m long, 30 m wide, striking NW-SE with
dips at 60-80°NE, following the regional structures of the
enclosing biotite schist.
Host Rocks: The amphibolite lens is surrounded by biotite-
garnet-schist of basic derivation. The amphibolite and
biotite-garnet-schist may represent the metamorphosed
equivalents of the gabbro and the basalt of dismembered
ophiolite suite, respectively.
37

Wadi Allaqi gold, copper, and nickel occurrences.
38

39

Fig.2: Simplified cross section of the Abu Swayel Mine.
40

Abu Swayel
Sulfide Mineralogy
 In all samples studied the sulfides do not show any primary magmatic textures; most of the sulfide minerals occur
as stringers, fracture fillings in narrow veinlets, a few millimeters wide and interstitial to the silicates. A systematic
study of samples representing the different mineralized rocks revealed the presence of the following types of
sulfides:
i) The oxidized type consists mainly of hematite, limonite with local enrichment of malachite and azurite.
Relics of primary sulfides are rare. The contact between the oxidized and the fresh sulfides is sharp due to
absence of a stable water table (Bassyouni, 1960).
ii) Primary sulfides occur as two types: (a) disseminated chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-pyrite-bornite. The bulk of
sulfides occurs as grains interstitial to, or along the cleavage planes of metamorphic amphiboles and
chlorite. The sulfide content varies between 2 and 30 vol % with a general increase toward the shear plane.
The disseminated sulfides represent approximately 90% of the reserves. (b) Massive or banded
chalcopyrite, either as veins or stringers elongated parallel to the foliation at the bottom of the
hanging wall rocks. A zone of mobilized massive sulfides is encountered along the symmetamorphic
shear plane.
 The primary sulfides comprise chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, cubanite, violarite, pentlandite, bornite, and
accessory sphalerite, valleriite, heazlewoodite, parkerite, mackinawite, and molybdenite. Ilmenite is the major
oxide mineral whereas hematite and rutile are minor.
 Sulfide minerals exhibit metamorphic features such as preferred orientation of crystals, fine mineralogical
layering, and filling tension fractures in metamorphic plagioclase and garnet. Most of these sulfides are
considered primary minerals exsolved subsequently from a metamorphic monosulfide solid solution during
postmetamorphic cooling.
 The ore minerals are representing mainly by pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, bravoite, violarite,
cubanite and ilmenite, with brochiantite, chalcanthite and malachite in the oxidation zone.
Mineralogy of Platinum-Group and Related Minerals
 Six platinum-group minerals are described: michenerite, froodite, merenskyite, sudburyite, geversite, and
palladian bismuthian melonite. Hessite, joseite, altaite, bismuthinite, and electrum are common associated
minerals.
 Most of the PGM (80%) occur in massive sulfide bodies.
Ore reserves were estimated at 85000 tonnes of ore containing 2.8% Cu and 1.53% Ni and minor amounts of Co.
41

Abu Swayel
Origin: The Cu and Ni sulphides were formed as a result of
liquid immiscibilities from the silicate melt during
solidification of the basic magma into an oceanic crust.
Mineral assemblages and textural relations indicate
precipitation of PGE during postmetamorphic cooling, over
a 'wide range of temperatures. The presence of PCM on
tension fractures in metamorphic plagioclase and
almandine-rich garnet in association with Pb, Bi, and Ag
tellurides illustrates the participation of hydrothermal
solutions generated during amphibolite facies
metamorphism in the transport and concentration of PGE.
This also underlines the possible role of metamorphic
processes in the formation of PGE deposits.
• Chalcopyrite, cubanite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, and violarite are
the major sulfide minerals. At the peak of amphibolite facies
metamorphism, the associated fluid regimes resulted in
remobilization and transport of Cu-rich sulfides and PGE and
in the development of hydrosilicate alteration zones.
42

b) Cu-Ni sulphide deposits
This type of mineralization occurs in layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions like
gabbro rocks at Akarem and El Geneina El Gharbia .
An extensive program of exploration was conducted in the two areas, and the
occurrences were found to be uneconomic.
Gabbro Akarem
Fig. 1. Location map of the Gabbro Akarem ; Genina Gharbia area and other concentrically zoned
complexes in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Helmy & El Mahallawi 2003). Deep structures revealed by
geophysical studies in the Eastern Desert of Egypt from Garson and Shalaby (1976)
43

44

Gabbro Akarem Copper Deposit
 It located 130 km east of Aswan and 130 km west of Bernice (5 km south of Wadi Kharit
and 20 km South-East of Gebel Homr Akarem) at Latitude 24o1'N and Longitude 34o17'E.
 It was first discovered during reconnaissance geochemical prospecting in March 1972 in a
gabbro peridotite complex by Victor A.Bugrov and I.M. Shalaby. So, this locality has been
given the name of Gabbro Akarem by them.
 Host Rocks:
Gabbro Akarem is a small mafic- ultramafic complex composed of two small bodies
lying midway between Aswan and Berenice. According to Carter (1975) and Carter
et al (1978), the complex consists of two separate bodies which are steeply dipping
dike-like intrusions, with inward dipping contacts against metasediments.
This belt is differentiated into gabbro and peridotitic types (gabbro, olivine – gabbro,
gabbro – norite, pyroxenite and peridotites) and is cut a cross by a system of
diabase and gabbro-diabase dykes.
 Ore Body:
 The main bulk of the complex is composed of noritic rocks, intruded by pipe-like
bodies of peridotites in two generations, the later of which is mineralized with Cu-
Ni sulphide minerals.
 These rocks were found with traces of Cu-Ni sulphide mineralization and form a
magmatic belt extending 11.5 km in ENE- WSW direction with a width of from 1
up to 3 km.
 The sulphide mineralization occurs as disseminating or as massive bands and the
sulphide grains are molded around the silicate crystals with no signs of replacement.
 The mineralization is expressed in the form of three zones of gossans within the
peridotites and is possibly resulted to massive sulphide bands.
45

Fig. : Geological map
of Gabbro Akarem
area, Eastern Desert,
Egypt (Carter 1975)
46

Fig. 2. Geological sketch-map of the southwestem gossan zone at Gabbro
Akarem (After Bugrov and Shalaby, 1973).
47

Mineralogy
Primary sulphide minerals:
 Primary sulphide assemblage includes pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite and
cubanite. Pyrrhotite and pentlandite are replaced partially by a pyrite, marcasite,
violarite and mackinwite.
 In the fresh gabbroidal rock it is possible to find disseminated sulphides, i.e.
1)Pyrrhotite [Fe1-xS] softer than pyrite FeS2 (predominant) and
2)Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) like gold in colour and
3)Pentlandite [(Fe, Ni)9S8 associated with pyrrhotite] and cubanite (CuFe3S3) were
identified.
 Also there are four zones of gossans were discovered during reconnaissance
geochemical studies in the area (Fig.5), the distance between the western and eastern
zones being about 7 km. The gossans are generally reddish – yellow to dark brownish –
red in colour, light in weight and with cellular texture, they are typical of the oxidation of
post massive sulphides (Fig.6).
Secondary minerals
 In the host rock developed in and around the gossans there are secondary copper-
nickel minerals with associated "copper-green" stains including:
1)Malachite[Cu2CO3(OH)2],
2)Chrysocolla [CuH2(Si2O5)(OH)4]
3)Turquoise [ CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)3.5H2O] and
4)Garnierite [(Ni, Mg)3 Si2O8(OH)4].
48

Reserves
 The mineralization was traced on the surface, and four exploratory drilholes
were put down, with a total of 621m.
 It is evident that neither the grade nor the tonnage permits consideration of
exploitation under present circumstances.
 The total Reserves were estimated at 700,000 tonnes of mineralized
peridotite at a grade of 0.95 % combined Ni and Cu, of which 270,000 tonnes
of grade 1.18% Ni+Cu are proven.
 No mining activities have been done so far.
49

Gabbro Akarem is now
considered to be a Precambrian
analogue of an Alaskan-type
complex (Helmy & Mogessie
2001, Helmy & El Mahallawi,
2003).
 The Cu–Ni–PGE mineralization
at Gabbro Akarem is hosted
mainly in ultramafic dunite
pipes and shows a typical
magmatic mineralogy and
textures.
Three platinum-group minerals
(merenskyite, michenerite,
palladoan bismuthian melonite)
were documented (Helmy &
Mogessie, 2001).
The consistently low PGE
contents (PGE <270 ppb) and
their uniform distribution in
sulfide-bearing and barren rocks
were attributed to rapid
crystallization of sulfides in a
highly dynamic environment.
Fig.4: Drillhole sections 2, 3, and 7 Gabbro Akarem No.1 (after Carter, 1973).
50

Fig. 5: Variation diagram of 100Cr/(Cr + Al) versus 100Fe 2+ /(Mg + Fe 2+ ) ( left ) and 100Fe
3+ /(Fe 3+ + Cr + Al) versus 100Fe 2+ / (Mg + Fe 2+ ) ( right ) for spinel
51

Origin
The sulphide mineralization occurs as disseminating or
as massive bands and the sulphide grains are molded
around the silicate crystals with no signs of
replacement. →This indicates that the sulphides are
magmatic and constituted an integral part of the
original magma.
The ore was formed as a result of pre-intrusion
segregation, followed by the emplacement of
successive phases, starting with norite and ending with
the mineralized peridotite which represents the residual
sulphide bearing fraction of the primary magma.
Gabbro Akarem was emplaced in association with a
deep-seated transverse tectonic structure trending
ENE. It is therefore suggested that, like most of the
layered mafic- ultramafic intrusions in the world
(Eckstrand 1984), Gabbro Akarem was formed from a
mafic magma, mantle – derived in most cases, which
was emplaced quiescently in multiple phases at higher
crustal levels in a tensional rift environment.
52

Genetic model of concentrically-zoned Gabbro-Akarem igneous
complex (after Helmy& EL Mahallawi,2003)
53

Genina Gharbia Cu-Ni occurrence
is located in the intersection of Latitude 23º 57'N and
Longitude 34º 37'E where gossans with Cu and Ni do
exist.
A gossan with copper and nickel secondary minerals was
discovered in 1973 during a geochemical exploration
program undertaken by the Aswan Mineral Survey Project.
Figure 1. Location map and aerial
photograph of the Genina Gharbia complex,
Eastern Desert, Egypt.
54

Fig. 2. Geological map of the
Genina Gharbia area (after
Fredricksson, 1974).
Host Rocks:
The Genina Gharbia intrusion is a small late Precambrian mafic–
ultramafic complex in the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
It comprises harzburgite, lherzolite, pyroxenite, norite and gabbro.
The intrusion is not metamorphosed, but highly affected by faulting and
shearing, and most of the original contacts have been obliterated.
The various rocks are characterized by high modal content of
magnesiohornblende and abundant phlogopite and fluorapatite.
55

Ore minerals
In the area, disseminated and massive Cu–Ni sulfide ore is
hosted in mafic–ultramafic rocks of Precambrian age.
The Cu–Ni ore forms either disseminations in peridotite or
massive patches in gabbro and consists of pyrrhotite [Fe1-
xS] > pentlandite [(Fe, Ni)9S8] = chalcopyrite> pyrite =
violarite = cubanite and minor cobaltite–gersdorffite,
nickeline, sphalerite, molybdenite and valleriite.
Fresh ore minerals are represented mainly by Pyrite
(FeS2), Pyrrhotite [Fe1-xS], Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), and
Pentlandite [(Fe, Ni)9S8].
Malachite [Cu2CO3(OH)2], and Garnierite
[(Ni,Mg)3Si2O8(OH)4] stained gossans are associated with
thrust slices of mafic-ultramafic rocks that include peridotite,
pyroxenite and gabbros.
Intense alteration commonly is associated with sulfides in
gabbroic rocks, in which the silicate assemblage is
dominated by actinolite, chlorite, epidote, albite and quartz.
The metal assays are 0.17 % Cu and 0.38 % Ni.
The total Cu + Ni locally reaches up to 1.5 wt%, with a
Cu : Ni ratio <1.
56

Fig. 3. Detailed geological map of the mineralized portion of Genina Gharbia intrusion,
indicating drill-core sites.
57

Mineralogy of Platinum-Group and Related Minerals
 Platinum-group minerals (PGM) are restricted to bismuthotellurides of Pd, (i.e.,
michenerite and the melonite–merenskyite) series;
 no Pt minerals were identified.
 The PGM are usually associated with hessite, altaite, tsumoite, sylvanite and native
tellurium.
 90% of the PGM and other tellurides grains are located at sulfide–silicate contacts and
as inclusions in altered silicates.
Platinum-group elements (PGE) concentrations (maximum 260 ppb Pd, 65 ppb Pt, 9
ppb Rh, 38 ppb Ir, 10 ppb Ru, 7 ppb Os) were determined in sulfide-bearing materials.
The Pd : Pt ratio increases from the hornblende harzburgite to hornblende gabbro.
Origin
The mineralogical and chemical characteristics of the Genina Gharbia mineralization are
best explained by a three-stage process:
(1) a stage of magmatic crystallization in which the base metals and precious metals
were concentrated in a sulfide melt largely in the harzburgite and lherzolite,
(2) a late-magmatic stage in which base metals and precious metals were concentrated
in a volatile-rich fluid, and
(3) a postmagmatic stage of faulting and shearing, which locally remobilized metals and
concentrated them along shear zones.
 In stage (1), the PGE were hosted in base-metal sulfides, mainly pentlandite and
cobaltite–gersdorffite. The availability of semimetals (Te, Bi) in the late-magmatic fluid
controlled the deposition of PGM in stage (2).
58

59

Figure 10B. Cross section of a stratovolcano showing
the relative locations of porphyry copper deposits,
lead-zinc veins, gold-silver veins, and sulfur deposits.
60

2) COPPER ASSOCIATED FELSIC ASSEMBLAGES
(or PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS)
Porphyry copper deposits have certain characteristics in
common, including:
a)Large reserves and low metal grade.
b)Association with subvolcanic, calc-alkaline, intermediate to
acid intrusions with a porphyry phase among the intrusive
rocks.
c)A spatial relationship to deep crustal fractures or old benioff
zones.
d)Extensive, zonally arranged hydrothermal alterations with:
potassic-, phyllic-, argillic-, and propylitic-zones, arranged
from the inside outwards, and
e) Simple mineralogy of disseminated and stringer sulphides
of which pyrite is the most abundant, followed by
chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite and covellite, and where
Mo and/or Au are sometimes found in concentrations high
enough to name the deposits a porphyry Cu-Mo or Cu-Au
deposit.
Taking all of these features into consideration, Ivanov and
Hussein (1972) suggested that two porphyry copper
prospects are present in Egypt, at Hamash and Um Garayiat
areas.
61

a) Hamash Area
Hamash area has long been known for its Au deposit. Later, it was noted that, in the wider area, several
localities have strong hydrothermal alterations and malachite stainings along joints and fractures.
Five localities with High concentrations of Cu and Mo (up to 0.5 wt.%, 300ppm, respectively) are known
in the Hamash area. i.e. Um Hagalig, Ara West, Ara East, Um Tundub, Hamash North and the
Hamash gold mine (Fig. 1).
 Mineralization: Fe-Cu sulfides in the veins representing by pyrite and chalcopyrite were altered to
secondary chalcocite, bornite and digenite. Hematite and magnetite are the main oxide minerals. Quartz
contain inclusions of gold as well as remobilized gold along cracks and microfractures.
The coarse-grained pink granite and granodiorite and the surrounding metavolcanic and
metasedimentary rocks are the main hosts of copper mineralization (Bugrov, 1972; Moustafa and Hilmy,
1958). Garson and Shalaby (1976) suggest that the mineralized rocks at Hamash were emplaced on the
continental margin above a steeply dipping Benioff zone. In a recent investigation of the deposit Hilmy
and Osman (1989) describe remobilization of gold from a high temperature chalcopyrite and pyrite
assemblage.
These were noted at
• Um Hagalia a zone of intensive propylitization, sericitization, kaolinization and silicification occurs
within the granodiorite porphyry. A number of quartz veins with malachite cut the granodiorite
porphyry and were excavated in the past. Cu up to 0.5% was found in close vicinity to the veins, with
~50 ppm Mo.
• Ara East and Ara West quartz-sericite-pyrite zones are characteristic with 500 ppm Cu and 80 ppm
Mo
• Hamash North is more interesting area, with abundant quartz veins with pyrite-chalcopyrite as well
as the presence of gossans and zones of hydrothermal alterations (up to 500 m long and 100 m
wide) within the andesite-granodiorite porphyry. Analysis of samples from the alteration zones yield
Cu 200-500 ppm and Mo (10-50ppm).
• Um Tundub a zone of hydrothermal alteration almost circular and ~2000 m X 1700 m, excluding the
outmost propylitized rocks. Within this zone, concentric, more or less complete, subzones are
recognized with propylitized to the outside, pyrophyllitization-sericitization in the middle, an inner
subzone of silicification, alunitization and development of a small amount of hydrobiotite. Pyrite is
disseminated and fills cracks and fractures to a depth of 250 m. This body of pyrite is estimated to
contain 500 million tonnes of pyrites, but other sulphides are almost absent.
62

Figure 1: Geologic Map of Hamash area, south Eastern Desert, Egypt
(after El Ramly and Akaad, 1960).
63

Fig.2: Geologic Map of Hamash Gold Mine area, south Eastern Desert, Egypt.
64

b) Um Garayiat
• Um Garayiat area (22° 34/ N and 33° 24/ E) is located at the SW sector of the
Eastern Desert.
• Copper occurrences at, ~175 km to the SSE of Aswan city, on the right bank of Wadi
Allaqi.
• The area is made up of different assemblages of granodiorite and quartz-andesite
porphyries.
• The granodiorite porphyry intrusion shows concentric, almost complete zones of
hydrothermal alteration, and very rich sulfide mineralization, now in the oxidized
state and forming gossan-like bodies. The central core of quartz porphyry
(granodiorite) suffered intrusive silicification, sericitization, pyrophyllitization, and
development of minor hydrobiotite. These are followed outwards by kaolinization
and propylitization. Pyrite mineralization is superimposed on these alterations, which
pass gradually into less altered rocks, then fresh rocks. Within the silicified core,
minor quartz veins and lenses with apatite, tourmaline and occasional specks of
native gold are encountered.
• The sequence of events leading to the mineralization of Um Garayiat must have
begun with the emplacement of andesite-granodiorite porphyry in a subvolcanic
environment. The parent magma was intermediate to acid in composition and rich in
volatiles (e.g., Au, As, Ag, Mo, and Cu). The emplacement was immediately followed
by propylitization of a wide area caused by circulating ground water heated by the
magmatic bodies. The magmatic phase of hydrothermal alterations started by the
formation of a little hydrobiotite or orthoclase (potassium metasomatism). High
temperature silicification and pyrophyllitization. This stage was accompanied by the
apatite and tourmaline-bearing quartz lenses, and small amounts of pyrite, pyrrhotite
and chalcopyrite. Another phase of silicification followed, and with it most of the
pyrite and some of the native gold were introduced. The third, low temperature
phase of silica introduction was accompanied by most of the gold and silver, mainly
in the form of veins in the mined area.
65

Wadi Allaqi projection location plan
(Gippsland Limited Annual Report 2007)
Garayat prospect - location of gold occurrences
(Gippsland Limited Annual Report 2007)
66

 Two possibilities are suggested to explain failure to
encounter Cu-mineralization at the various sites of
Hamash and Um Um Garayiat areas:-
i. Copper was not introduced, being very poor in
the mineralizing solutions., or
ii. It was formed but subsequently leached and/or
eroded out down below the level of
mineralization and almost completely from the
zone of oxidation. But, is present deeper,
probably with a supergene enrichment zone.
67

Figure 10: Cross section schematically illustrating the characteristic features of volcanogenic massive
sulfide (VMS) deposits. Hydrothermal fluids move upwards along fractures in volcanic rocks towards the
sea floor. When the hot hydrothermal fluids vent and mix with cold ocean water, iron, copper, lead, and
zinc sulfide minerals can form and collect as a mound on the sea floor. Ore minerals also can form in the
fractures underlying the mound of sulfide materials (after Lydon, 1988).
68

Fig. 1 Location of VMS deposits or districts in
the Arabian–Nubian shield, and bordering
areas. Egypt: 1 Hamama and Abu Marawat; 2
Um Samuiki. Sudan: 3 Hamissana district
(Uar, Hamissana, Onib, Tbon, Eigiet, and
Adarmo deposits); 4 Gebiet; 5 Serakoit; 6
Ariab (Hassai) district; 7 Eyob district
(Tohamyam, Abu Samar, Eyob, Derudeb, and
Tagoteb deposits); 8 NE Nuba Mountains
(*1100 Ma, external to ANS) Tumluk, Jabal,
Fayo, and Agbash deposits. Eritrea: 9 Bisha
district (see Fig. 3); 10 Asmara district.
Ethiopia: 11 Tarakimti, 12 Abetselo, Azale,
and Akendayu; 13 Tulu Boli and Wankey.
Uganda: 14 Kilembe (external to ANS).
Kenya: 15 Macalder (external to ANS). Saudi
Arabia: 16 Ash Shizm; 17 Nuqrah, Nuqrah
North, Nuqrah South, An Nimahr; 18 Jabal
Sayid, Umm Ad Damar; 19 As Safra; 20 Ar
Ridaniya, Khnaiguiyah, Al Amar, Umm Ash
Shalahib; 21 Shayban, Jabal Baydan; 22 Shaib
Lamisah; 23 Shaab Al Taare, Wadi Bidah,
Gehab, Rabathan, Jadmar, Al Hajar; 24 Al
Masane; 25 Kutam. See Tadasse et al. (2003),
Ogola (2006), Owor et al. (2007), Barrie et al.
(2007), Johnson et al. (2011)
69

 Volcanofenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are known in many localities in the Eastern Desert of Egypt,
i.e., Um Samiuki, Helgate, Maaqal, Derhib and Abu Gurdi.
 Massive and disseminated sulfides are present in all localities, however many differences among these
deposits do exist.
 The comparative geological, mineralogical canogenic and geochemical studies enabled the distinction of
two groups:
1) The first group, Um Samiuki, Helgate and Maaqal are hosted in felsic volcanics and pyroclastics in a
certain stratigraphic level in the Shadli Metavolcanics. Although massive sulfides of these deposits are
located along fault zones, disseminated sulfides are encountered in the metavolcanics. Sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite and galena are the major sulfides. Sphalerite is Mn-rich (up to 5.5 wt.%) and Cd-poor
(<0.1%) and shows a wide range of Fe content (from 0.5 to 4.5 %). Galena is pure PbS, no Ag or Se was
detected. Tellurides are represented by Ag-tellurides. Gangue minerals are Mn-minerals, barite, calcite,
talc and Mn-chlorite. Geochemically, these deposits are Zn-dominated.
2) The second group is represented by Derhib and Abu Gurdi, the sulfides are located along major shear
zones crossing ophiolite succession. No primary depositional features were observed, metamorphic and
deformational features are dominant. Chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite and galena are common.
Sphalerite is enriched in Cd (up to 5.1 %) and depleted in Mn (<0.3%). It shows a bimodal distribution of
FeS (2.1 and 9.3 mol.% FeS). Galena is generally enriched in Se (up to 7.2%). Ag, Pb and Bi tellurides are
present. These deposits are Cu-dominated.
It is concluded that the first group is genetically related to the hosting island arc volcanics while the
second group is connected to ophiolite succession and were later modified during tectonism and
metamorphism.
The differences in telluride mineralogy, trace element contents of sulfides and ore chemistry reflect the
magmatic environments at which the ore-forming fluids were originated and the post-magmatic
processes.
70

Fig. 1. Location map
showing the distribution of
BIF and massive sulphide
deposits in the Eastern
Desert of Egypt. Inset map
shows gold occurrences
nearby the Abu Marawat
area (compiled from Kochn
et al., 1968).
71

3) STRATIFORM MASSIVE SULPHIDE (Zn-Cu-Pb) DEPOSITS
 This type of mineralization is represented by a group of small lenses
associated with talc deposits in South Eastern Desert at: Um
Samiuki, Helgate, Maakal, Atshan, Darhib, Abu Gurdi, and Egat.
Um Samiuki Deposits
 Um Samiuki Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag sulfide deposit
 Um Samiuki deposit lies in the intersection of latitude 24º 14' N and long 34º
30 E.
 Host rocks: The area is mainly built of calc-alkaline island arc volcanics
andesite and their pyroclastics and were later subjected to conditions of
greenschist-facies metamorphism (Searle et al.,1976).
Small lenses of the massive sulfides (Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag), are consisting of
pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena, exposed as gossans on the
surface and inducing a greenish tint to white colours talc materials in their
vicinity.
The ore body in the Western part assays 21.6 % Zn, 2.2 % Cu, 0.5 % Pb
and 109 g/t Ag with total reserves of 200,000 tons (Searle et al., 1976)
while the Eastern part is less in metal content where Zn 13.6 %, Cu
posses 1.8 %,and Pb 3.4%.
Total Reserves: 300,000 ton of massive ore
the Umm Samiuki deposit is currently mined for Zn and Cu.
72

Latitude & Longitude (WGS84): 24° 13' 58'' North , 34° 50' 4'' East
Latitude & Longitude (decimal): 24.2327777778, 34.8344444444
Um Samiuki Mine
Um Samiuki Mine, Eastern Desert, Red Sea Governorate, Egypt
73

Um Samiuki Mine
Fig. 1 : Satellite image showing Helgate–Maaqal area located within the Shadli metavolcanic belt and Derhib–Abu Gurdi
area located to the south of the belt, note the structural boundary (yellow dashed line) separating Shadli metavolcanic
belt from ophiolitic succession
74

Figure 1: Geologic Map of Um Samiuki area, south Eastern Desert, Egypt
75

Figure 1: Geologic map of Helgate and Maaqal prospects area, south Eastern Desert, Egypt (after El
Habaak, 1986)
76

Drillhole sections at Um Samiuki mine.
77

The ore bodies overlay a stockwork of altered
rocks resulting from intensive metasomatic effects
induced by the ascending volcanic exhalation on
the channel ways through which they ascended
(Hussein et al., 1977).
The mineralization can be attributed to epigenetic
process, where it was introduced by hydrothermal
solutions along shear zones developed by
replacement of pre-existing rocks.
On the contrary of epigenetic hydrothermal
deposition, Hussein et al. (1977) and Hussein
(1990) believed that this deposit is a massive
sulphide body which was deposited during the Abu
Hamamid volcanics episode on the top of
submarine volcanic vent system and the
sedimentation took place conformally with the
enclosing rocks at the interface between the
volcanic pile and sea water.
Origin
78

4) Copper Sandstone deposit
Precambrian crystalline rocks at a number of locations in south Sinai
bear thin quartz veins of short length which contain copper carbonate,
probably an oxidation product of sparse chalcopyrite. These types of
deposits have no practical exploration potential.
Historically, copper has been produced from copper oxide-bearing
sandstones of the Cambrian Serabit el Khadim Formation or from
overlying lower Carboniferous strata. Extensive beds of cupriferous
sandstone in these units are reported to have been mined in ancient
times near Wadi Maghara in west central Sinai. Ores are described as
containing up to 18% copper in carbonates and silicates.
Numerous other locations with cupriferous sandstone outcrops have
been described by Egyptian geologists who have worked in the region.
The deposits are sometimes associated with sandstone-bearing uranium
and silver.
Several occurrences of copper were recorded in Phanerozoic
sediments in Northern portion of Eastern Desert (at Wadi Araba,
Wadi Sitra, Hamash, Wadi Dara and Buhen) and in the Centre and
West Sinai (e.g., Wadi El-Maghara, Wadi Samra and Serabit el-
Khadim) as secondary malachite and in some places mixed with
Manganese.
Moreover, recent technological developments allow these ores to be
treated at very low cost, making them attractive exploration targets.
79

Ancient copper mine
Copper deposit at Wadi Samra, Sinai
80

Sinai
Precambrian crystalline rocks at a number of locations in south Sinai bear thin
quartz veins of short length which contain copper carbonate, probably an
oxidation product of sparse chalcopyrite. These types of deposits have no
practical exploration potential.
Historically, copper has been produced from copper oxide-bearing sandstones of
the Cambrian Serabit el Khadim Formation or from overlying lower
Carboniferous strata. Extensive beds of cupriferous sandstone in these units are
reported to have been mined in ancient times near Wadi Maghara in west
central Sinai. Ores are described as containing up to 18% copper in carbonates
and silicates. Numerous other locations with cupriferous sandstone outcrops
have been described by Egyptian geologists who have worked in the region.
While the ore has been no thorough evaluation of a copper sandstone deposit
in Sinai, comparable deposits elsewhere have supported economic mining
operations. The deposits are sometimes associated with sandstone-bearing
uranium and silver. Moreover, recent technological developments allow these
ores to be treated at very low cost, making them attractive exploration targets.
Their potential for economic occurrences and exploitation in Sinai should be
pursued.
81

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Desert. Part I—Geology of Abu Swayel area: Egyptian Journal of Geology, 9, 45-67.
El Shazly, E.M., Farag, I.A.M., and Bassyouni, F.A., 1969, Contribution to the geology and mineralization of Abu Swayel area, Eastern
desert. Part Il—Abu Swayel copper-nickel deposit: Egyptian Journal of Geology 13, 1—15
Helmy, H.M. and Kaindl, R. (1999). Mineralogy and fluid inclusion studies of the Au-Cu quartz veins in the Hamash area, South-Eastern
Desert, Egypt. Mineralogy and Petrology 65,69-86
Helmy, H.M., and Mogessie, A. (2001): Gabbro Akarem, Eastern Desert, Egypt: Cu-Ni-PGE mineralization in a concentrically zoned mafic-
ultramafic complex. Mineralium Deposita 36, 58-71.
Helmy, H.M. & EL Mahallawi, M.M. (2003): Gabbro Akarem mafic–ultramafic complex, Eastern Desert, Egypt: a Late Precambrian analogue
of Alaskan-type complexes. Mineral. Petrol. 77, 85-108.
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