Solar PV technologies can be used for both off-grid and grid-connected applications. There are two main types of solar PV modules: crystalline silicon modules made from sliced wafers, and thin film modules made by depositing a semiconductor onto a substrate. Crystalline silicon is generally more efficient but also more expensive than thin film technologies. The performance of solar PV systems is affected by factors like module degradation over time, inverter efficiency, use of tracking systems, and weather conditions. Key metrics for evaluating solar PV plant performance include the performance ratio, capacity factor, and specific yield.
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
Net metering requirements in punjab for grid interactive rooftop SPV Power PlantHarish Sharma
All the consumers of the State Distribution licensee or PSPCL who intend to encourage solar energy and set up solar PV plants at available places on roof-tops of Individual households, industries, Government or Semi-Government or Local Body offices, commercial establishments, institutions, residential complexes shall be eligible with project capacity ranging from minimum 1 KWp upto 1MWp (AC side) with or without battery back-up support. Consumers may generate solar power for self consumption and may feed excess power into the grid to be adjusted.
Photovoltaic Training - Session 3 - Plant OperationLeonardo ENERGY
Control systems and telecommunications.
Components and infrastructure needed to control systems
Monitoring and troubleshooting
Management of information obtained by the control system
Management and alarms.
Sending information for maintenance purposes.
Security of the Installation.
Fundamental characteristics required in a surveillance system.
Protection systems against theft.
Anti‐intrusion systems.
CCTV and video surveillance.
e‐Rounds.
Remote control systems.
Security in PV roofs.
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
Net metering requirements in punjab for grid interactive rooftop SPV Power PlantHarish Sharma
All the consumers of the State Distribution licensee or PSPCL who intend to encourage solar energy and set up solar PV plants at available places on roof-tops of Individual households, industries, Government or Semi-Government or Local Body offices, commercial establishments, institutions, residential complexes shall be eligible with project capacity ranging from minimum 1 KWp upto 1MWp (AC side) with or without battery back-up support. Consumers may generate solar power for self consumption and may feed excess power into the grid to be adjusted.
Photovoltaic Training - Session 3 - Plant OperationLeonardo ENERGY
Control systems and telecommunications.
Components and infrastructure needed to control systems
Monitoring and troubleshooting
Management of information obtained by the control system
Management and alarms.
Sending information for maintenance purposes.
Security of the Installation.
Fundamental characteristics required in a surveillance system.
Protection systems against theft.
Anti‐intrusion systems.
CCTV and video surveillance.
e‐Rounds.
Remote control systems.
Security in PV roofs.
PV System Basics
Introduction to relevant Codes and Standards
Permit and Field Inspector Guidelines for PV Systems
Summary of Changes in 2005/2008 National Electrical Code
Power Adapter Design for 400 V DC Power Distribution in Electronic SystemsVicor Corporation
This white paper describes the design of power adaptors for systems that distribute power using 400 V DC. The paper particularly considers telecom and data center equipment.
Solar Energy has emerges as an unlimited reliable source of energy to fulfill this massive demand of electricity. With the growing business needs, operators are making huge investment to setup various KW/MW Solar Plants. Installations of PV system on rooftops or lawn are very regularly exposed to lightning and indirect surges which can reduce the desired life expectancy.
Source(s): http://www.jmv.co.in/earthing/solar-earth-kit.html
A Delay of a single day for a 10 MW plant can lead to a loss of Rs. 6.5 Lacs ($110,000) in addition to Statutory Losses. Here, we explore typical project execution timelines and possible reasons for delay. The presentation talks about Lead Times of Equipment, Key vendors, Permits Required, Construction & Engineering related delays and finally, gives recommendations on how to keep project on track.
Chrisestom Ochieng, KIS , Uganda
The East Africa Masterclass at Terrat focused on the village level experience of off-grid energy. We have invited local leaders and rural energy providers from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania.
We were keen for village headmen and headwomen to share their village experiences of energy provision and to tell us about the outcomes and impacts of productive energy use in relation to standards of living, education, heath and employment in the village.
The workshop heard from the off grid energy providers about their achievements and challenges in bringing off-grid energy to villages and how they have worked with village leaders and the village community.
Josh Long: Minimum Cyber Security Requirements for a 20 MW Photo Voltaic Field EnergyTech2015
EnergyTech2015.com Track 4 Session 3 RESILIENT APPLICATIONS Moderator: Mike Delamare
Josh Long: Minimum Cyber Security Requirements for a 20 MW Photo Voltaic Field
Brian Patterson: The role of Direct Current micro-grids and data centers for efficiency and resilience
Irv Badr: Managing Risk Factors in Critical Infrastructure
Open Compute has had a revolutionary impact on data center design ,offering many simplicity and cost saving benefits. To become more mainstream, we believe critical questions need to be answered about the implications of OCP on the upstream power infrastructure. Can data centers still achieve Tier 3 redundancy? How do I support traditional and OCP loads in the same data center? This presentation will address these and other questions, and propose a series of simplified architectures to support OCP. We will discuss redundancy, availability, and flexibility implications, as well as present a cost analysis. Schneider Electric embraces the spirit of OCP by openly sharing this analysis and making these simplified reference designs freely available
SOLAR SOLUTIONS A STEP TOWARDS A GREENER FUTUREurjarathi
VEMC offers end-to-end solutions including choosing the right kind of setup, like rooftops, ground-mounted solutions, and solar tracking to choosing the right kind of financial model likes the Capex or Opex models.
SolarEdge Technologies provides next generation power conversion electronics that effectively remove the known system constraints across the photovoltaic energy space. Our Smart DC ASIC technology and active electronics enable cost efficiency and an increased production of clean, grid-ready energy. SolarEdge presents a unique, patent-pending distributed solar power harvesting system, comprised of the following elements:
SolarEdge Power Optimizer
The SolarEdge power optimizer is integrated into each module, replacing the traditional solar junction box. The SolarEdge power optimizers maximize energy throughput from each and every module through constant tracking of the Maximum Power Point individually, per module. Furthermore, the power optimizers monitor the performance of each module and communicate performance data to the SolarEdge monitoring portal for enhanced, cost-effective maintenance. When working with SolarEdge inverters, power optimizers automatically maintain a fixed string voltage, allowing optimal efficiency of the SolarEdge inverter and giving installers greater flexibility to design optimal PV systems.
The independent optimization (IndOP™) technology allows power optimizers to be installed without the need for additional interface hardware and to operate directly with any inverter.
Each power optimizer is equipped with the unique SafeDC™ feature which automatically shuts down modules' voltage whenever inverter or grid power are shut down.
SolarEdge PV Inverter
The SolarEdge Inverter is a highly reliable DC-AC PV inverter. Because MPPT and voltage management are handled separately for each module by the power optimizer, the inverter is only responsible for DC to AC inversion. Consequently, it is a less complicated, more reliable solar inverter. The fixed string voltage ensures operation at the highest efficiency at all times (>97% weighted efficiency) independent of string length and temperature.
SolarEdge PV Monitoring Portal
A web-based application provides module-level, string-level and system-wide monitoring. The solar monitoring software automatically provides alerts for accurate fault detection, localization and remote troubleshooting at the module level. Module performance is communicated across existing power lines, so no extra wiring is required.
Tues.1040 am states role in protecting electric grids from emp and gmd with a...EnergyTech2015
EnergyTech2015.com Track 4 Session 2 SHAPING POLICY ON CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION AND RECOVERY Moderator: Mike DeLamare Panelists will briefly present current policy efforts, or the effects of policy on providers. This will be followed by Q&A from the audience. Panelists: Andrea Boland: Discuss current and pending Legislation for the State of Maine as compared to other States: /Maine John Ostrich: Speaking on the Space Weather Policy and Action Plan Patrick Shaw: Addressing the business continuity and the emergency management consequences of long-term power outages Kevin Goodman: Policy effects on Power and Data Centers Chuck Manto: Policy as a catalyst for technical innovations
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
PV System Basics
Introduction to relevant Codes and Standards
Permit and Field Inspector Guidelines for PV Systems
Summary of Changes in 2005/2008 National Electrical Code
Power Adapter Design for 400 V DC Power Distribution in Electronic SystemsVicor Corporation
This white paper describes the design of power adaptors for systems that distribute power using 400 V DC. The paper particularly considers telecom and data center equipment.
Solar Energy has emerges as an unlimited reliable source of energy to fulfill this massive demand of electricity. With the growing business needs, operators are making huge investment to setup various KW/MW Solar Plants. Installations of PV system on rooftops or lawn are very regularly exposed to lightning and indirect surges which can reduce the desired life expectancy.
Source(s): http://www.jmv.co.in/earthing/solar-earth-kit.html
A Delay of a single day for a 10 MW plant can lead to a loss of Rs. 6.5 Lacs ($110,000) in addition to Statutory Losses. Here, we explore typical project execution timelines and possible reasons for delay. The presentation talks about Lead Times of Equipment, Key vendors, Permits Required, Construction & Engineering related delays and finally, gives recommendations on how to keep project on track.
Chrisestom Ochieng, KIS , Uganda
The East Africa Masterclass at Terrat focused on the village level experience of off-grid energy. We have invited local leaders and rural energy providers from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania.
We were keen for village headmen and headwomen to share their village experiences of energy provision and to tell us about the outcomes and impacts of productive energy use in relation to standards of living, education, heath and employment in the village.
The workshop heard from the off grid energy providers about their achievements and challenges in bringing off-grid energy to villages and how they have worked with village leaders and the village community.
Josh Long: Minimum Cyber Security Requirements for a 20 MW Photo Voltaic Field EnergyTech2015
EnergyTech2015.com Track 4 Session 3 RESILIENT APPLICATIONS Moderator: Mike Delamare
Josh Long: Minimum Cyber Security Requirements for a 20 MW Photo Voltaic Field
Brian Patterson: The role of Direct Current micro-grids and data centers for efficiency and resilience
Irv Badr: Managing Risk Factors in Critical Infrastructure
Open Compute has had a revolutionary impact on data center design ,offering many simplicity and cost saving benefits. To become more mainstream, we believe critical questions need to be answered about the implications of OCP on the upstream power infrastructure. Can data centers still achieve Tier 3 redundancy? How do I support traditional and OCP loads in the same data center? This presentation will address these and other questions, and propose a series of simplified architectures to support OCP. We will discuss redundancy, availability, and flexibility implications, as well as present a cost analysis. Schneider Electric embraces the spirit of OCP by openly sharing this analysis and making these simplified reference designs freely available
SOLAR SOLUTIONS A STEP TOWARDS A GREENER FUTUREurjarathi
VEMC offers end-to-end solutions including choosing the right kind of setup, like rooftops, ground-mounted solutions, and solar tracking to choosing the right kind of financial model likes the Capex or Opex models.
SolarEdge Technologies provides next generation power conversion electronics that effectively remove the known system constraints across the photovoltaic energy space. Our Smart DC ASIC technology and active electronics enable cost efficiency and an increased production of clean, grid-ready energy. SolarEdge presents a unique, patent-pending distributed solar power harvesting system, comprised of the following elements:
SolarEdge Power Optimizer
The SolarEdge power optimizer is integrated into each module, replacing the traditional solar junction box. The SolarEdge power optimizers maximize energy throughput from each and every module through constant tracking of the Maximum Power Point individually, per module. Furthermore, the power optimizers monitor the performance of each module and communicate performance data to the SolarEdge monitoring portal for enhanced, cost-effective maintenance. When working with SolarEdge inverters, power optimizers automatically maintain a fixed string voltage, allowing optimal efficiency of the SolarEdge inverter and giving installers greater flexibility to design optimal PV systems.
The independent optimization (IndOP™) technology allows power optimizers to be installed without the need for additional interface hardware and to operate directly with any inverter.
Each power optimizer is equipped with the unique SafeDC™ feature which automatically shuts down modules' voltage whenever inverter or grid power are shut down.
SolarEdge PV Inverter
The SolarEdge Inverter is a highly reliable DC-AC PV inverter. Because MPPT and voltage management are handled separately for each module by the power optimizer, the inverter is only responsible for DC to AC inversion. Consequently, it is a less complicated, more reliable solar inverter. The fixed string voltage ensures operation at the highest efficiency at all times (>97% weighted efficiency) independent of string length and temperature.
SolarEdge PV Monitoring Portal
A web-based application provides module-level, string-level and system-wide monitoring. The solar monitoring software automatically provides alerts for accurate fault detection, localization and remote troubleshooting at the module level. Module performance is communicated across existing power lines, so no extra wiring is required.
Tues.1040 am states role in protecting electric grids from emp and gmd with a...EnergyTech2015
EnergyTech2015.com Track 4 Session 2 SHAPING POLICY ON CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION AND RECOVERY Moderator: Mike DeLamare Panelists will briefly present current policy efforts, or the effects of policy on providers. This will be followed by Q&A from the audience. Panelists: Andrea Boland: Discuss current and pending Legislation for the State of Maine as compared to other States: /Maine John Ostrich: Speaking on the Space Weather Policy and Action Plan Patrick Shaw: Addressing the business continuity and the emergency management consequences of long-term power outages Kevin Goodman: Policy effects on Power and Data Centers Chuck Manto: Policy as a catalyst for technical innovations
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
FirstGreen Consulting is a company working in the area of renewable energy, energy efficiency and climate change
The team has extensive experience in handling the Renewable, and energy efficiency projects
FirstGreen is providing energy sector consultancy in the sustainable energy, with expertise ranging from carbon advisory to technical consulting, to project implementation and project management.
A detailed project execution schedule including major and minor milestones for a 10 MW Plant. The EPC has been spread over 4 months. In case of larger or smaller power plants, the activities would remain same while the timeline would change
Project Proposal on 10 MW Solar PV Power PlantVignesh Sekar
By installing and successfully operating 10 MW photovoltaic (PV) power plants will deliver electricity for consumption by the owners, the relevant peoples in the project assessment place will be made aware of the technical and economic potential of solar power generation. Furthermore, the power required from the public grid will be reduced, and overall expenditure on electric power will be lowered & our project aims to create the necessary awareness among the population, and especially among policy-makers and large investors, Youngsters.....
At Ornate Solar, we believe that with every solar panel and inverter that we sell, we help India move one step closer to a sustainable future.
SolarEdge is an intelligent inverter solution that is revolutionising the way power is harvested and managed in a solar photovoltaic system.
PVSyst is a standard tool for determining the generation from a solar plant, however there is little standardisation over the losses to be assumed.
Based on Gensol's experience, every loss has been analysed & through this document we are indicating on the loss percentage to be assumed.
CIGS Solar Cells: How and Why is their Cost Falling?Jeffrey Funk
My master's students use concepts from my (Jeff Funk) forthcoming book (Technology Change and the Rise of New Industries) to analyze the economic feasibility of CIGS (Cadmium Indium Gallium Selenide) Solar Cells. Improvements in efficiencies and reductions in cost per area (through new processes and increasing the substrate size) are causing steady reductions in the cost of electricity from them. See my other slides for details on concepts, methodology, and other new industries..
Search and Society: Reimagining Information Access for Radical FuturesBhaskar Mitra
The field of Information retrieval (IR) is currently undergoing a transformative shift, at least partly due to the emerging applications of generative AI to information access. In this talk, we will deliberate on the sociotechnical implications of generative AI for information access. We will argue that there is both a critical necessity and an exciting opportunity for the IR community to re-center our research agendas on societal needs while dismantling the artificial separation between the work on fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics in IR and the rest of IR research. Instead of adopting a reactionary strategy of trying to mitigate potential social harms from emerging technologies, the community should aim to proactively set the research agenda for the kinds of systems we should build inspired by diverse explicitly stated sociotechnical imaginaries. The sociotechnical imaginaries that underpin the design and development of information access technologies needs to be explicitly articulated, and we need to develop theories of change in context of these diverse perspectives. Our guiding future imaginaries must be informed by other academic fields, such as democratic theory and critical theory, and should be co-developed with social science scholars, legal scholars, civil rights and social justice activists, and artists, among others.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
With each of the past 3 Ruby releases, YJIT has delivered higher and higher performance. However, we are seeing diminishing returns, because as JIT-compiled code becomes faster, it makes up less and less of the total execution time, which is now becoming dominated by C function calls. As such, it may appear like there is a fundamental limit to Ruby’s performance.
In the first half of the 20th century, some early airplane designers thought that the speed of sound was a fundamental limit on the speed reachable by airplanes, thus coining the term “sound barrier”. This limit was eventually overcome, as it became understood that airflow behaves differently at supersonic speeds.
In order to break the Ruby performance barrier, it will be necessary to reduce the dependency on C extensions, and start writing more gems in pure Ruby code. In this talk, I want to look at this problem more in depth, and explore how YJIT can help enable writing pure-Ruby software that delivers high performance levels.
Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
"Impact of front-end architecture on development cost", Viktor TurskyiFwdays
I have heard many times that architecture is not important for the front-end. Also, many times I have seen how developers implement features on the front-end just following the standard rules for a framework and think that this is enough to successfully launch the project, and then the project fails. How to prevent this and what approach to choose? I have launched dozens of complex projects and during the talk we will analyze which approaches have worked for me and which have not.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
2. Overview of a Solar PV Power Plant
AF-Mercados EMI 2 FirstGreen
3. Applications of Solar PV
Off-grid domestic – Providing electricity to households and
villages that are not connected to the utility electricity network (the
“grid”).
Off-grid non-domestic – Providing electricity for a wide range of
applications such as telecommunication, water pumping and
navigational aids.
Grid-connected distributed PV – Providing electricity to a specific
grid-connected customer.
Grid-connected centralised PV – Providing centralised power
generation for the supply of bulk power into the grid.
AF-Mercados EMI 3 FirstGreen
4. PV Materials
Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) – Thin Film – Modules are
Modules are made from made with a thin film
Cells of either mono-crystalline Deposition of a semiconductor
or multi-crystalline silicon. onto a substrate. This class
Mono-crystalline silicon cells includes semiconductors made
are generally the most from:
efficient, but are also more Amorphous silicon (a-Si).
costly than multi-crystalline. Cadmium telluride (CdTe).
Copper indium selenide (CIS).
Copper indium (gallium) di-
selenide (CIGS).
AF-Mercados EMI 4 FirstGreen
6. Crystalline Silicon PV Modules
Mono-crystalline wafers are sliced from a large single
crystal ingot in a relatively expensive process.
Cheaper, multi-crystalline wafers may be made by a variety
of techniques.
One of the technologies involves the carefully controlled
casting of molten poly-silicon, which is then sliced into
wafers.
AF-Mercados EMI 6 FirstGreen
7. Thin Film PV Modules
Crystalline wafers provide high efficiency solar cells but are
relatively costly to manufacture. In comparison, thin film
cells are typically cheaper due to both the materials used
and the simpler manufacturing process.
The most well-developed thin film technology uses silicon
in its less ordered, non-crystalline (amorphous) form.
Other technologies use cadmium telluride and copper
indium (gallium) di-selenide with active layers less than a
few microns thick. In general, thin film technologies have a
less established track record than many crystalline
technologies.
AF-Mercados EMI 7 FirstGreen
8. Module Degradation
Amorphous silicon cells degrade through a process called the Staebler-
Wronski Effect.
This degradation can cause reductions of 10-30% in the power output of
the module in the first six months of exposure to light. Thereafter, the
degradation stabilises and continues at a much slower rate.
The performance of the modules may tend to recover during the summer
months, and drop again in the colder winter months.
Additional degradation for both amorphous and crystalline technologies
occurs at the module level and may be caused by:
Effect of the environment on the surface of the module (for example pollution).
Discolouration or haze of the encapsulant or glass.
Lamination defects.
Mechanical stress and humidity on the contacts.
Cell contact breakdown.
Wiring degradation.
AF-Mercados EMI 8 FirstGreen
11. Fixed and Tracking structures
Depending on the site and
precise characteristics of the
solar irradiation, trackers may
increase the annual energy yield
by up to 27% for single-axis and
37% for dual-axis trackers.
Almost all tracking system plants
use crystalline silicon modules.
This is because their higher
efficiency reduces additional
capital and operating costs
required for the tracking system
(per kWp installed).
AF-Mercados EMI 11 FirstGreen
12. Tracking systems
High wind capability and storm
mode: dual-axis tracking
systems especially need to go
into a storm mode when the
wind speed is over 16-20 m/s.
This could reduce the energy
yield and revenues at high wind
speed sites.
Direct/diffuse irradiation ratio:
tracking systems will give
greater benefits in locations that
have a higher direct irradiation
component.
AF-Mercados EMI 12 FirstGreen
14. Inverter systems
Central inverters offer high reliability
and simplicity of installation. However,
they have disadvantages: increased
mismatch losses and absence of
maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
for each string.
This may cause problems for arrays
that have multiple tilt and orientation
angles, suffer from shading, or use
different module types.
Central inverters are usually three-
phase and can include grid frequency
transformers.
Central inverters are sometimes used in
a “master slave” configuration.
AF-Mercados EMI 14 FirstGreen
15. Inverter systems
String inverters, which are usually
in single phase
In comparison, the failure of a large
central inverter—with a long lead
time for repair—can lead to
significant yield loss before it can
be replaced.
AF-Mercados EMI 15 FirstGreen
16. Inverters
In the case of transformerless string inverters, the PV generator voltage
must either be significantly higher than the voltage on the AC side, or DC-
DC step-up converters must be used.
The absence of a transformer leads to higher efficiency, reduced weight,
reduced size (50-75% lighter than transformer-based models and lower cost
due to the smaller number of components.
On the downside, additional protective equipment must be used, such as
DC sensitive earth-leakage circuit breakers (CB)
Inverters with transformers provide galvanic isolation. Central inverters are
generally equipped with transformers.
In general, one of the quantities used to describe the quality of a grid-
connected inverter is total harmonic distortion (THD).
It is a measure of the harmonic content of the inverter output and must be
limited in most grid codes.
AF-Mercados EMI 16 FirstGreen
17. Inverter efficiency
Inverters can have a typical European
Efficiency of 95% and peak efficiencies of up
to 98%. Most inverters employ MPPT
algorithms to adjust the load impedance and
maximise the power from the PV array. The
highest efficiencies are reached by
transformerless inverters.
AF-Mercados EMI 17 FirstGreen
19. Performance Ratio
The performance ratio of a photovoltaic
system is the quotient of alternating
current (AC) yield and the nominal yield of
the generator’s direct current (DC).
It indicates which portion of the
generated current can actually be used. A
photovoltaic system with a high Efficiency
can achieve a performance ratio over 70
%.
The performance ratio is also often called
the Quality Factor (Q). A Solar Module
based on crystalline cells can even reach
a quality factor of 0.85 to 0.95
(performance ratio = 85 - 95 %).
AF-Mercados EMI 19 FirstGreen
20. Capacity Factor
The capacity factor of a PV power plant (usually expressed as a
percentage) is the ratio of the actual output over a period of one year and
its output if it had operated at nominal power the entire year.
CF=(Energy generated per annum (kWh))/(8760 (hours /
annum)×Installed Capacity (kWp))
AF-Mercados EMI 20 FirstGreen
21. Specific Yield
The “specific yield” (kWh/kWp) is the
total annual energy generated per
kWp installed.
It is often used to help determine the
financial value of an array and
compare operating results from
different technologies and systems.
The specific yield of a plant depends on:
The total annual irradiation falling on
the collector plane.
The performance of the module,
including sensitivity to high
temperatures and low light levels.
System losses including inverter
downtime.
AF-Mercados EMI 21 FirstGreen