1. GETTING STARTED WITH RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
• Many students have some apprehensions
about doing research. The best way
• to conquer this anxiety is to learn how the
research process works—how to organize and
analyze, evaluate and synthesize what is
learned with original ideas and
interpretations, and finally how to document
your research.
2. Research Definition
• Research "to go about seeking", the search for
knowledge. Holding the torch of knowledge"
on a systematic basis in order to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge of
man, culture and society, and the use of this
stock of knowledge to devise new
applications. It is used to establish or confirm
facts, reaffirm the results of previous work,
solve new or existing problems, develop new
theories.
3. Research Definition(cont:)
• Martyn Shuttleworth "In the broadest sense
of the word, the definition of research
includes any gathering of data, information
and facts for the advancement of knowledge.”
4. Research Definition(cont:)
• Creswell -"Research is a process of steps used
to collect and analyze information to increase
our understanding of a topic or issue".
• It consists of three steps:
• 1.Pose a question, 2.collect data to answer the
question, and 3. present an answer to the
question
5. Research types
• There are many research methods that can be
used by researchers to determine the
outcome of a particular project. Important
• 4 are following
• Qualitative, quantitative, mixed, and action
research.
6. Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is a standard term for
investigating methodologies that helps the
researcher understand and explain the meaning
of social phenomena. This research investigation
is performed in a natural setting so that the
researcher can learn as much about the human
behavior as possible. In this sense, it seeks to
understand behavior with the purpose of
assigning meaning to the actions of the particular
subject.
7. Qualitative research(conti)
• Qualitative researchers are concerned with
understanding the motivational factors behind
the particular experience in question, and
therefore, with this type of research more
personal information and deeper responses are
needed from the participants. Also, qualitative
research is subjective and the researcher will
collect data by means of words, pictures, or
categories through careful observation and in
depth personal interviews (Quantitative and
Qualitative Research, 2011).
8. Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is used by researchers
to determine quantified relationship between
variables. In this aim is to determine the
relationship in one thing over another with
things such as weight, performance, or time.
This type of research is either descriptive,
which establishes associations between two
variables, or experimental which establishes
causality.
9. Quantitative Research(conti:)
• In this researcher gathers information from
the subjects by means of surveys and
questionnaires, and once the data is collected
it is analyzed using statistical methods, such as
correlations, relative frequencies, or
differences between means
10. Qualitative and Quantitative
• Qualitative research aims to gather a more
inclusive understanding as to a particular
behavior and the reasons as to why such
behavior exists.
• Quantitative research aims to determine the
relationship between one thing and another.
11. Mixed Research
• Mixed research combines qualitative and
quantitative research into one single study. In
this sense both qualitative and quantitative
research methods, techniques. The mixed
research method involves using figures and
wording, and statistics and wording for
analyzing information that is collected.
12. Mixed Research(conti:)
• Also, researchers that employ this type of
method will be presented with multiple types
of reports so that a more sensible conclusion
can be made regarding the project at hand
13. Action Research(conti:)
• In other words, identifying and testing certain
actions and certain outcomes regarding a
particular process in order to make
improvements is the intention of the
researcher who utilizes this method.
14. Mixed and action
• Mixed research comes into play when the aim
is to use a mixture of research methods to
come to a comprehensive conclusion on the
subject at hand. And last,
• Action research is used when a problem exists
with a process and improvements need
continually be made to advance the process.
15. Selection of research method
• research method depend on what
the researcher is looking to achieve
from the results of the research
16. • The researcher will need to investigate the
topic at hand in order to come to a conclusion
on which of these research methods to use.
17. Steps of research,:
• Observations and Formation of the topic:
• Hypothesis: A testable prediction that can be tested by
further investigation
• Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and
selecting samples, gathering information from and/or
about these samples by using specific research
instruments. The instruments used for data collection must
be valid and reliable.
• Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual
pieces of data in order to draw conclusions about it.
• Data Interpretation: This can be represented through
tables, figures and pictures, and then described in words.
• Conclusion
18. Goal of research
• The goal of the research process is to produce
new knowledge or deepen understanding of a
topic or issue.
19. Choosing research topic
• For a choosing a topic for a project, it is
important to consider a broad area of but it
should be an area that is of interest to the
researcher. However, a broad area is useful
only at the beginning of a research
plan. Within a broader topic of inquiry, each
researcher must begin narrowing the field into
a few subtopics that are of greater specificity
and detail.
20. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• For students, previous classes, current events
in society, and course material are often the
source of research ideas. Academic journals,
Pubmed and Google Scholar are also good
starting places. Lastly, many research ideas
are generated through dialogue—by talking
with professors, fellow students and family.
21. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• Select more than one topic that interest you,
then, go to conduct a preliminary search of
each topic. Determine which project idea can
be supported with plenty of published
material. This way, you will be able to select a
final topic that is both interesting and feasible.
22. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• Take note of the types of sources that appear
for each topic. Including articles, books, and
encyclopedia references. Don’t select a topic
that doesn’t appear in books and articles, as
well as on web sites.
23. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• According to Cliff Davidson and Susan
Ambrose of Carnegie Mellon University
"The most successful research topics are
narrowly focused and carefully defined, but
are important parts of a broad-ranging,
complex problem."
24. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• Robert Smith, in his book Graduate Research: lists 11 points to consider in
finding and developing a research topic:
• 1. Can it be enthusiastically pursued?
• 2. Can interest be sustained by it?
• 3. Is the problem solvable?
• 4. Is it worth doing?
• 5. Will it lead to other research problems?
• 6. Is it manageable in size?
• 7. What is the potential for making an original contribution to the literature
in the field?
• 8. If the problem is solved, will the results be reviewed well by scholars in
your field?
• 9. Are you, or will you become, competent to solve it?
• 10. By solving it, will you have demonstrated independent skills in your
discipline?
• 11. Will the necessary research prepare you in an area of demand or
promise for the future?
25. Choosing research topic(cont:)
• In short, always, take a few steps in the
beginning to make sure that your topic will be
relatively easy to research over the days and
weeks to come. You don’t want to invest too
much time and emotion in a project that will
only lead to frustration in the end.
26. Literature Review
• One essential task when undertaking a research
study is to review the existing literature on the
topic and use it to inform the construction of
your own study. The literature review should be
conducted early in the research process, directly
after you choose a topic. A literature review can
bring clarity and focus to your research problem
and broaden your knowledge base in your
research area. In addition, past studies can
improve your methodology and help you to
contextualize your findings.
27. Literature Review(conti:)
• The literature review is crucial because an
important responsibility in research is to add
to a body of knowledge and to compare your
findings with others. The procedure is simple:
search the literature in your area of interest,
review the selected studies, and develop a
theoretical framework for your own study.
28. What makes a good research
question?
• Not all research questions are good ones—in
other words, not all questions can be
answered through qualitative and quantitative
research methodology. A good research
question needs to:
29. Good question (cont:)
• “Make sense”: In other words, you must
clearly define your terms using known
definitions outlined in the literature. For
example, a poor research question would
be: How do people’s lives improve after
surgery? Not only does this research question
fail to specify the study population, it contains
the vague term “improve”. The researcher
must specify research question what he/she
means by this.
30. Good question (cont:)
• Address an important and relevant issue: question
must have some beneficial implications. With this in
mind, the researcher may continue narrowing the
study focus to an area that can be addressed as a single
question. For example, “proper eye care and how it
affects individuals,” the topic can be further focused to
be about “basic eye care and how it affects individual
work productivity.” A good research question will also
always have relevance to the time, place, and
population of the study. For example, a study of
Vitamin A deficiency in Southern India would be a poor
choice as this is not a particularly significant problem in
the area.
31. Good question (cont:)
• Not already have been done: There will be some
new aspect of the study that has never before
been examined. However, this does not mean
that you should avoid replicating past
research. In fact, not only is replication a good
way to get a research methodology, it is how
science is supposed to advance
knowledge. When replicating a pervious study, it
is best to add or change one or two things to
increase the novelty of the research.
32. Good question (cont:)
• Be “operationalizable”: Oftentimes, beginning
researchers pose questions that cannot be
operationalized, or assessed methodologically
with research instruments. From the example
above, the idea of life improvement could be
operationalized by a Quality of Life survey—a
well known and validated research tool. In
general, the more abstract the idea, the
harder it is to operationalize.
33. Good question (cont:)
• Be within a reasonable scope: A good research
project will be manageable in depth and
breadth. The scope will depend on the amount
of time and the availability of resources you have
for your study. In general, the more focused the
research question the more likely it will be a
successful project. For example, a study that
seeks to identify the prevalence eye disease in a
specific village is more likely to succeed than a
comparable study that seeks to identify eye
disease prevalence in the world population.
34. Choosing topic(conti:)
• In short you must consider Time, money,
feasibility, ethics and availability to measure
the phenomenon correctly are examples of
issues constraining the research.
•
35. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an
observed relationship or a causal prediction
about a relationship among several
variables. Every research project is based on a
hypothesis, which generally begins with a
specific question.
36. Hypothesis (cont:)
• When formulating a hypothesis, it is important
not to try to “prove” that the hypothesis is
true. Instead, one should seek to find evidence
that it is not true. In other words, one can never
accept a hypothesis; instead one fails to reject
the null (posited) hypothesis. This is especially
important when using statistics such as t-tests
and p-values to determine significance.
•
37. null hypothesis
• It refers to a general or default position: that
there is no relationship between two
measured phenomena, or that a potential
medical treatment has no effect. Rejecting or
disproving the null hypothesis – and thus
concluding that there are grounds for
believing that there is a relationship between
two phenomena.
38. Research method
• . A procedure to help you find the required
data to draw conclusion or make some
predictable results on similar types of
experiments.
39. Research method(conti:)
• In other words, research method is a way of
collecting inputs and finding the outputs, to
conduct your research successfully
40. Types and Methods of Research
• There are four basic research methods. They
are experiments, questionnaires or surveys,
interviews and observation to get new data or
expand on existing data.
41. Qualitative research methods
• Interviews
• Interviews enable face to face discussion with human
subjects. If you are going to use interviews you will
have to decide whether you will take notes
(distracting), tape the interview (accurate but time
consuming) rely on your memory (foolish) or write in
their answers (can lead to closed questioning for time’s
sake). If you decide to interview you will need to draw
up an interview schedule of questions which can be
either closed or open questions, or a mixture of these.
42. Qualitative research methods(cont
• Closed questions tend to be used for asking
for and receiving answers about fixed facts
such as name, numbers, and so on. They do
not require speculation and they tend to
produce short answers.
43. • With closed questions you could
even give your interviewees a small
selection of possible answers from
which to choose. If you do this you
will be able to manage the data and
quantify the responses quite easily.
44. • The problem with closed questions is
that they limit the response the
interviewee can give and do not
enable them to think deeply or test
their real feelings or values.
45. Research methods in brief:
• If you ask open questions such as ‘what do
you think about the increase in traffic?’ you
could elicit an almost endless number of
responses. This would give you a very good
idea of the variety of ideas and feelings people
have, it would enable them to think and talk
for longer and so show their feelings and
views more fully. But it is very difficult to
quantify these results.
46. • You will find that you will need to read
all the comments through and to
categorise them after you have
received them, or merely report them
in their diversity and make general
statements, or pick out particular
comments if they seem to fit your
purpose. If you decide to use
interviews:
47. • Draw up a set of questions that seem
appropriate to what you need to find out.
• Do start with some basic closed questions
(name etc.).
• Don't ask leading questions.
• Try them out with a colleague .
• Pilot them, then refine the questions so that
they are genuinely engaged with your
research object.
48. • Contact your interviewees and ask
permission, explain the interview and
its use.
• Carry out interviews and keep
notes/tape.
• Transcribe.
• Thematically analyse results and relate
these findings to others from your other
research methods.
49. Quantitative research methods:
• Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information
from a large number of people and/or people who may
not have the time to attend an interview or take part in
experiments. They enable people to take their time,
think about it and come back to the questionnaire
later. Participants can state their views or feelings
privately without worrying about the possible reaction
of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still
be inclined to try to give socially acceptable answers.
People should be encouraged to answer the questions
as honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers
drawing false conclusions from their study.
50. Quantitative research methods:
• Questionnaires are actually rather difficult to
design and because of the frequency of their use
in all contexts in the modern world, the response
rate is nearly always going to be a problem (low)
unless you have ways of making people complete
them and hand them in on the spot (and this of
course limits your sample, how long the
questionnaire can be and the kinds of questions
asked).
51. •
As with interviews, you can decide to use
closed or open questions, and can also offer
respondents multiple choice questions from
which to choose the statement which most
nearly describes their response to a statement
or item.
52. • You need to take expert advice in setting up a
questionnaire, ensure that all the information
about the respondents which you need is
included and filled in, and ensure that you
actually get them returned
53. • Drawing up a really lengthy questionnaire will
also inhibit response rates. You will need to
ensure that questions are clear, and that you
have reliable ways of collecting and managing
the data. Setting up a questionnaire that can
be read by an optical mark reader is an
excellent idea if you wish to collect large
numbers of responses and analyze them
statistically rather than reading each
questionnaire and entering data manually.
54. • You would find it useful to consult the range of
full and excellent research books available. These
will deal in much greater depth with the reasons
for, processes of holding, and processes of
analyzing data from the variety of research
methods available to you.
• Developing and using a questionnaire - some tips
• Identify your research questions
• Identify your sample
55. • Draw up a list of appropriate questions and try
them out with a colleague
• Ensure questions are well laid out and it is clear
how to 'score them' (tick, circle, delete)
• Ensure questions are not leading and confusing
• Code up the questionnaire so you can analyze it
afterwards
• Gain permission to use questionnaires from your
sample
56. • Ensure they put their names or numbers on so
you can identify them but keep real names
confidential
• Ensure you collect in as many as possible
• Follow up if you get a small return
• Analyze statistically if possible and / or
thematically
57. Research designs
• Some studies are just based on one group (withingroup design). The researchers might be interested in
observing people’s reactions or behavior before and
after a certain intervention. However, in most cases,
there are at least two groups (a between-subjects
design). One of the groups serves as a control group
and is not exposed to the intervention. This is quite
similar to the procedure in clinical trials whereby one
group does not receive the experimental drug. This
enables researchers to compare the two groups and
determine the impact of the intervention.
58. Surveys
• Collection of information, from large groups,
by means of questionnaires, interviews or by
telephone. There are different types of
survey. The most straightforward type (the
“one shot survey”) is administered to a sample
of people at a set point in time. Another type
is the “before and after survey” which people
complete before a major event or experience
and then again afterwards.
59. Questionnaires
• Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information
from a large number of people and/or people who may
not have the time to attend an interview or take part in
experiments. They enable people to take their time,
think about it and come back to the questionnaire
later. Participants can state their views or feelings
privately without worrying about the possible reaction
of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still
be inclined to try to give socially acceptable answers.
People should be encouraged to answer the questions
as honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers
drawing false conclusions from their study.
60. Questionnaire (cont:)
• Questionnaires contain multiple choice questions,
attitude scales, closed questions and open-ended
questions. The drawback for researchers is that they
usually have a fairly low response rate and people do
not always answer all the questions and/or do not
answer them correctly. Researchers may even decide
to administer the questionnaire in person which has
the advantage of including people who have difficulties
reading and writing. In this case, the participant may
feel that s/he is taking part in an interview rather than
completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be
noting down the responses on his/her behalf.
61. Interviews
• Interviews are usually carried out face-to-face but
can also be administered by telephone or using
more advance computer technology such as
Skype. Sometimes they are held in the
interviewee’s home, sometimes at a more neutral
place. It is important for interviewees to decide
whether they are comfortable about inviting the
researcher into their home and whether they
have a room or area where they can speak freely
without disturbing other members of the
household.
62. Interviews (cont:)
• The interviewer (which is not necessarily the
researcher) could adopt a formal or informal
approach, either letting the interviewee speak
freely about a particular issue or asking specific
pre-determined questions. This will have been
decided in advance and depend on the approach
used by the researchers. A semi-structured
approach would enable the interviewee to speak
relatively freely, at the same time allowing the
researcher to ensure that certain issues were
covered.
63. Interviews (cont:)
• When conducting the interview, the researcher
might have a check list or a form to record
answers. This might even take the form of a
questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere with the
flow of the conversation, particularly in less
structured interviews. Also, it is difficult to pay
attention to every word and to remember
everything that was said and the way it was said.
Consequently, it can be helpful for the
researchers to have recorded the interview by
audio or video recording with permission before
recording an interview.
64. Observational Research Methods
• Observational research is a group of different research
methods where researchers try to observe a
phenomenon without interfering too much.
• , Case study is an example of observational research
methods are probably the furthest removed from the
established scientific method.
• Observational research often has no clearly defined
research problem, and questions may arise during the
course of the study.
Read more:
65. Case studies(cont:)
• Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a
particular case (a person or small group). Various methods
of data collection and analysis are used but this typically
includes observation and interviews and may involve
consulting other people and personal or public records. The
researchers may be interested in a particular phenomenon
(e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a move into residential
care) and select one or more individuals in the respective
situation on whom to base their case study/studies. Case
studies have a very narrow focus which results in detailed
descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied.
Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical settings and may
even challenge existing theories and practices in other
domains.
66. Data collection Instrumentation
• Instrumentation refers to the tools or means by which investigators
attempt to measure variables or items of interest in the datacollection process. It is related not only to instrument design,
selection, construction, and assessment, but also the to conditions
under which the designated instruments are administered—the
instrument is the device used by investigators for collecting data. In
addition, during the process of data collection, investigators might
fail to recognize that changes in the calibration of the measuring
instrument(s) can lead to biased results. Therefore, instrumentation
is also a specific term with respect to a threat to internal validity in
research. This entry discusses instrumentation in relation to the
data-collection process, internal validity, and research designs.
Instrumentation is the use of, or work completed by, planned
instruments. In a research effort, it is the responsibility of an
investigator to describe thoroughly the instrument used to measure
the dependent variable(s), outcome(s), or ...
67. Data collection Instrument
• Instrument is the generic term that
researchers use for a measurement device
(survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help
distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument
is the device and instrumentation is the course
of action (the process of developing, testing,
and using the device).
68. Conclusion
• In an ideal world, experimental research methods
would be used for every type of research, fulfilling all
of the requirements of falsifiability and generalization.
• However, ethics, time and budget are major factors, so
any experimental design must make compromises. As
long as a researcher recognizes and evaluates flaws in
the design when choosing from different research
methods, any of the scientific research methods are
valid contributors to scientific knowledge.
•
69. Research reports
• In scientific research reports, problem is
defined, a hypothesis is created, experiments
are devised to test the hypothesis,
experiments are conducted, and conclusions
are drawn. This framework is consistent with
the following organization of a research
report:
72. Research proposal (cont:)
• Its a technical proposal, or we can say that
Statement of Work and a persuasive
document.
1. Project proposal Identify what work is to be
done and why this work needs to be done
2. Its main aim to convince the reader that
you are qualified for the work
73. Research proposal (cont:)
• A research proposal is intended to convince
others that you have a worthwhile research
project and that you have the competence
and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a
research proposal should contain all the key
elements involved in the research process and
include sufficient information for the readers
to evaluate the proposed study.
74. Research proposal (cont:)
• Regardless of your research area and the
methodology you choose, all research
proposals must address the following
questions: What you plan to accomplish, why
you want to do it and how you are going to do
it.
75. Research synopsis
Research synopsisis defined as brief summary or
review of a subject
Or it is the plan for research project. It provides
the rationale for the research, the research
objectives, the proposed methods for data
collection and recording formats and/or
questionnaires and interview guides.
76. Research synopsis(cont:)
• The synopsis is based on the information
provided by the supervisor(s) and by
secondary sources of information. In the final
report you will present the results of your data
collection and elaboration, with the discussion
and the conclusion.
77. Research synopsis(cont:)
• The full synopsis should be maximum 3-4,000
words, excluding appendices.
Title*Abstract*Introduction*Problem
analysis/literature review*Objectives*
Hypotheses*Limitations*Methodology and
methods*Results Discussion Conclusion
References*Appendix A Research matrix*
78. Research synopsis(cont:)
• Appendix B Data collection instruments (e.g.,
interview guide, questionnaire)*
Items marked by an asterisk are to be included
in the synopsis, while items without asterisk
are mentioned here only because they will be
added in the final report of you research
project
