2. CE-102 Civil Engineering Department
Lectures: 3/week ; 21 total ; 3 credits
Evaluation : 50 marks
MTE : 40 marks
CW : 10
Tutorial, Assignments, Regularity in class
Soft copy of lectures
3. S.
No.
Name of Books/Author(s)/Publisher Year of
Publ.
1 Introduction to Environmental
Engineering, M.L. Davis and D.A.
Cornwell, McGraw Hill, New York 3/e
1998
2 Introduction to Environmental
Engineering and Science, G.M. Masters,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. 2/e
1998
3 Environmental Engineering, H.S. Peavy,
D.R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous,
McGraw Hill, New York
1986
Suggested Books
4. Why environmental studies?
Intergovernmental Penal on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988
– 31st August 2013: 25 years
– UNEP and WMO of United Nations Organization
Substantial changes are happening to our environment
Air, water and soil being affected
2007 Nobel Peace Prize: IPCC
R.K. Pachauri and Al Gore
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi
State Pollution Control Boards
Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi
5. Five elements
1. Water, जल
2. Air, वायु
3. Earth, पृथ्वी
4. Space, आकाश
5. Fire, अग्नि
6. Water
1. All the living systems need water and contain
water
2. Life on earth is due to water, 70% water cover
3. God of water, इन्द्र (Indra)
4. Ganga water, (Shelf life: long); BOD/COD
5. Water pollution
Coca cola, Pepsi-CSE, New Delhi : Lindane, DDT etc.
Effluents from industries and agrichemicals (Punjab hub of cancer
patients)
Ganga and Yamuna rivers
Ground water, lakes, sea water is contaminated, treatment strategies of
treatment already dealt with in first half of syllabus
7. Air
1. Air needed by all the living systems
2. Without air no survival
3. God of air, वायु (Vayu), Prāna
4. Pranayam : oxygen transfer rate
5. 78.08% Nitrogen and 20.95% Oxygen + other gases
6. Combustion: CO2, NOx, SOx, SPM, RSPM, Hg,
arsenic, HCs, VOCs etc.
Paper industry: Dioxins 100 times lethal than cyanide
Carbon dioxide: 400 ppm (May 2, 2013)
280 ppm (1750)
Greenhouse gases: CO2, N2O, H2O, O3, CH4, CFCs
8. Earth
1. We eat which is grown on earth
2. Photosynthesis process: biomass
3. Goddess of earth, पृथ्वी, Prithvi
4. Soil is getting contaminated
Pollution air/water
Mango trees near Roorkee: no fruits
Micronutrients in herbs: much lower
Sustainability ? Recent Uttarakhand
tragedy-प्रलय (Havoc)
9. Space
1. Solar energy
2. Photosynthesis process
3. Solar energy into biomass and other forms of
energy: hydro, coal, petroleum, wind etc.
4. God of space, आकाश, Aakash
5. O3 depletion: CFCs and space shuttles,
rockets etc. , UV radiations: human skin,
cataract, plant kingdom damages, buildings ?
10. Fire
1. Combustion
2. Carbon and Hydrogen
3. CI and SI engines, cooking, thermal power
plants: steam and gas turbines, steam engine
4. Goddess of fire, अग्नि , Agni
5. Because of fire air pollution
6. Every thing is getting into CO2 and H2O
which are converted back by photosynthesis
process to complex biomass species and the
process goes on …..goes on…..
11. Environment
1.Atmosphere: layer of air that surrounds
our planet
2.Hydrosphere: liquid envelop that
surrounds our planet
3.Lithosphere: solid earth, including earth’s
crust and part of the upper mantle
4.Biosphere: living organisms that inhabit the
above spheres
12. • Atmosphere…air to breathe
• Hydrosphere …water to drink
• Lithosphere …food to eat
• Biosphere …food to eat
Minutes
without air
Days w/o
water
Months w/o food
Environment
Resources: fossil fuels,
ores, uranium, thorium
14. Atmosphere
Age of earth : 4.6 Billion year
Oxygen : 0% 2 Billion years ago
Total mass of atmosphere: 5*1015 Tonne
:1/1,200,000 of earth
Constant components (fix over time and location)
Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.93%
Neon, Helium, Krypton 0.0001%
15. Atmosphere
Variable components (variable with time and
location)
Carbon dioxide 0.04%
Water vapor 0-4%
Methane traces
Sulfur dioxide traces
Ozone traces
Nitrogen oxides traces
Others: dust, volcanic ash, snow and rain
19. Atmosphere zones
The zones are not sharply delineated
and their elevation varies with both
time of year and latitude
20. Troposphere
1.Thickness from sea level: 18 km; Everest
8848 m
2.Pressure at top is 10% of atmosphere 76
mm of Hg
3.Air movement is vertical as well horizontal
4.Weather/clouds formation/rains
5.Air cools progressively with height
6.Temperature: -6.5 oC/km
next
21. Tropopause
1.Thin layer between troposphere and
stratosphere: 4 km
2.Air is completely dry
3.The elevation where the temperature
no longer decreases with altitude
next
22. Stratosphere
1.This extends up to 50 km and comprises
of ozone
2.Ozone is 2-8 ppm
3.In the middle and upper stratosphere,
air temperature increases progressively
with height
4.Heated by ozone
next
24. Mesosphere
1.Mesosphere is from 50 to 90 km
2.Temperature again decreases here
3.Intermediate zone between stratosphere
and thermosphere
4.Air cools progressively with elevation
25. Mesopause
The elevation above the mesosphere where
the temperature no longer cools with altitude
26. Ionosphere
1.Next is thermosphere or ionosphere
extending to 350 km
2. Oxygen is in ionic form heat is absorbed
3. Temperate rises again
27. Outer limit of atmosphere
1. Difficult to define
2. At 32,000 km, the Earth’s gravitation pull equals
centrifugal force of the Earth’s rotation
28. Ozone measurement
Developed by G.M.B. Dobson, 1920s; Professor at Oxford University
All the ozone over a certain
area is compressed to oC
and 1 atm and forms a 3 mm
thick slab corresponding to
300 DU
1 DU = 0.01 mm thickness of ozone at oC and 1 atm (STP)
US sky : 300 DU
Minimum at Antarctica : 200 DU
Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometer
Total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS)
Ozone holes: when concentration of ozone reduces more than 50%
Antarctica: 25 million km2 in 2001
30. Hydrosphere
1. 70.8% earth’s surface is covered by water
2. 60-70% of living world
3. Physiological reactions in aqueous phase
4. Total quantum of water : 1.4 B km3
5. Salty sea water : 97.6%
6. Fresh water : 2.4%
7. Renewable in nature next
8. Important food source
9. Easily polluted
10. Must be treated (already dealt in I part)
11. Major industrial and agriculture input
32. Distribution of fresh water
Location % of total
Snow, ice, glaciers 86.9
Accessible ground water 12.0
Lakes, reservoirs, ponds 0.37
Saline lakes 0.31
Soil moisture 0.19
Moisture in living organisms 0.19
Atmosphere 0.039
Wetlands 0.011
Rivers, streams, canals 0.0051
33. Freshwater as a resource in India
Renewable through evaporation from
the seas and precipitation (solar powered)
Demands for freshwater include:
Agriculture & livestock (79.6%)
Power generation (13.6%)
Domestic(3.5%)
Industry (3.3%)
Demands increase with increasing population
Unequal distribution of freshwater
Interlinking of rivers: solution of water problem
35. Lithosphere
1.Land area: 26%
2.Supports all the living systems and provides
a wealth of raw materials which has made
the civilization to develop
36. Lithosphere: India
2.4% of world’s land
15% of world’s population
Per capita land availability, ha
Russia 8.43
USA 7.39
Australia 6.60
China 0.98
India 0.48
37. Lithosphere: India
Land use categories, Mha
Cultivable land 142 (46%)
Forest land 67 (22%)
Nonagricultural land 20 (6.5%)
Barren and pasture land 55 (17.8%)
Fallow land 25 (8.0%)
Mineral exploration
Rich in coal, crude, bauxite, copper, gold,
nickel, uranium, thorium etc.
38. Lithosphere: India
Food resource
Self sufficient in agriculture produce
I in world in sugar production
I in milk production, 97 million tonnes
Live stock, 25% of world
Forest resource
21.68 % forest cover
reduction in global warming
39. What is Ecology?
Study of interactions between organisms
and their environment.
Ernst Haeckel – coined term
Ecology in 1866
Greek word οἶκος, "house"; λογία,
study of
40. Levels of Organization
Ecologists study
organisms ranging from
the various levels of
organization:
– Species/individuals
– Population
– Community
– Ecosystem
– Biome
– Biosphere
41. Species
Group of similar organisms that can breed and
produce fertile offspring
42. Population
group of organisms, all of the same species, which
interbreed and live in the same area.
43. Community
an assemblage of different populations that live
together
47. Characteristics of ecosystems
• All ecosystems have a constant source of
energy ( sun)
• Cycles to reuse raw materials
Water, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus cycles
An ecosystem comprises of the biotic or living
( viz. plants and animals)
and the abiotic or non-living components
( viz. air, water, minerals, soil)
48. Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs
Autotrophs – make
their own food so
they are called
PRODUCERS
Heterotrophs – get
their food from
another source so
they are called
CONSUMERS
49. Main forms of energy for autotrophs
Sunlight
– The main source of energy for
life on earth
– Photosynthesis: leaf a chemical
reactor
Chemical
– Inorganic compounds
– Chemosynthesis : opium,
ginseng, garlic (selenium)
50. Types of Consumers
Herbivores- only eat plants Carnivores - only eat meat Omnivores
Eat plants and meat
Detritivores and
Decomposers
Feed on plant and animal
remains
wildebeest
51. Decomposers /detritivores
Vultures vanished from India, Pakistan (DDT - cow/buffalos)
Polythene/plastics: no decomposition; banning of PB by States,
Uttarakhand, Choking of sewer lines; agriculture sector: moisture,
nitrogen fixation, Spills of crude in oceans.
52. Energy flow through an ecosystem
Energy flows through
an ecosystem in ONE
direction,
– Sun
– Autotrophs
– Heterotrophs
Synthetic fertilizers: N, P, K
55. Energy flow in ecosystems
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Respiration
Stored energy is released in the reverse reaction
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Released energy is available to drive other reactions,
e.g. cell metabolism and growth
I. C. engines/combustion processes same reaction
Difference: temperature
56. Feeding relationships
Food Chain – steps of
organisms transferring
energy by eating & being
eaten
Food Web – network
of all the food chains in
an ecosystem
62. Why are nutrients important ?
Every living organism
needs nutrients to build
tissues and carry out
essential life functions.
95% of our body is made of…
1) OXYGEN
2) CARBON
3) HYDROGEN
4) NITROGEN
63. Availability of nutrients
If a nutrient is in short supply, it will limit
organisms growth. It is called a limiting
nutrient and is in accordance of Leibig’s Law
When a limiting nutrient is dumped into a lake
or pond, an algal bloom occurs and this can
disrupt the ecosystem
64. Matter movement through an ecosystem
Unlike the one way flow of
energy, matter is recycled
within & between ecosystems
Nutrients are passed between
organisms & the environment
through biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles
– Bio –life
– Geo – Earth
– Chemi – chemical
1. WATER CYCLE
2. NUTRIENT CYCLES
a) CARBON CYCLE
b) NITROGEN CYCLE
c) PHOSPHORUS
CYCLE
69. NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen-containing nutrients in
the biosphere include:
1) Ammonia (NH3)
2) Nitrate (NO3-)
3) Nitrite (NO2-)
ORGANISMS NEED
NITROGEN TO MAKE
AMINO ACIDS FOR
BUILDING PROTEINS!!!
N2
in Atmosphere
NH3
N03- &
N02-
70. N2
in Atmosphere
NH3
N03- &
N02-
Haber process: 1918
Nobel Prize
71. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS FORMS PART OF IMPORTANT LIFE-SUSTAINING
MOLECULES (ex. DNA & RNA)
Cold drinks; pH: 3
phosphoric acid
Phosphatic
fertilizers
72. Natural succession
Well Balanced Ecosystem changes over time
Lake Shallow Lake (deposition of Silt)
Marsh Meadow Hardwood Forest
Takes place long period of time and not
visible in human lifespan
Can be affected by human activities such as
pollution
73. ACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANTS IN
ENVIRONMENT
1.Conservative Pollutants:
Pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
cynide, selenium etc.
heavy metals (mercury, copper, cadmium,
chromium, lead, nickel, zinc, tin etc. )
2. Nonconservative pollutants:
biodegradable organics, human waste,
animal waste
74. ACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANTS
Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentration
increase in concentration of a pollutant
from the environment to the first
organism in a food chain: a pesticide in a crop
Biomagnification
increase in concentration of a
pollutant from one link in a
food chain to another: a pesticide in a crop
Conditions:
long life
soluble in fats: animal life/human life
biologically active
chicken
human
75. Biomagnification
Case study: Long Island Estuary, New York, USA
Levels of DDT, 1967 study, EPA
water to zooplankton 800x
zooplankton to fish #1
31x
fish #1 to fish #2
1.7x
fish #2 to gull
4.8x
Overall
202,368x
76. Biomagnification
The level at which a given substance is
bioaccumulated depends on :
The rate of uptake
The mode of uptake (through the gills of a fish, ingested
along with food, contact with epidermis (skin) etc. …)
How quickly the substance is eliminated from the organism,
transformation of the substance by metabolic processes, the
lipid (fat) content of the organism, the hydrophobicity of the
substance, environmental factors etc.
77. Conservative pollutants:
Biomagnification
Biomagnification is the
bioaccumulation of a substance up
the food chain by transfer of
residues of the substance in
smaller organisms that are food
for larger organisms in the chain.
Sequence of processes that results
in higher concentrations in
organisms at higher levels in the
food chain (at higher trophic
levels).
These processes result in an
organism having higher
concentrations of a substance than
is present in the organism’s food.
78. Biomagnification
When partitioning concentrates a chemical in one
phase that is the food for a higher phase, the chemical
can further concentrate as we move up the food chain
79. Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
Bioconcentration of a substance is correlated to the octanol-water
partitioning coefficient (or Haunsch partitioning
Coefficient) KOW of the substance.
The octanol/water partition coefficient (KOW) is defined as
the ratio of a chemical's concentration in the octanol phase
to its concentration in the aqueous phase of a two-phase
octanol/water system.
KOW = Concentration in octanol phase / Concentration in
aqueous phase.
Values of KOW can be considered to have some meaning in
themselves, since they represent the tendency of the
chemical to partition itself between an organic phase (e.g., a
fish) and an aqueous phase.
80. Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
Chemicals with low KOW values (e.g., less than 10) may
be considered relatively hydrophilic; they tend to have
high water solubilities, small soil/sediment adsorption
coefficients, and small bioconcentration factors for
aquatic life.
Conversely, chemicals with high KOW values (e.g., greater
than 104) are very hydrophobic.
81. Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
Bioconcentration factor (BCF) is the concentration of a
particular chemical in a tissue per concentration of
chemical in water (reported as l/kg). This physical
property characterizes the accumulation of pollutants
through chemical partitioning from the aqueous phase
into an organic phase, such as fish.
BCF = [Concentration of X in Organism, mg/kg ] /
[Concentration of X in Environment, mg/l]
High potential BCF>1000; Moderate Potential
1000>BCF>250; Low potential 250>BCF.
BCF is also related to the Haunsch Partition Coefficient
by
log BCF = 0.79 x log KOW - 0.4
82. Example
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) has a water to
plankton partition coefficient of 200,000; a
plankton to smelt (fish) magnification factor of
7.5; and a smelt to lake trout magification factor
of 3.5. If the concentration of HCB in the water
is 1.0 ppt, will either fish exceed the fish
consumption standards:
5 ppm for general consumption
1 ppm for pregnant and nursing women
83. Solution
mg
kg
0.2
ng
kg
plankton
2 x 10 5 2 x 10
5
ng
1
L
L
kg
plankton
water
p/w
C
C
C
K
mg
kg
1.5
mg
7.5 7.5 0.2 smelt plankton
kg
C C
mg
kg
5.25
mg
3.5 3.5 1.5 trout smelt
kg
C C
84. Interpretation
The lake trout exceed the general
consumption standard and both species
exceed the standard for pregnant and
nursing women
Both could easily argued on the basis of
uncertainty
85. PCB
PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls): Insulating materials
in transformers: impair thyroid functions and
neurotoxins.
General Electric Released during 1947-1977 in Hudson
River, 300 km of Hudson River polluted
Concentrated in bottom sediments—Consumed by
riverbed microorganisms-eaten by fish 2 ppm conc.
Contaminated sediments are removed, extensive
dredging & proper disposed off
86. Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethne (DDT)
Half life 15 years
Year Amount Remaining
0 100 kg
15 50 kg
30 25 kg
45 12.5 kg
60 6.25 kg
75 3.13 kg
90 1.56 kg
105 0.78 kg
120 0.39 kg
87. DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethne
Used for malaria control and to protect crops from insects
Biomagnification, not very toxic to human but adverse
impact of egg hatching by birds.
Banned in 1972 and many bird population have recovered.
In India thousands of tons of DDT was used to control
malarial mosquitoes between 1995 and 1996.
Large numbers of vultures dying and have high levels of
DDT in their carcasses.
Vultures are at the same level of the food chain as humans
and serve as sentinels warning of greater pesticide hazards
through indirect effects unless there is a change in the
Indian government's pesticide policy.
88. Birds provide a valuable service to growers and to
the public through controlling insects.
In 1950 Chinese officials grew concerned that
flocks of birds were allegedly devouring large
amounts of grain.
Citizens killed over 800,000 sparrow birds. As a
consequence there were major outbreaks of insect
pests.
Realizing their mistake the leaders changed course
and removed small birds from the list of scourges.
It is difficult to know precisely how the killing of
birds by pesticides relates to pest insect
populations. However, the estimated bird losses
due to pesticides 67 million per year, far exceeds
the 800,000 bird deaths in China that resulted in
greater insect numbers.
89. OBJECTIVE: HOW CAN WE PREVENT THE DISTURBANCE OF
Environment
If gases concentration Increase
by our activities , What happens
to our Ecosystem ???
If we add large biodegradable
pollutants & Nutrients, What
happens to our Ecosystem ???
If we add heavy metals, What
happens to our Ecosystem ???
If we add large amount of
garbage, What happens to
our Ecosystem ???
If we cut lot of trees, What
happens to our Ecosystem ???
If we add DDT or other
pesticides, What happens to
food chain/food web of our
Ecosystem ???
ECOSYSTEM
OR HOW WE CAN RESTORE OUR ECOSYSTEM
