This document provides an outline and overview of chapter 4 from an educational psychology textbook. It discusses several learning theories including transformative learning theory, brain-based learning theory, multiple intelligences theory, and multimedia learning theory. It also covers cognitive theories of learning, including Gestalt psychology, multi-stored memory theory, meaningful learning theory, and cognitive structuralism. Finally, it discusses how cognitive theories can be applied in classroom settings.

1. ASSIGNMENT
Subject : Educational Psychology and Guidance
Topic : CH#4. Learning Theories
Submitted to : Mam FarrukhMunir
Submitted by : Ghazala Muhammad Ali
Roll No. 2012-612
Aqsa Rasheed
Roll No. 2012-627
Saba Amin
Roll No. 2012-626
Program : M.A Islamic Education
2nd
Semester
Institute of Education and Research
University of the Punjab, Lahore.

2. Educational Psychology and Guidance
Chapter No. 4 : Learning Theories
Outlines :
Learning theories
 What is learning ?
 Transformative learning theory
 A brain-based theory of learning
 Multiple intelligences
 Multimedia learning
 Other learning theories
 Learning style theory
Cognitive theories
 Definition
 Introduction
 Gestalt Psychology
 Multi-Stored Theory
 Meaningful Learning
 Cognitive Structuralism
 Cognitive Theories in the Classroom

3.  Learning theories
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how
information is absorbed, processed, and retained during
learning.Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well
as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world
view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge and skills retained.
Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and
will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators
who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as
a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner
rather than her environment, and in particular the complexities of
human memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a
learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already
knows and understands, and that the acquisition of knowledge should
be an individually tailored process of construction. Transformative
learning theory focuses upon the often-necessary change that is
required in a learner's preconceptions and world view.
Transformative learning theory
Transformative learning theory seeks to explain how humans
revise and reinterpret meaning. Transformative learning is the
cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference. A frame
of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often
involved. Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not
correspond to their particular values, associations and concepts.
Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits
of mind and points of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism,
are harder to change than points of view. Habits of mind influence our
point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with
them, but points of view may change over time as a result of
influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.
Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the
“reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by
critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of
view.” When circumstances permit, transformative learners move
toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating,
self-reflective, and integrative of experience.
A brain-based theory of learning
The differences of opinion and theory in psychology indicate
that the learning process is not yet understood. Neuroscience shows
that the brain can be modeled not with a central processor where
„'intelligence'‟ lies, but in having perhaps 70 functional areas. Mental
activity requires several areas to work together. What appear
as different types of intelligence result from different combinations of

4. well-developed functional areas. Learning is a process by which
neurons join by developing the synapses between them. Knowledge is
arranged hierarchically, with new knowledge being linked to existing
neural networks.
Multiple Intelligences
The existence of multiple intelligences is proposed by
psychologist Howard Gardner, who suggests that different kinds of
intelligence exists in human beings. It is a theory that has been
fashionable in continuous professional development (CPD) training
courses for teachers.
Multimedia learning
Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory
teaching materials that may include video, computer and
other information technology. Multimedia learning theory focuses on
the principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in
learning, with emphasis on using both the visual and auditory
channels for information processing.
The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, and
the visual channel processes information that is seen. The visual
channel holds less information than the auditory channel. If both the
visual and auditory channels are presented with information, more
knowledge is retained. However, if too much information is delivered it
is inadequately processed, and long term memory is not acquired.
Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability to stimulate
both the visual and auditory channels of the learner, resulting in
better progress.
Other learning theories
Other learning theories have also been developed for more
specific purposes. For example, Endragogical is the art and science to
help adults learn.Connectivism is a recent theory of networked
learning which focuses on learning as making connections.
Learning style theory
Learning style theory proposes that individuals learn in different
ways, that there are four distinct learning styles – feeling, watching,
thinking and doing – and that knowledge of a learner's preferred
learning style will lead to faster and more satisfactory improvement.
 Cognitive theories
Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, developed in
Germany in the early 1900s and brought to America in the 1920s.
Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and

5. described principles to explain the way we organize our sensations
into perceptions.
Gestalt psychologists criticize behavior for being too dependent
on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt views of learning have
been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that
the memory system is an active organized processor of information
and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human
memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short
term memory and long term memory is important to educators
influenced by cognitive theory. They view learning as an internal
mental process (including insight, information processing, memory
and perception) where the educator focuses on building intelligence
and cognitive development. The individual learner is more important
than the environment.
The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the
most incredible network of information processing and interpretation
in the body as we learn things. This theory can be divided into two
specific theories: the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and the Cognitive
Behavioral Theory (CBT).
When we say the word “learning”, we usually mean “to think
using the brain”. This basic concept of learning is the main viewpoint
in the Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT). The theory has been used to
explain mental processes as they are influenced by both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about learning in an
individual.
Cognitive Learning Theory implies that the different processes
concerning learning can be explained by analyzing the mental
processes first. It posits that with effective cognitive processes,
learning is easier and new information can be stored in the memory
for a long time.
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt is a perspective focuses on the belief that human
consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements. This
approach to the psychology was founded on the concept of gestalt.
The word gestalt in German literally means“shape” or
“figure”.Gestaltists performed many researches on human perception
and learning. They believe learning is the result from good perception,
which enable an individual to form correct concept in their mind.
Later on they proposed the principals or law for perceptual
organization.
Multi-stored Memory

6. One of the major issue in cognitive psychology is the study of
memory.The dominant view is labeled the “stage theory” and is based
on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). Atkinson and Shiffrin
model is also known as Multi-stored model of memory. It proposed
that human memory involves a sequence of three stages which are
sensory memory, short-term memory and long term memory. The
Multi-stored Model of memory assuming that there are different
types of memory used for different tasks. It is an explanation of how
memory processes work. You hear, see and feel many things, but you
remember a few.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is affiliated with the
transudation of energy(change from one form of energy to another).
The environment makes a variety of sources of information. In the
process of transudation, a memory is created. This memory is very
short(less than ½ sec for vision, about 3 sec for hearing.
Short-term memory
Short-term memory is also called working
memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given
moment time. According to Freudian: “Short-term memory is
conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external
stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere
around 15 to 20 sec unless it is repeated.”
For example there is a process that is sometimes used to
expand the capacity of short-term memory is called chunking.
Chunking is a process by which we group individual bits of
information into some types of large, more meaningful unit.
Long-term memory
LTM provides the lasting retention of
information from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory appears to
have an almost limitless capacity to retain information, but it could
never be measured, as it would take too long. Contemporary
psychologist agree that long-term memory can be divided into
subtypes of declarative and procedural memory. Declarative memory
is subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory.
Cognitive Structuralism
Cognitive structralism was founded by Jean Piaget(1896-1980)
and other cognoitive psychologist..
According to Leinhardt : “The awareness of interrelationship
between simuli or the use of appropriate schemata are significant
to cognitive learning and to teaching and classroom learning.”

7. According to Hinson : “For teachers to promote more effective learning
the teach needs to link new information to familiar information
selectively in as learner.”
Meaningful learning
Meaningful learning is opposed to rote learning and refers to
a learning way where the new knowledge to acquire is related with
previous knowledge.(Ausubel 2000).
Rote learning is where you memorize something without full
understanding and you don't know how the new information relates to
your other stored knowledge. For our example, lets say we learn 5
facts in a math course during a full semester by rote learning. This
can be illustrated by the figure below. The 5 facts (labeled 1-5) are
stored in memory as separate items although in real life they are
related to each other. When the student rote learned these facts, the
brain stored them as distinct, unrelated knowledge that can only be
recalled individually (one fact
at a time). When this student
recalls one fact the other 4
facts are not recalled (or
activated) at that moment. In
other words, thinking about
fact #5 does not lead the
student to think about facts
#1-4. Contrast that to the
below discussion on recall
after meaningful learning.
When meaningful learning occurs (using our example of 5 math
facts) the facts are stored in a relational manner (see figure below).
That is, the brain stores them together because they are related to
each other. Now, when one fact is recalled, the other facts are also
recalled at that moment (or shortly thereafter). In other words,
recalling fact #5 activates the memory for facts #2 and #4, and this in
turn leads to recalling facts #1 and #3. This
phenomenon is called the spread of
activation. This is the gist of meaningful
learning. Problem-solving for this student
would be easier than for the student who
rote learned the same 5 facts. Which one of
these students would you like to hire for
your company? Some suggestions on how to
ensure meaningful learning appear below
the figure.

8. Cognitive Theories in Classroom
Teachers can apply concepts from cognitivist in the classroom
tp enhance their students understanding. The steps taken are
discussed below.
 Meaningful learning :
Teachers need to promote more effective learning, the teacher
need to link to familiar information.
Example : If teacher want to teach about rice plantation, it
trip to a place where rice are planted or show them video
showing rice plantation.
 Dual coding theory :
Guide students to process information using dual coding
theory.
Dual coding theory suggests that we remember better when
two processes are engage: visual learning and verbal
learning.
 Schema theory :
Engage students in schema theory while teaching.
This theory suggested that our prior knowledge can facilitate
or enhance transfer of learning.
Example : In teaching account, teacher may use prior
knowledge or formula they have learned earlier in
mathematics.
 Phase of learning :
Gagne (1985) translated the information-processing model
into an instructional model called phase of learning.