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Fluids, ElectrolytesFluids, Electrolytes
and Acidand Acid--Base BalanceBase Balance
Todd A. Nickloes, DO, FACOSTodd A. Nickloes, DO, FACOS
Assistant Professor of SurgeryAssistant Professor of Surgery
Department of SurgeryDepartment of Surgery
Division of Trauma/Critical CareDivision of Trauma/Critical Care
University of Tennessee Medical CenterUniversity of Tennessee Medical Center -- KnoxvilleKnoxville
ObjectivesObjectives
Define normal ranges of electrolytesDefine normal ranges of electrolytes
Compare/contrast intracellular,Compare/contrast intracellular, extracellularextracellular,,
and intravascular volumesand intravascular volumes
Outline methods of determining fluid andOutline methods of determining fluid and
acid/base balanceacid/base balance
Describe the clinical manifestations of variousDescribe the clinical manifestations of various
electrolyte imbalances.electrolyte imbalances.
Normal Plasma Ranges ofNormal Plasma Ranges of
ElectrolytesElectrolytes
CationsCations
SodiumSodium
PotassiumPotassium
CalciumCalcium
MagnesiumMagnesium
AnionsAnions
ChlorideChloride
BicarbonateBicarbonate
PhosphatePhosphate
SulfateSulfate
Organic Acids (Lactate)Organic Acids (Lactate)
Total Protein
ConcentrationConcentration
135135--145145 mEqmEq/L/L
3.53.5--5.05.0 mEqmEq/L/L
8.08.0--10.510.5 mEqmEq/L/L
1.51.5--2.52.5 mEqmEq/L/L
9595--105105 mEqmEq/L/L
2424--3030 mEqmEq/L/L
2.52.5--4.54.5 mEqmEq/L/L
1.01.0 mEqmEq/L/L
2.02.0 mEqmEq/L/L
6.06.0--8.48.4 mEqmEq/L/LTotal Protein
Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes
Sodium (NaSodium (Na++
))
Range 135Range 135 -- 145145 mEqmEq/L in serum/L in serum
Total body volume estimated at 40Total body volume estimated at 40 mEqmEq/kg/kg
1/3 fixed to bone, 2/31/3 fixed to bone, 2/3 extracellularextracellular and available forand available for
transtrans--membrane exchangemembrane exchange
Normal daily requirement 1Normal daily requirement 1--22 mEqmEq/kg/day/kg/day
ChiefChief extracellularextracellular cationcation
Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes
Potassium (KPotassium (K++
))
Range 3.5Range 3.5 -- 5.05.0 mEqmEq/L in serum/L in serum
Total body volume estimated at 50Total body volume estimated at 50 mEqmEq/kg/kg
98% intracellular98% intracellular
concentration of 150concentration of 150 mEqmEq/L/L
extracellularextracellular concentration of 70concentration of 70 mEqmEq/L/L
Normal daily requirement 0.5Normal daily requirement 0.5 –– 0.80.8 mEqmEq/kg/day/kg/day
Chief intracellularChief intracellular cationcation
Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes
Intracellular vIntracellular v ExtracellularExtracellular
Electrolyte composition is differentElectrolyte composition is different
IntracellularIntracellular -- KK++
, Mg, Mg++
, PO, PO44
--
, SO, SO44
--
, and proteins, and proteins
ExtracellularExtracellular -- NaNa++
, Ca, Ca++
, Mg, Mg++
,, ClCl--
, HCO, HCO33
--
and lactateand lactate
Compositions of ions are maintainedCompositions of ions are maintained
selective permeability of cell membranesselective permeability of cell membranes
active ion pumpsactive ion pumps
Movement of water is passiveMovement of water is passive
colloid osmotic gradients intravascular v interstitial spacescolloid osmotic gradients intravascular v interstitial spaces
((extracellularlyextracellularly))
osmolarosmolar gradientsgradients intracellularlyintracellularly vv extracellularlyextracellularly
Fluid BalanceFluid Balance
Calculation ofCalculation of OsmolarityOsmolarity
OsmOsm = 2 x [= 2 x [NaNass] + [] + [gluglu / 18] + [BUN / 2.8]/ 18] + [BUN / 2.8]
NormalNormal osmolarityosmolarity is 280is 280--300300 mOsmmOsm/L/L
NaNa++
resorptionresorption and excretion are the drivingand excretion are the driving
forces forforces for osmolarityosmolarity
Calculating TBW deficitCalculating TBW deficit
TBWD males = [(140TBWD males = [(140 –– SNaSNa++) x 0.6 x IBW (kg)]/ 140) x 0.6 x IBW (kg)]/ 140
TBWD females = [(140TBWD females = [(140 –– SNaSNa++) x 0.5 x IBW (kg)]/ 140) x 0.5 x IBW (kg)]/ 140
Fluid BalanceFluid Balance
HereHere’’s a tricks a trick
For every 3.5For every 3.5 mEqmEq the Nathe Na++ is over 140, there is anis over 140, there is an
estimated free water deficit of 1 L.estimated free water deficit of 1 L.
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
Total body waterTotal body water
60% IBW of males60% IBW of males
5050--55% IBW of females55% IBW of females
directly related to muscledirectly related to muscle
mass (70% water)mass (70% water)
inversely related to fatinversely related to fat
content (10% water)content (10% water)
This is why witches floatThis is why witches float
CompartmentsCompartments
IntracellularIntracellular
ExtracellularExtracellular
InterstitialInterstitial
10
Body Fluid CompartmentsBody Fluid Compartments
2/3 (65%) of TBW is intracellular (ICF)2/3 (65%) of TBW is intracellular (ICF)
1/31/3 extracellularextracellular waterwater
25 % interstitial fluid (ISF)25 % interstitial fluid (ISF)
55-- 8 % in plasma (IVF intravascular fluid)8 % in plasma (IVF intravascular fluid)
11-- 2 % in2 % in transcellulartranscellular fluidsfluids –– CSF, intraocularCSF, intraocular
fluids, serous membranes, and in GI, respiratoryfluids, serous membranes, and in GI, respiratory
and urinary tracts (third space)and urinary tracts (third space)
11
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
8%
25%
67%
Intravascular
water
Interstitial water
Intracellular
water
13
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
Two main compartmentsTwo main compartments
IntracellularIntracellular
2/3 of TBW2/3 of TBW
40% body weight40% body weight
ExtracellularExtracellular
Intravascular andIntravascular and
Interstitial compartmentsInterstitial compartments
1/3 of TBW1/3 of TBW
20% body weight20% body weight
8%
25%
67%
Intravascular
water
Interstitial water
Intracellular
water
15
Fluid compartments are separated byFluid compartments are separated by
membranes that are freely permeable to water.membranes that are freely permeable to water.
Movement of fluids due to:Movement of fluids due to:
hydrostatic pressurehydrostatic pressure
osmotic pressureosmotic pressure
Capillary filtration (hydrostatic) pressureCapillary filtration (hydrostatic) pressure
Capillary colloid osmotic pressureCapillary colloid osmotic pressure
Interstitial hydrostatic pressureInterstitial hydrostatic pressure
Tissue colloid osmotic pressureTissue colloid osmotic pressure
16
17
Cell in a
hypertonic
solution
18
19
Cell in a
hypotonic
solution
20
BalanceBalance
Fluid and electrolyte homeostasis is maintainedFluid and electrolyte homeostasis is maintained
in the bodyin the body
Neutral balance: input = outputNeutral balance: input = output
Positive balance: input > outputPositive balance: input > output
Negative balance: input < outputNegative balance: input < output
21
SolutesSolutes –– dissolved particlesdissolved particles
ElectrolytesElectrolytes –– charged particlescharged particles
CationsCations –– positively charged ionspositively charged ions
NaNa++
, K, K++
, Ca, Ca++++
, H, H++
AnionsAnions –– negatively charged ionsnegatively charged ions
ClCl--
, HCO, HCO33
--
, PO, PO44
33--
NonNon--electrolyteselectrolytes -- UnchargedUncharged
Proteins, urea, glucose, OProteins, urea, glucose, O22, CO, CO22
22
Body fluids are:Body fluids are:
Electrically neutralElectrically neutral
OsmoticallyOsmotically maintainedmaintained
Specific number of particles per volume ofSpecific number of particles per volume of
fluidfluid
23
Homeostasis maintained by:Homeostasis maintained by:
Ion transportIon transport
Water movementWater movement
Kidney functionKidney function
24
Basic Definitions
MW (Molecular Weight) = sum of the weights of
atoms in a molecule
mEq (milliequivalents) = MW (in mg)/ valence
mOsm (milliosmoles) = number of particles in a
solution
25
Movement of body fluids
“ Where sodium goes, water follows.”
Diffusion – movement of particles down a
concentration gradient.
Osmosis – diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
Active transport – movement of particles up
a concentration gradient ; requires energy
26
27
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
NaNa++
resorptionresorption secondary tosecondary to aldosteronealdosterone
Occurs in distal convoluted tubulesOccurs in distal convoluted tubules
Active exchange for KActive exchange for K++ and Hand H++ ionsions
MaintainsMaintains extracellularextracellular volume andvolume and osmolarityosmolarity
WaterWater resorptionresorption secondary tosecondary to antidiureticantidiuretic
hormonehormone
Occurs in collecting ductsOccurs in collecting ducts
Modulated by intracranialModulated by intracranial osmoreceptorsosmoreceptors andand atrialatrial
stretch receptorsstretch receptors
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
NaNa++
modulationmodulation
JG apparatus secretes reninRenal perfusion decreasesRenal perfusion decreases
Renin cleaves angiotensinogen
to angiotensin IRenin secretion ceases
Angiotensin I converted to
II by ACE
Renal perfusion increases
Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone
secretion from adrenal cortexExtracellular volume
expansion as water
follows Na+
Aldosterone increases Na+
resorption in exchange for K+ in
DCT
30
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
Na+ modulationNa+ modulation
Result:
increased water consumption
increased water conservation
Increased water in body
increased volume and
decreased Na+ concentration
31
Dysfunction and/or Trauma
Leads to:
Decreased amount of water in body
Increased amount of Na+ in the body
Increased blood osmolality
Decreased circulating blood volume
32
Regulation of body waterRegulation of body water
ADHADH –– antidiureticantidiuretic hormone + thirsthormone + thirst
Decreased amount of water in bodyDecreased amount of water in body
Increased amount of Na+ in the bodyIncreased amount of Na+ in the body
Increased bloodIncreased blood osmolalityosmolality
Decreased circulating blood volumeDecreased circulating blood volume
StimulateStimulate osmoreceptorsosmoreceptors in hypothalamusin hypothalamus
ADH released from posterior pituitaryADH released from posterior pituitary
Increased thirstIncreased thirst
33
Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology
Free HFree H22O modulationO modulation
Intracranial osmoreceptors detect
increased plasma osmolarity
Adenohypophysis (posterior
pituitary) secretes ADHPlasma osmolarity increases
Renal collecting ducts become
more permeable to water
Renal collecting ducts become
less permeable to water
Adenohypophysis ceases ADH
secretion
Plasma osmolarity decreases
Intracranial osmoreceptors
detect decreased osmolarity
Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance
The management of Hydrogen ionsThe management of Hydrogen ions
measured as pHmeasured as pH
maintained at 7.4 +/maintained at 7.4 +/-- 0.050.05
Three mechanisms (differing effective intervals)Three mechanisms (differing effective intervals)
buffering systems in plasmabuffering systems in plasma
ventilatoryventilatory changes for COchanges for CO22 excretionexcretion
Renal tubular excretion of Hydrogen ionsRenal tubular excretion of Hydrogen ions
Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance
HendersonHenderson--HasselbalchHasselbalch
RememberRemember
HH22O + COO + CO22 = H= H22COCO33 = HCO= HCO33
-- + H+ H++
pH = 6.1 + log[HCOpH = 6.1 + log[HCO33
--]/0.03 x PaCO]/0.03 x PaCO22
oror
[H[H++] = 24 x PaCO] = 24 x PaCO22/ [HCO/ [HCO33
--]]
Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance
ExtracellularExtracellular RegulationRegulation
Pulmonary regulation of PaCOPulmonary regulation of PaCO22 and renal tubularand renal tubular
regulation of HCOregulation of HCO33
-- are important determinants ofare important determinants of
extracellularextracellular pH.pH.
Basically, the pH is determined by the ratio ofBasically, the pH is determined by the ratio of
[HCO[HCO33
--/H/H22COCO33]]
Normally 20:1 (7.40)Normally 20:1 (7.40)
As one increases, the other increases to reAs one increases, the other increases to re--establishestablish
the 20:1 ratiothe 20:1 ratio
Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance
Intracellular RegulationIntracellular Regulation
Intracellular bufferingIntracellular buffering
Excessive COExcessive CO22 retention or excretionretention or excretion
50% of fixed acid loads (lactate)50% of fixed acid loads (lactate)
95% of hydrogen ion changes95% of hydrogen ion changes
Reciprocal KReciprocal K++ ion exchangeion exchange
AlkalosisAlkalosis
HH++ movesmoves extracellularlyextracellularly
KK++ movesmoves intracellularlyintracellularly
AcidosisAcidosis
HH++ movesmoves intracellularlyintracellularly
KK++ movesmoves extracellularlyextracellularly
This can have significant clinical effect, especially regardingThis can have significant clinical effect, especially regarding
myocardial functionmyocardial function
Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the
Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period
MaintenanceMaintenance
ResuscitationResuscitation
Replacement of LossesReplacement of Losses
Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the
Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period
MaintenanceMaintenance
Normal daily outputsNormal daily outputs
Urine = 12Urine = 12--15 cc/kg15 cc/kg
Stool = 3 cc/kgStool = 3 cc/kg
Sweat = 1.5 cc/kgSweat = 1.5 cc/kg
Respiratory and Skin insensible losses = 10 cc/kgRespiratory and Skin insensible losses = 10 cc/kg
Increased by 8%/degree F for feverIncreased by 8%/degree F for fever
Normal daily endogenous inputNormal daily endogenous input
Oxidation of carbohydrates and fat = 3 cc/kgOxidation of carbohydrates and fat = 3 cc/kg
StandardStandard nomogramsnomograms estimate daily requirementsestimate daily requirements
41
42
Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the
Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period
Third Space Fluid LossesThird Space Fluid Losses
Fluids sequestered intoFluids sequestered into extracellularextracellular andand intersitialintersitial spacesspaces
PeritonitisPeritonitis
Intestinal obstructionIntestinal obstruction
Soft tissue inflammation/edemaSoft tissue inflammation/edema
Traumatic lossesTraumatic losses
Evidence of diminished volumeEvidence of diminished volume
HemodynamicHemodynamic changeschanges
TachycardiaTachycardia
Narrowed pulse pressuresNarrowed pulse pressures
HypotensionHypotension
Edema
The accumulation of fluid within the interstitial
spaces.
Leads to:
increased hydrostatic pressure
lowered plasma osmotic pressure
increased capillary membrane permeability
lymphatic channel obstruction
44
Hydrostatic pressure increases
Venous obstruction:
thrombophlebitis (inflammation of veins)
hepatic obstruction
tight clothing on extremities
prolonged standing
Salt or water retention
congestive heart failure
renal failure
45
Decreased plasma osmotic
pressure
↓ plasma albumin (liver disease or
protein malnutrition)
plasma proteins lost in :
glomerular diseases of kidney
hemorrhage, burns, open wounds
and cirrhosis of liver
46
Increased capillary permeability:
Inflammation
immune responses
Lymphatic channels blocked:
surgical removal
infection involving lymphatics
lymphedema
47
Electrolyte imbalances: SodiumElectrolyte imbalances: Sodium
HypernatremiaHypernatremia (high levels of sodium)(high levels of sodium)
Plasma Na+ > 145Plasma Na+ > 145 mEqmEq / L/ L
Due toDue to ↑↑ Na + orNa + or ↓↓ waterwater
Water moves from ICFWater moves from ICF →→ ECFECF
Cells dehydrateCells dehydrate
48
49
HypernatremiaHypernatremia
CausesCauses
Hypertonic IVHypertonic IV solnsoln..
OversecretionOversecretion ofof aldosteronealdosterone
Loss of pure waterLoss of pure water
Long term sweating with chronic feverLong term sweating with chronic fever
Respiratory infectionRespiratory infection →→ water vapor losswater vapor loss
DiabetesDiabetes –– polyuriapolyuria
Insufficient intake of water (Insufficient intake of water (hypodipsiahypodipsia))
50
Clinical manifestationsClinical manifestations
ofof HypernatremiaHypernatremia
ThirstThirst
LethargyLethargy
Neurological dysfunction due to dehydration ofNeurological dysfunction due to dehydration of
brain cellsbrain cells
Decreased vascular volumeDecreased vascular volume
51
Treatment ofTreatment of HypernatremiaHypernatremia
Lower serum Na+Lower serum Na+
Isotonic saltIsotonic salt--free IV fluidfree IV fluid
Oral solutions preferableOral solutions preferable
52
HyponatremiaHyponatremia
Overall decrease in Na+ in ECFOverall decrease in Na+ in ECF
Two types:Two types: depletionaldepletional andand dilutionaldilutional
DepletionalDepletional HyponatremiaHyponatremia
Na+ loss:Na+ loss:
diuretics, chronic vomitingdiuretics, chronic vomiting
Chronic diarrheaChronic diarrhea
DecreasedDecreased aldosteronealdosterone
Decreased Na+ intakeDecreased Na+ intake
53
DilutionalDilutional HyponatremiaHyponatremia::
Renal dysfunction withRenal dysfunction with ↑↑ intake of hypotonic fluidsintake of hypotonic fluids
Excessive sweatingExcessive sweating→→ increased thirstincreased thirst →→ intake ofintake of
excessive amounts of pure waterexcessive amounts of pure water
Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) orSyndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) or
oliguricoliguric renal failure, severe congestive heart failure,renal failure, severe congestive heart failure,
cirrhosis all lead to:cirrhosis all lead to:
Impaired renal excretion of waterImpaired renal excretion of water
HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia –– attracts waterattracts water
54
Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of
HyponatremiaHyponatremia
Neurological symptomsNeurological symptoms
Lethargy, headache, confusion, apprehension, depressedLethargy, headache, confusion, apprehension, depressed
reflexes, seizures and comareflexes, seizures and coma
Muscle symptomsMuscle symptoms
Cramps, weakness, fatigueCramps, weakness, fatigue
Gastrointestinal symptomsGastrointestinal symptoms
Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrheaNausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea
TxTx –– limit water intake or discontinue medslimit water intake or discontinue meds
55
HypokalemiaHypokalemia
Serum KSerum K++
< 3.5< 3.5 mEqmEq /L/L
Beware if diabeticBeware if diabetic
Insulin gets KInsulin gets K++
into cellinto cell
KetoacidosisKetoacidosis –– HH++
replaces Kreplaces K++
, which is lost, which is lost
in urinein urine
ββ –– adrenergic drugs or epinephrineadrenergic drugs or epinephrine
56
Causes ofCauses of HypokalemiaHypokalemia
Decreased intake of KDecreased intake of K++
Increased KIncreased K++
lossloss
Chronic diureticsChronic diuretics
Acid/base imbalanceAcid/base imbalance
Trauma and stressTrauma and stress
IncreasedIncreased aldosteronealdosterone
Redistribution between ICF and ECFRedistribution between ICF and ECF
57
Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of
HypokalemiaHypokalemia
Neuromuscular disordersNeuromuscular disorders
Weakness, flaccid paralysis, respiratory arrest,Weakness, flaccid paralysis, respiratory arrest,
constipationconstipation
DysrhythmiasDysrhythmias, appearance of U wave, appearance of U wave
Postural hypotensionPostural hypotension
Cardiac arrestCardiac arrest
OthersOthers –– table 6table 6--55
TreatmentTreatment--
Increase KIncrease K++ intake, butintake, but slowlyslowly, preferably by foods, preferably by foods
58
HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia
Serum K+ > 5.5Serum K+ > 5.5 mEqmEq / L/ L
Check for renal diseaseCheck for renal disease
Massive cellular traumaMassive cellular trauma
Insulin deficiencyInsulin deficiency
AddisonAddison’’s diseases disease
Potassium sparing diureticsPotassium sparing diuretics
Decreased blood pHDecreased blood pH
Exercise causes K+ to move out of cellsExercise causes K+ to move out of cells
59
Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of
HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia
EarlyEarly –– hyperactive muscles ,hyperactive muscles , paresthesiaparesthesia
LateLate -- Muscle weakness, flaccid paralysisMuscle weakness, flaccid paralysis
Change in ECG patternChange in ECG pattern
DysrhythmiasDysrhythmias
BradycardiaBradycardia , heart block, cardiac arrest, heart block, cardiac arrest
60
Treatment ofTreatment of HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia
If time, decrease intake and increase renalIf time, decrease intake and increase renal
excretionexcretion
Insulin + glucoseInsulin + glucose
BicarbonateBicarbonate
CaCa++++
counters effect on heartcounters effect on heart
61
Calcium ImbalancesCalcium Imbalances
Most in ECFMost in ECF
Regulated by:Regulated by:
Parathyroid hormoneParathyroid hormone
↑↑Blood CaBlood Ca++++
by stimulatingby stimulating osteoclastsosteoclasts
↑↑GI absorption and renal retentionGI absorption and renal retention
CalcitoninCalcitonin from the thyroid glandfrom the thyroid gland
Promotes bone formationPromotes bone formation
↑↑ renal excretionrenal excretion
62
HypercalcemiaHypercalcemia
Results from:Results from:
HyperparathyroidismHyperparathyroidism
Hypothyroid statesHypothyroid states
Renal diseaseRenal disease
Excessive intake of vitamin DExcessive intake of vitamin D
MilkMilk--alkali syndromealkali syndrome
Certain drugsCertain drugs
Malignant tumorsMalignant tumors –– hypercalcemiahypercalcemia of malignancyof malignancy
Tumor products promote bone breakdownTumor products promote bone breakdown
Tumor growth in bone causing CaTumor growth in bone causing Ca++++ releaserelease
63
HypercalcemiaHypercalcemia
64
Usually also seeUsually also see hypophosphatemiahypophosphatemia
Effects:Effects:
Many nonspecificMany nonspecific –– fatigue, weakness, lethargyfatigue, weakness, lethargy
Increases formation of kidney stones and pancreaticIncreases formation of kidney stones and pancreatic
stonesstones
Muscle crampsMuscle cramps
BradycardiaBradycardia, cardiac arrest, cardiac arrest
PainPain
GI activity also commonGI activity also common
Nausea, abdominal crampsNausea, abdominal cramps
Diarrhea / constipationDiarrhea / constipation
MetastaticMetastatic calcificationcalcification
HypocalcemiaHypocalcemia
Hyperactive neuromuscular reflexes andHyperactive neuromuscular reflexes and tetanytetany
differentiate it fromdifferentiate it from hypercalcemiahypercalcemia
Convulsions in severe casesConvulsions in severe cases
Caused by:Caused by:
Renal failureRenal failure
Lack of vitamin DLack of vitamin D
Suppression of parathyroid functionSuppression of parathyroid function
HypersecretionHypersecretion ofof calcitonincalcitonin
MalabsorptionMalabsorption statesstates
Abnormal intestinal acidity and acid/ base bal.Abnormal intestinal acidity and acid/ base bal.
Widespread infection or peritoneal inflammationWidespread infection or peritoneal inflammation 65
HypocalcemiaHypocalcemia
Diagnosis:Diagnosis:
ChvostekChvostek’’ss signsign
TrousseauTrousseau’’s signs sign
TreatmentTreatment
IV calcium for acuteIV calcium for acute
Oral calcium and vitamin D for chronicOral calcium and vitamin D for chronic
66
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Fluids electrolytesandacid basebalance

  • 1. Fluids, ElectrolytesFluids, Electrolytes and Acidand Acid--Base BalanceBase Balance Todd A. Nickloes, DO, FACOSTodd A. Nickloes, DO, FACOS Assistant Professor of SurgeryAssistant Professor of Surgery Department of SurgeryDepartment of Surgery Division of Trauma/Critical CareDivision of Trauma/Critical Care University of Tennessee Medical CenterUniversity of Tennessee Medical Center -- KnoxvilleKnoxville
  • 2. ObjectivesObjectives Define normal ranges of electrolytesDefine normal ranges of electrolytes Compare/contrast intracellular,Compare/contrast intracellular, extracellularextracellular,, and intravascular volumesand intravascular volumes Outline methods of determining fluid andOutline methods of determining fluid and acid/base balanceacid/base balance Describe the clinical manifestations of variousDescribe the clinical manifestations of various electrolyte imbalances.electrolyte imbalances.
  • 3. Normal Plasma Ranges ofNormal Plasma Ranges of ElectrolytesElectrolytes CationsCations SodiumSodium PotassiumPotassium CalciumCalcium MagnesiumMagnesium AnionsAnions ChlorideChloride BicarbonateBicarbonate PhosphatePhosphate SulfateSulfate Organic Acids (Lactate)Organic Acids (Lactate) Total Protein ConcentrationConcentration 135135--145145 mEqmEq/L/L 3.53.5--5.05.0 mEqmEq/L/L 8.08.0--10.510.5 mEqmEq/L/L 1.51.5--2.52.5 mEqmEq/L/L 9595--105105 mEqmEq/L/L 2424--3030 mEqmEq/L/L 2.52.5--4.54.5 mEqmEq/L/L 1.01.0 mEqmEq/L/L 2.02.0 mEqmEq/L/L 6.06.0--8.48.4 mEqmEq/L/LTotal Protein
  • 4. Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes Sodium (NaSodium (Na++ )) Range 135Range 135 -- 145145 mEqmEq/L in serum/L in serum Total body volume estimated at 40Total body volume estimated at 40 mEqmEq/kg/kg 1/3 fixed to bone, 2/31/3 fixed to bone, 2/3 extracellularextracellular and available forand available for transtrans--membrane exchangemembrane exchange Normal daily requirement 1Normal daily requirement 1--22 mEqmEq/kg/day/kg/day ChiefChief extracellularextracellular cationcation
  • 5. Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes Potassium (KPotassium (K++ )) Range 3.5Range 3.5 -- 5.05.0 mEqmEq/L in serum/L in serum Total body volume estimated at 50Total body volume estimated at 50 mEqmEq/kg/kg 98% intracellular98% intracellular concentration of 150concentration of 150 mEqmEq/L/L extracellularextracellular concentration of 70concentration of 70 mEqmEq/L/L Normal daily requirement 0.5Normal daily requirement 0.5 –– 0.80.8 mEqmEq/kg/day/kg/day Chief intracellularChief intracellular cationcation
  • 6. Normal Ranges of ElectrolytesNormal Ranges of Electrolytes Intracellular vIntracellular v ExtracellularExtracellular Electrolyte composition is differentElectrolyte composition is different IntracellularIntracellular -- KK++ , Mg, Mg++ , PO, PO44 -- , SO, SO44 -- , and proteins, and proteins ExtracellularExtracellular -- NaNa++ , Ca, Ca++ , Mg, Mg++ ,, ClCl-- , HCO, HCO33 -- and lactateand lactate Compositions of ions are maintainedCompositions of ions are maintained selective permeability of cell membranesselective permeability of cell membranes active ion pumpsactive ion pumps Movement of water is passiveMovement of water is passive colloid osmotic gradients intravascular v interstitial spacescolloid osmotic gradients intravascular v interstitial spaces ((extracellularlyextracellularly)) osmolarosmolar gradientsgradients intracellularlyintracellularly vv extracellularlyextracellularly
  • 7. Fluid BalanceFluid Balance Calculation ofCalculation of OsmolarityOsmolarity OsmOsm = 2 x [= 2 x [NaNass] + [] + [gluglu / 18] + [BUN / 2.8]/ 18] + [BUN / 2.8] NormalNormal osmolarityosmolarity is 280is 280--300300 mOsmmOsm/L/L NaNa++ resorptionresorption and excretion are the drivingand excretion are the driving forces forforces for osmolarityosmolarity Calculating TBW deficitCalculating TBW deficit TBWD males = [(140TBWD males = [(140 –– SNaSNa++) x 0.6 x IBW (kg)]/ 140) x 0.6 x IBW (kg)]/ 140 TBWD females = [(140TBWD females = [(140 –– SNaSNa++) x 0.5 x IBW (kg)]/ 140) x 0.5 x IBW (kg)]/ 140
  • 8. Fluid BalanceFluid Balance HereHere’’s a tricks a trick For every 3.5For every 3.5 mEqmEq the Nathe Na++ is over 140, there is anis over 140, there is an estimated free water deficit of 1 L.estimated free water deficit of 1 L.
  • 9. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology Total body waterTotal body water 60% IBW of males60% IBW of males 5050--55% IBW of females55% IBW of females directly related to muscledirectly related to muscle mass (70% water)mass (70% water) inversely related to fatinversely related to fat content (10% water)content (10% water) This is why witches floatThis is why witches float CompartmentsCompartments IntracellularIntracellular ExtracellularExtracellular InterstitialInterstitial
  • 10. 10
  • 11. Body Fluid CompartmentsBody Fluid Compartments 2/3 (65%) of TBW is intracellular (ICF)2/3 (65%) of TBW is intracellular (ICF) 1/31/3 extracellularextracellular waterwater 25 % interstitial fluid (ISF)25 % interstitial fluid (ISF) 55-- 8 % in plasma (IVF intravascular fluid)8 % in plasma (IVF intravascular fluid) 11-- 2 % in2 % in transcellulartranscellular fluidsfluids –– CSF, intraocularCSF, intraocular fluids, serous membranes, and in GI, respiratoryfluids, serous membranes, and in GI, respiratory and urinary tracts (third space)and urinary tracts (third space) 11
  • 13. 13
  • 14. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology Two main compartmentsTwo main compartments IntracellularIntracellular 2/3 of TBW2/3 of TBW 40% body weight40% body weight ExtracellularExtracellular Intravascular andIntravascular and Interstitial compartmentsInterstitial compartments 1/3 of TBW1/3 of TBW 20% body weight20% body weight 8% 25% 67% Intravascular water Interstitial water Intracellular water
  • 15. 15
  • 16. Fluid compartments are separated byFluid compartments are separated by membranes that are freely permeable to water.membranes that are freely permeable to water. Movement of fluids due to:Movement of fluids due to: hydrostatic pressurehydrostatic pressure osmotic pressureosmotic pressure Capillary filtration (hydrostatic) pressureCapillary filtration (hydrostatic) pressure Capillary colloid osmotic pressureCapillary colloid osmotic pressure Interstitial hydrostatic pressureInterstitial hydrostatic pressure Tissue colloid osmotic pressureTissue colloid osmotic pressure 16
  • 17. 17
  • 20. 20
  • 21. BalanceBalance Fluid and electrolyte homeostasis is maintainedFluid and electrolyte homeostasis is maintained in the bodyin the body Neutral balance: input = outputNeutral balance: input = output Positive balance: input > outputPositive balance: input > output Negative balance: input < outputNegative balance: input < output 21
  • 22. SolutesSolutes –– dissolved particlesdissolved particles ElectrolytesElectrolytes –– charged particlescharged particles CationsCations –– positively charged ionspositively charged ions NaNa++ , K, K++ , Ca, Ca++++ , H, H++ AnionsAnions –– negatively charged ionsnegatively charged ions ClCl-- , HCO, HCO33 -- , PO, PO44 33-- NonNon--electrolyteselectrolytes -- UnchargedUncharged Proteins, urea, glucose, OProteins, urea, glucose, O22, CO, CO22 22
  • 23. Body fluids are:Body fluids are: Electrically neutralElectrically neutral OsmoticallyOsmotically maintainedmaintained Specific number of particles per volume ofSpecific number of particles per volume of fluidfluid 23
  • 24. Homeostasis maintained by:Homeostasis maintained by: Ion transportIon transport Water movementWater movement Kidney functionKidney function 24
  • 25. Basic Definitions MW (Molecular Weight) = sum of the weights of atoms in a molecule mEq (milliequivalents) = MW (in mg)/ valence mOsm (milliosmoles) = number of particles in a solution 25
  • 26. Movement of body fluids “ Where sodium goes, water follows.” Diffusion – movement of particles down a concentration gradient. Osmosis – diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane Active transport – movement of particles up a concentration gradient ; requires energy 26
  • 27. 27
  • 28. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology NaNa++ resorptionresorption secondary tosecondary to aldosteronealdosterone Occurs in distal convoluted tubulesOccurs in distal convoluted tubules Active exchange for KActive exchange for K++ and Hand H++ ionsions MaintainsMaintains extracellularextracellular volume andvolume and osmolarityosmolarity WaterWater resorptionresorption secondary tosecondary to antidiureticantidiuretic hormonehormone Occurs in collecting ductsOccurs in collecting ducts Modulated by intracranialModulated by intracranial osmoreceptorsosmoreceptors andand atrialatrial stretch receptorsstretch receptors
  • 29. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology NaNa++ modulationmodulation JG apparatus secretes reninRenal perfusion decreasesRenal perfusion decreases Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to angiotensin IRenin secretion ceases Angiotensin I converted to II by ACE Renal perfusion increases Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortexExtracellular volume expansion as water follows Na+ Aldosterone increases Na+ resorption in exchange for K+ in DCT
  • 30. 30
  • 31. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology Na+ modulationNa+ modulation Result: increased water consumption increased water conservation Increased water in body increased volume and decreased Na+ concentration 31
  • 32. Dysfunction and/or Trauma Leads to: Decreased amount of water in body Increased amount of Na+ in the body Increased blood osmolality Decreased circulating blood volume 32
  • 33. Regulation of body waterRegulation of body water ADHADH –– antidiureticantidiuretic hormone + thirsthormone + thirst Decreased amount of water in bodyDecreased amount of water in body Increased amount of Na+ in the bodyIncreased amount of Na+ in the body Increased bloodIncreased blood osmolalityosmolality Decreased circulating blood volumeDecreased circulating blood volume StimulateStimulate osmoreceptorsosmoreceptors in hypothalamusin hypothalamus ADH released from posterior pituitaryADH released from posterior pituitary Increased thirstIncreased thirst 33
  • 34. Normal PhysiologyNormal Physiology Free HFree H22O modulationO modulation Intracranial osmoreceptors detect increased plasma osmolarity Adenohypophysis (posterior pituitary) secretes ADHPlasma osmolarity increases Renal collecting ducts become more permeable to water Renal collecting ducts become less permeable to water Adenohypophysis ceases ADH secretion Plasma osmolarity decreases Intracranial osmoreceptors detect decreased osmolarity
  • 35. Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance The management of Hydrogen ionsThe management of Hydrogen ions measured as pHmeasured as pH maintained at 7.4 +/maintained at 7.4 +/-- 0.050.05 Three mechanisms (differing effective intervals)Three mechanisms (differing effective intervals) buffering systems in plasmabuffering systems in plasma ventilatoryventilatory changes for COchanges for CO22 excretionexcretion Renal tubular excretion of Hydrogen ionsRenal tubular excretion of Hydrogen ions
  • 36. Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance HendersonHenderson--HasselbalchHasselbalch RememberRemember HH22O + COO + CO22 = H= H22COCO33 = HCO= HCO33 -- + H+ H++ pH = 6.1 + log[HCOpH = 6.1 + log[HCO33 --]/0.03 x PaCO]/0.03 x PaCO22 oror [H[H++] = 24 x PaCO] = 24 x PaCO22/ [HCO/ [HCO33 --]]
  • 37. Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance ExtracellularExtracellular RegulationRegulation Pulmonary regulation of PaCOPulmonary regulation of PaCO22 and renal tubularand renal tubular regulation of HCOregulation of HCO33 -- are important determinants ofare important determinants of extracellularextracellular pH.pH. Basically, the pH is determined by the ratio ofBasically, the pH is determined by the ratio of [HCO[HCO33 --/H/H22COCO33]] Normally 20:1 (7.40)Normally 20:1 (7.40) As one increases, the other increases to reAs one increases, the other increases to re--establishestablish the 20:1 ratiothe 20:1 ratio
  • 38. Acid/Base BalanceAcid/Base Balance Intracellular RegulationIntracellular Regulation Intracellular bufferingIntracellular buffering Excessive COExcessive CO22 retention or excretionretention or excretion 50% of fixed acid loads (lactate)50% of fixed acid loads (lactate) 95% of hydrogen ion changes95% of hydrogen ion changes Reciprocal KReciprocal K++ ion exchangeion exchange AlkalosisAlkalosis HH++ movesmoves extracellularlyextracellularly KK++ movesmoves intracellularlyintracellularly AcidosisAcidosis HH++ movesmoves intracellularlyintracellularly KK++ movesmoves extracellularlyextracellularly This can have significant clinical effect, especially regardingThis can have significant clinical effect, especially regarding myocardial functionmyocardial function
  • 39. Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period MaintenanceMaintenance ResuscitationResuscitation Replacement of LossesReplacement of Losses
  • 40. Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period MaintenanceMaintenance Normal daily outputsNormal daily outputs Urine = 12Urine = 12--15 cc/kg15 cc/kg Stool = 3 cc/kgStool = 3 cc/kg Sweat = 1.5 cc/kgSweat = 1.5 cc/kg Respiratory and Skin insensible losses = 10 cc/kgRespiratory and Skin insensible losses = 10 cc/kg Increased by 8%/degree F for feverIncreased by 8%/degree F for fever Normal daily endogenous inputNormal daily endogenous input Oxidation of carbohydrates and fat = 3 cc/kgOxidation of carbohydrates and fat = 3 cc/kg StandardStandard nomogramsnomograms estimate daily requirementsestimate daily requirements
  • 41. 41
  • 42. 42
  • 43. Fluids andFluids and ElectolytesElectolytes in thein the Postoperative PeriodPostoperative Period Third Space Fluid LossesThird Space Fluid Losses Fluids sequestered intoFluids sequestered into extracellularextracellular andand intersitialintersitial spacesspaces PeritonitisPeritonitis Intestinal obstructionIntestinal obstruction Soft tissue inflammation/edemaSoft tissue inflammation/edema Traumatic lossesTraumatic losses Evidence of diminished volumeEvidence of diminished volume HemodynamicHemodynamic changeschanges TachycardiaTachycardia Narrowed pulse pressuresNarrowed pulse pressures HypotensionHypotension
  • 44. Edema The accumulation of fluid within the interstitial spaces. Leads to: increased hydrostatic pressure lowered plasma osmotic pressure increased capillary membrane permeability lymphatic channel obstruction 44
  • 45. Hydrostatic pressure increases Venous obstruction: thrombophlebitis (inflammation of veins) hepatic obstruction tight clothing on extremities prolonged standing Salt or water retention congestive heart failure renal failure 45
  • 46. Decreased plasma osmotic pressure ↓ plasma albumin (liver disease or protein malnutrition) plasma proteins lost in : glomerular diseases of kidney hemorrhage, burns, open wounds and cirrhosis of liver 46
  • 47. Increased capillary permeability: Inflammation immune responses Lymphatic channels blocked: surgical removal infection involving lymphatics lymphedema 47
  • 48. Electrolyte imbalances: SodiumElectrolyte imbalances: Sodium HypernatremiaHypernatremia (high levels of sodium)(high levels of sodium) Plasma Na+ > 145Plasma Na+ > 145 mEqmEq / L/ L Due toDue to ↑↑ Na + orNa + or ↓↓ waterwater Water moves from ICFWater moves from ICF →→ ECFECF Cells dehydrateCells dehydrate 48
  • 49. 49
  • 50. HypernatremiaHypernatremia CausesCauses Hypertonic IVHypertonic IV solnsoln.. OversecretionOversecretion ofof aldosteronealdosterone Loss of pure waterLoss of pure water Long term sweating with chronic feverLong term sweating with chronic fever Respiratory infectionRespiratory infection →→ water vapor losswater vapor loss DiabetesDiabetes –– polyuriapolyuria Insufficient intake of water (Insufficient intake of water (hypodipsiahypodipsia)) 50
  • 51. Clinical manifestationsClinical manifestations ofof HypernatremiaHypernatremia ThirstThirst LethargyLethargy Neurological dysfunction due to dehydration ofNeurological dysfunction due to dehydration of brain cellsbrain cells Decreased vascular volumeDecreased vascular volume 51
  • 52. Treatment ofTreatment of HypernatremiaHypernatremia Lower serum Na+Lower serum Na+ Isotonic saltIsotonic salt--free IV fluidfree IV fluid Oral solutions preferableOral solutions preferable 52
  • 53. HyponatremiaHyponatremia Overall decrease in Na+ in ECFOverall decrease in Na+ in ECF Two types:Two types: depletionaldepletional andand dilutionaldilutional DepletionalDepletional HyponatremiaHyponatremia Na+ loss:Na+ loss: diuretics, chronic vomitingdiuretics, chronic vomiting Chronic diarrheaChronic diarrhea DecreasedDecreased aldosteronealdosterone Decreased Na+ intakeDecreased Na+ intake 53
  • 54. DilutionalDilutional HyponatremiaHyponatremia:: Renal dysfunction withRenal dysfunction with ↑↑ intake of hypotonic fluidsintake of hypotonic fluids Excessive sweatingExcessive sweating→→ increased thirstincreased thirst →→ intake ofintake of excessive amounts of pure waterexcessive amounts of pure water Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) orSyndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) or oliguricoliguric renal failure, severe congestive heart failure,renal failure, severe congestive heart failure, cirrhosis all lead to:cirrhosis all lead to: Impaired renal excretion of waterImpaired renal excretion of water HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia –– attracts waterattracts water 54
  • 55. Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of HyponatremiaHyponatremia Neurological symptomsNeurological symptoms Lethargy, headache, confusion, apprehension, depressedLethargy, headache, confusion, apprehension, depressed reflexes, seizures and comareflexes, seizures and coma Muscle symptomsMuscle symptoms Cramps, weakness, fatigueCramps, weakness, fatigue Gastrointestinal symptomsGastrointestinal symptoms Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrheaNausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea TxTx –– limit water intake or discontinue medslimit water intake or discontinue meds 55
  • 56. HypokalemiaHypokalemia Serum KSerum K++ < 3.5< 3.5 mEqmEq /L/L Beware if diabeticBeware if diabetic Insulin gets KInsulin gets K++ into cellinto cell KetoacidosisKetoacidosis –– HH++ replaces Kreplaces K++ , which is lost, which is lost in urinein urine ββ –– adrenergic drugs or epinephrineadrenergic drugs or epinephrine 56
  • 57. Causes ofCauses of HypokalemiaHypokalemia Decreased intake of KDecreased intake of K++ Increased KIncreased K++ lossloss Chronic diureticsChronic diuretics Acid/base imbalanceAcid/base imbalance Trauma and stressTrauma and stress IncreasedIncreased aldosteronealdosterone Redistribution between ICF and ECFRedistribution between ICF and ECF 57
  • 58. Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of HypokalemiaHypokalemia Neuromuscular disordersNeuromuscular disorders Weakness, flaccid paralysis, respiratory arrest,Weakness, flaccid paralysis, respiratory arrest, constipationconstipation DysrhythmiasDysrhythmias, appearance of U wave, appearance of U wave Postural hypotensionPostural hypotension Cardiac arrestCardiac arrest OthersOthers –– table 6table 6--55 TreatmentTreatment-- Increase KIncrease K++ intake, butintake, but slowlyslowly, preferably by foods, preferably by foods 58
  • 59. HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia Serum K+ > 5.5Serum K+ > 5.5 mEqmEq / L/ L Check for renal diseaseCheck for renal disease Massive cellular traumaMassive cellular trauma Insulin deficiencyInsulin deficiency AddisonAddison’’s diseases disease Potassium sparing diureticsPotassium sparing diuretics Decreased blood pHDecreased blood pH Exercise causes K+ to move out of cellsExercise causes K+ to move out of cells 59
  • 60. Clinical manifestations ofClinical manifestations of HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia EarlyEarly –– hyperactive muscles ,hyperactive muscles , paresthesiaparesthesia LateLate -- Muscle weakness, flaccid paralysisMuscle weakness, flaccid paralysis Change in ECG patternChange in ECG pattern DysrhythmiasDysrhythmias BradycardiaBradycardia , heart block, cardiac arrest, heart block, cardiac arrest 60
  • 61. Treatment ofTreatment of HyperkalemiaHyperkalemia If time, decrease intake and increase renalIf time, decrease intake and increase renal excretionexcretion Insulin + glucoseInsulin + glucose BicarbonateBicarbonate CaCa++++ counters effect on heartcounters effect on heart 61
  • 62. Calcium ImbalancesCalcium Imbalances Most in ECFMost in ECF Regulated by:Regulated by: Parathyroid hormoneParathyroid hormone ↑↑Blood CaBlood Ca++++ by stimulatingby stimulating osteoclastsosteoclasts ↑↑GI absorption and renal retentionGI absorption and renal retention CalcitoninCalcitonin from the thyroid glandfrom the thyroid gland Promotes bone formationPromotes bone formation ↑↑ renal excretionrenal excretion 62
  • 63. HypercalcemiaHypercalcemia Results from:Results from: HyperparathyroidismHyperparathyroidism Hypothyroid statesHypothyroid states Renal diseaseRenal disease Excessive intake of vitamin DExcessive intake of vitamin D MilkMilk--alkali syndromealkali syndrome Certain drugsCertain drugs Malignant tumorsMalignant tumors –– hypercalcemiahypercalcemia of malignancyof malignancy Tumor products promote bone breakdownTumor products promote bone breakdown Tumor growth in bone causing CaTumor growth in bone causing Ca++++ releaserelease 63
  • 64. HypercalcemiaHypercalcemia 64 Usually also seeUsually also see hypophosphatemiahypophosphatemia Effects:Effects: Many nonspecificMany nonspecific –– fatigue, weakness, lethargyfatigue, weakness, lethargy Increases formation of kidney stones and pancreaticIncreases formation of kidney stones and pancreatic stonesstones Muscle crampsMuscle cramps BradycardiaBradycardia, cardiac arrest, cardiac arrest PainPain GI activity also commonGI activity also common Nausea, abdominal crampsNausea, abdominal cramps Diarrhea / constipationDiarrhea / constipation MetastaticMetastatic calcificationcalcification
  • 65. HypocalcemiaHypocalcemia Hyperactive neuromuscular reflexes andHyperactive neuromuscular reflexes and tetanytetany differentiate it fromdifferentiate it from hypercalcemiahypercalcemia Convulsions in severe casesConvulsions in severe cases Caused by:Caused by: Renal failureRenal failure Lack of vitamin DLack of vitamin D Suppression of parathyroid functionSuppression of parathyroid function HypersecretionHypersecretion ofof calcitonincalcitonin MalabsorptionMalabsorption statesstates Abnormal intestinal acidity and acid/ base bal.Abnormal intestinal acidity and acid/ base bal. Widespread infection or peritoneal inflammationWidespread infection or peritoneal inflammation 65
  • 66. HypocalcemiaHypocalcemia Diagnosis:Diagnosis: ChvostekChvostek’’ss signsign TrousseauTrousseau’’s signs sign TreatmentTreatment IV calcium for acuteIV calcium for acute Oral calcium and vitamin D for chronicOral calcium and vitamin D for chronic 66
  • 67. ??