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The main types of prosthesis, craniofacial and somato (body), can be divided further by
anatomical region. Craniofacial prostheses include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses. Extra-oral
prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular (ear), nasal, orbital and ocular. Intra-oral
prostheses include dental prostheses such as dentures, obturators, and dental implants. Somato
prostheses include breast and limb prostheses. Breast prostheses include full breast devices. Limb
Prostheses include upper extremity and lower extremity prostheses. Upper extremity prostheses are
used at varying levels of amputation: shoulder disarticulation, trans-hmeral, elbow disarticulation,
transradial, wrist disarticulation, full hand, partial hand, finger, partial finger. Lower extremity
prostheses are also used at varying levels of amputation. These include hip disarticulation,
transfemoral, knee disarticulation, transtibial, symes, foot, partial foot, and toe. The type of
prostheses needed will be designed and assembled according to the patient's appearance and
functional needs. For instance, a patient may need a transradial prosthesis, but need to choose
between an aesthetic functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an activity
specific device. Depending on the patient's funding situation, she may have the option to choose
more than one device.
A transhumeral prosthesis is an fake limb that replaces an arm missing above the elbow.
Transhumeral amputees experience some of the same problems as transfemoral amputees, due to
the similar complexities associated with the movement of the elbow. This makes imitating the correct
motion with an artificial limb very difficult.
A transradial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces an arm missing below the elbow. Two
main types of prosthetics are available. Cable operated limbs work by attaching a harness and cable
around the opposite shoulder of the damaged arm. The other form of prosthetics available are
myoelectric arms. These work by sensing, via electrodes, when the muscles in the upper arm moves,
causing an artificial hand to open or close.
A transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing above the knee.
Transfemoral amputees can have a very difficult time regaining normal movement. In general, a
transfemoral amputee must use approximately 80% more energy to walk than a person with two
whole legs. This is due to the complexities in movement associated with the knee. In newer and
more improved designs, carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors, computer microprocessors, and
innovative combinations of these technologies are employed to give more control to the user. A
transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below the knee. Transtibial
amputees are usually able to regain normal movement more readily than someone with a
transfemoral amputation, due in large part to retaining the knee, which allows for easier movement.
Lower extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower.
The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are
1.

Trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting
in a tibial deficiency)

2.

Trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly
resulting in a femoral deficiency).

High costs
Transradial and transtibial prostheses typically cost between US $6,000 and $8,000.
Transfemoral and transhumeral prosthetics cost approximately twice as much with a range of
$10,000 to $15,000 and can sometimes reach costs of $35,000. The cost of an artificial limb
does recur because artificial limbs are usually replaced every 3–4 years due to wear and tear. In
addition, if the socket has fit issues, the socket must be replaced within several months.
Low costs
Low cost above knee prostheses often provide only basic structural support with limited function.
This function is often achieved with crude, non-articulating, unstable, or manually locking knee
joints. A limited number of organizations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC), create devices for developing countries. Their device which is manufactured by CR
Equipments is a single-axis, manually operated locking polymer prosthetic knee joint.
Few low-cost solutions have been created specially for children.
Passive prostheses are generally considered to be devices that are worn purely for cosmetic
purposes. Functional prostheses, on the other hand, are devices that enable an amputee to perform
tasks. These devices may or may not also serve a cosmetic purpose.
Functional prostheses are either bodypowered or electric-powered. Body-powered devices are
operated using cable and harness systems that require the patient to use body movements (moving
the shoulders or the arm, for example) to pull the cable and make the terminal device (a hand, hook
or prehensor) open or close much in the way a bicycle handbrake system works.
Mechanical body-powered terminal devices are voluntary-opening or voluntary-closing.
Voluntary-opening means that users must open the terminal device by applying force through their
cable system. The terminal device then closes on its own with the aid of rubber bands, which limit
the grip strength of the device to the strength of the rubber bands. With a voluntary closing
terminal device, force must be applied to close it instead of to open it, making the grip strength
dependent not on the strength of rubber bands but on the strength of the person using it.
Voluntary-opening devices that are closed with the aid of rubber bands offer only visual
feedback to the user for control since the bands do the work of closing once an object is grasped,
thus taking the body out of the feedback loop.
Because they close by the user's own strength, voluntary-closing devices provide a tension
feedback to the body similar to that "felt” when using bicycle handbrakes. Since users can "feel” the
force they are applying, they can also control their grip incrementally, applying more or less force
as needed.
Electric -powered terminal devices open and close by battery power.
Body-Powered or Electric-Powered Prosthesis?
When choosing between a body-powered or electric-powered prosthesis, you should carefully
consider the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Typical Advantages of Body-Powered Devices
-

Lower Initial Cost

-

Lighter

-

Easier to repair

-

Offer better tension feedback to the body

Typical Disadvantages of Body-Powered Devices
-

Mechanical appearance

-

Difficult to use for some people because they depend on the user’s physical ability

Typical Advantages of Electric Devices
-

Do not require a harness or cable and can, therefore, be built to look more like a real arm

-

Battery-powered so body strength and body movement are not as important for their
operation

-

Provide a strong grip force

Typical Disadvantages of Electric Devices
-

Higher initial cost

-

Heavier (Improved batteries have, however, helped reduce their weight and increase their
capacity and voltage.)

-

Higher repair cost

-

Dependence on battery life

A major improvement in electric prostheses is the use of multiple methods of control to operate
them. Electric prostheses are not all myoelectrically controlled, as some people think. It can be
explained that myoelectric means that you pick up a myo signal off the surface of the skin from the
muscle that you intend to use to control the speed and direction of the prosthesis. But not all
electric systems are myoelectric systems. Some use pressure, a switch and a harness, a positional
servo device or a strain gauge.
Prosthetists today are often using more than one kind of control system for a single patient. For
example, they might use myoelectrodes to control the hand and a positional servo transducer to
control the elbow, which are now independent controls. The patient can control them
simultaneously. In the past, you had to do one thing at a time or sequentially. You flexed the
elbow, stopped flexing the elbow, switched to the hand, opened the hand, closed the hand, and then
extended the elbow. With the multiple input concept, you can do more than one thing at a time
and, therefore, have smoother, simultaneous movements.

What Kind of Terminal Devices Are Available?
Terminal devices for arm amputees fall into three basic categories:
-

Hooks

-

Prehensors, which are defined here as those devices that consist of a thumb-like component
and a finger component and that may resemble lobster claws, pliers or a bird’s beak

-

Artificial hands.

Each type is available in bodypowered or electric-powered devices.
Each type of terminal device has advantages and disadvantages and is better for some situations
than others. Though no one device is able to fulfill all of the functions of a human hand perfectly,
it is often possible for amputees who have more than one terminal device to easily and quickly
switch from one type of device to another with the various quickdisconnect wrist units that are
available and have become standard in the industry. You might, for example, use a functional hook
or electric prehensor to perform some kind of work task, then disconnect it and switch to a
natural-looking hand with artificial hair, freckles and skin color to go out to dinner a few hours
later. As a result, you have many more options than amputees did in the past when they were
often limited to choosing one device or another.

Hooks
The split-hook design, first patented by David W. Dorrance in 1912, enables amputees to hold
and squeeze objects between the split hooks. Though many people prefer artificial hands for
cosmetic purposes or electric hands for greater grip, split hooks also have many advantages.

Typical Advantages of Split Hooks
-

Functionality

-

Efficiency of use

-

Ability to grasp small objects

-

Durability

-

Lower maintenance and repair costs

-

Lighter

-

Better ability of user to see what he or she is trying to hold (The size and thickness of
artificial hands sometimes block the user’s view of what he or she is trying to pick up.
Because artificial hooks and hands can't feel, being able to see what one is doing is
especially important. This also makes hooks – which often have a nitrile coating to prevent
slippage– generally better for picking up smaller objects.

-

Because hooks are usually made of metal, amputees don't have to be as careful around
heat, which can melt artificial hands.

There are also companies that make electric split hooks that provide true proportional myoelectric
control. One such hook weighs only 13.23 ounces and has a pinch force of up to 25 pounds, which
is much greater than that of most body-powered split hooks. One company offers an electric split
hook that has water-resistant housings.

Prehensors
Prehensors, like hooks, are not as cosmetically pleasing as artificial hands, but they offer many
of the same advantages over hands as hooks do. They are much more functional than hands and,
like hooks, offer better visual feedback to the user. When compared to hooks,
prehensors also have some typical advantages and disadvantages.

Typical Advantages of Prehensors
Do not look as threatening
Not as likely to scratch objects
Not as likely to accidentally get caught on things
Typical Disadvantages of Prehensors
Not as good for picking up and working with small items
Do not offer as much visual feedback because they are usually bulkier at the end
Not as good for typing

Hands
Though artificial hands are generally less functional than hooks and prehensors, some people
choose them because of one major advantage: They look more like the human hand.
Today, there are a wide variety of artificial hands to choose from. One company offers a hand
with an automatic grasp feature. “It has sensors inside the hand that recognize pressure or how
much grasp the hand is applying to an object being picked up,” explains Pat Prigge, CP.
Just as a real hand would squeeze a cup a little harder when it gets heavier as
water is poured into it, Prigge explains, this hand “automatically monitors grip
force and grabs harder when objects get heavier so that they don’t fall out of the
user’s grasp. As a result, users don’t have to be as precise with their grip force.”
This solves one of the most difficult problems for myoelectric users, Prigge
says, by helping to ensure that they don’t squeeze too little and drop something or too hard and
crush something.
The same company also has grip force control system that can be used with an artificial hand.
“This system is programmed into the hand so that the grip force strength – how much grip force
the hand applies to an object – is directly correlated to the signal strength that they put into the
arm,” Prigge explains. “The harder they contract, the higher the grip force is, so if they want to
pick up something light, all they have to do is generate a small signal and the hand will close down
to a light grip force and then stop.”

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Research

  • 1. Research: The main types of prosthesis, craniofacial and somato (body), can be divided further by anatomical region. Craniofacial prostheses include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses. Extra-oral prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular (ear), nasal, orbital and ocular. Intra-oral prostheses include dental prostheses such as dentures, obturators, and dental implants. Somato prostheses include breast and limb prostheses. Breast prostheses include full breast devices. Limb Prostheses include upper extremity and lower extremity prostheses. Upper extremity prostheses are used at varying levels of amputation: shoulder disarticulation, trans-hmeral, elbow disarticulation, transradial, wrist disarticulation, full hand, partial hand, finger, partial finger. Lower extremity prostheses are also used at varying levels of amputation. These include hip disarticulation, transfemoral, knee disarticulation, transtibial, symes, foot, partial foot, and toe. The type of prostheses needed will be designed and assembled according to the patient's appearance and functional needs. For instance, a patient may need a transradial prosthesis, but need to choose between an aesthetic functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an activity specific device. Depending on the patient's funding situation, she may have the option to choose more than one device. A transhumeral prosthesis is an fake limb that replaces an arm missing above the elbow. Transhumeral amputees experience some of the same problems as transfemoral amputees, due to the similar complexities associated with the movement of the elbow. This makes imitating the correct motion with an artificial limb very difficult. A transradial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces an arm missing below the elbow. Two main types of prosthetics are available. Cable operated limbs work by attaching a harness and cable around the opposite shoulder of the damaged arm. The other form of prosthetics available are myoelectric arms. These work by sensing, via electrodes, when the muscles in the upper arm moves, causing an artificial hand to open or close. A transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing above the knee. Transfemoral amputees can have a very difficult time regaining normal movement. In general, a transfemoral amputee must use approximately 80% more energy to walk than a person with two whole legs. This is due to the complexities in movement associated with the knee. In newer and
  • 2. more improved designs, carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors, computer microprocessors, and innovative combinations of these technologies are employed to give more control to the user. A transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below the knee. Transtibial amputees are usually able to regain normal movement more readily than someone with a transfemoral amputation, due in large part to retaining the knee, which allows for easier movement. Lower extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are 1. Trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency) 2. Trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a femoral deficiency). High costs Transradial and transtibial prostheses typically cost between US $6,000 and $8,000. Transfemoral and transhumeral prosthetics cost approximately twice as much with a range of $10,000 to $15,000 and can sometimes reach costs of $35,000. The cost of an artificial limb does recur because artificial limbs are usually replaced every 3–4 years due to wear and tear. In addition, if the socket has fit issues, the socket must be replaced within several months. Low costs Low cost above knee prostheses often provide only basic structural support with limited function. This function is often achieved with crude, non-articulating, unstable, or manually locking knee joints. A limited number of organizations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), create devices for developing countries. Their device which is manufactured by CR Equipments is a single-axis, manually operated locking polymer prosthetic knee joint. Few low-cost solutions have been created specially for children. Passive prostheses are generally considered to be devices that are worn purely for cosmetic purposes. Functional prostheses, on the other hand, are devices that enable an amputee to perform tasks. These devices may or may not also serve a cosmetic purpose.
  • 3. Functional prostheses are either bodypowered or electric-powered. Body-powered devices are operated using cable and harness systems that require the patient to use body movements (moving the shoulders or the arm, for example) to pull the cable and make the terminal device (a hand, hook or prehensor) open or close much in the way a bicycle handbrake system works. Mechanical body-powered terminal devices are voluntary-opening or voluntary-closing. Voluntary-opening means that users must open the terminal device by applying force through their cable system. The terminal device then closes on its own with the aid of rubber bands, which limit the grip strength of the device to the strength of the rubber bands. With a voluntary closing terminal device, force must be applied to close it instead of to open it, making the grip strength dependent not on the strength of rubber bands but on the strength of the person using it. Voluntary-opening devices that are closed with the aid of rubber bands offer only visual feedback to the user for control since the bands do the work of closing once an object is grasped, thus taking the body out of the feedback loop. Because they close by the user's own strength, voluntary-closing devices provide a tension feedback to the body similar to that "felt” when using bicycle handbrakes. Since users can "feel” the force they are applying, they can also control their grip incrementally, applying more or less force as needed. Electric -powered terminal devices open and close by battery power.
  • 4. Body-Powered or Electric-Powered Prosthesis? When choosing between a body-powered or electric-powered prosthesis, you should carefully consider the advantages and disadvantages of each. Typical Advantages of Body-Powered Devices - Lower Initial Cost - Lighter - Easier to repair - Offer better tension feedback to the body Typical Disadvantages of Body-Powered Devices - Mechanical appearance - Difficult to use for some people because they depend on the user’s physical ability Typical Advantages of Electric Devices - Do not require a harness or cable and can, therefore, be built to look more like a real arm - Battery-powered so body strength and body movement are not as important for their operation - Provide a strong grip force Typical Disadvantages of Electric Devices - Higher initial cost - Heavier (Improved batteries have, however, helped reduce their weight and increase their capacity and voltage.) - Higher repair cost - Dependence on battery life A major improvement in electric prostheses is the use of multiple methods of control to operate them. Electric prostheses are not all myoelectrically controlled, as some people think. It can be explained that myoelectric means that you pick up a myo signal off the surface of the skin from the
  • 5. muscle that you intend to use to control the speed and direction of the prosthesis. But not all electric systems are myoelectric systems. Some use pressure, a switch and a harness, a positional servo device or a strain gauge. Prosthetists today are often using more than one kind of control system for a single patient. For example, they might use myoelectrodes to control the hand and a positional servo transducer to control the elbow, which are now independent controls. The patient can control them simultaneously. In the past, you had to do one thing at a time or sequentially. You flexed the elbow, stopped flexing the elbow, switched to the hand, opened the hand, closed the hand, and then extended the elbow. With the multiple input concept, you can do more than one thing at a time and, therefore, have smoother, simultaneous movements. What Kind of Terminal Devices Are Available? Terminal devices for arm amputees fall into three basic categories: - Hooks - Prehensors, which are defined here as those devices that consist of a thumb-like component and a finger component and that may resemble lobster claws, pliers or a bird’s beak - Artificial hands. Each type is available in bodypowered or electric-powered devices. Each type of terminal device has advantages and disadvantages and is better for some situations than others. Though no one device is able to fulfill all of the functions of a human hand perfectly, it is often possible for amputees who have more than one terminal device to easily and quickly switch from one type of device to another with the various quickdisconnect wrist units that are available and have become standard in the industry. You might, for example, use a functional hook or electric prehensor to perform some kind of work task, then disconnect it and switch to a natural-looking hand with artificial hair, freckles and skin color to go out to dinner a few hours later. As a result, you have many more options than amputees did in the past when they were often limited to choosing one device or another. Hooks
  • 6. The split-hook design, first patented by David W. Dorrance in 1912, enables amputees to hold and squeeze objects between the split hooks. Though many people prefer artificial hands for cosmetic purposes or electric hands for greater grip, split hooks also have many advantages. Typical Advantages of Split Hooks - Functionality - Efficiency of use - Ability to grasp small objects - Durability - Lower maintenance and repair costs - Lighter - Better ability of user to see what he or she is trying to hold (The size and thickness of artificial hands sometimes block the user’s view of what he or she is trying to pick up. Because artificial hooks and hands can't feel, being able to see what one is doing is especially important. This also makes hooks – which often have a nitrile coating to prevent slippage– generally better for picking up smaller objects. - Because hooks are usually made of metal, amputees don't have to be as careful around heat, which can melt artificial hands. There are also companies that make electric split hooks that provide true proportional myoelectric control. One such hook weighs only 13.23 ounces and has a pinch force of up to 25 pounds, which is much greater than that of most body-powered split hooks. One company offers an electric split hook that has water-resistant housings. Prehensors Prehensors, like hooks, are not as cosmetically pleasing as artificial hands, but they offer many of the same advantages over hands as hooks do. They are much more functional than hands and, like hooks, offer better visual feedback to the user. When compared to hooks, prehensors also have some typical advantages and disadvantages. Typical Advantages of Prehensors
  • 7. Do not look as threatening Not as likely to scratch objects Not as likely to accidentally get caught on things Typical Disadvantages of Prehensors Not as good for picking up and working with small items Do not offer as much visual feedback because they are usually bulkier at the end Not as good for typing Hands Though artificial hands are generally less functional than hooks and prehensors, some people choose them because of one major advantage: They look more like the human hand. Today, there are a wide variety of artificial hands to choose from. One company offers a hand with an automatic grasp feature. “It has sensors inside the hand that recognize pressure or how much grasp the hand is applying to an object being picked up,” explains Pat Prigge, CP. Just as a real hand would squeeze a cup a little harder when it gets heavier as water is poured into it, Prigge explains, this hand “automatically monitors grip force and grabs harder when objects get heavier so that they don’t fall out of the user’s grasp. As a result, users don’t have to be as precise with their grip force.” This solves one of the most difficult problems for myoelectric users, Prigge says, by helping to ensure that they don’t squeeze too little and drop something or too hard and crush something. The same company also has grip force control system that can be used with an artificial hand. “This system is programmed into the hand so that the grip force strength – how much grip force the hand applies to an object – is directly correlated to the signal strength that they put into the arm,” Prigge explains. “The harder they contract, the higher the grip force is, so if they want to pick up something light, all they have to do is generate a small signal and the hand will close down to a light grip force and then stop.”