2.  Globalisation
 Global Groupings
 Global Networks
 Roots
 On The Move
 World Cities
 Global Challenges For The Future

3. Globalisation

4.  The term ‘globalisation’ has been used since the 1990s.
 The IMF defines it as ‘the growing economic interdependence of countries
worldwide through increasing volume and variety of cross border
transactions in goods and services, freer international capital flows, and
more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology.’
 So really it is about how people, their cultures, money, goods and
information are transferred between countries so that places and people
are becoming more closely linked.
Globalisation Ideas
 National economies are becoming more integrated into a single global
economy. Actions and decisions in one part of the world have knock on
effects in other parts of the world. The spread and development of
technology has fuelled the interdependency. The world is becoming very
similar politically with democracy, freedom and free trade.
 Cultural globalisation – western cultural norms are spreading to other parts
of the world.
 Demographic globalisation – increasing migration/movement of people
means the greater mixing of ethnicity.

6.  People, countries and continent have always been connected in terms
of economic, cultural and political ways through:
 Trade – from 1492 when Columbus reached the Americas
 Colonialism – by the end of the 19th century the British empire directly
controlled ¼ of the world and its people
Inequality due to globalisation
 Some low income countries like Mali and Chad have large number of
people living in poverty who have shallow global integration.
 Other middle income countries e.g. Brazil have great unevenness
between the people’s experiences of globalisation. The rich elite in Sao
Paulo and Rio are highly globalised and even in favelas they follow
international football teams and listen to American music etc.
 In high income nations e.g. USA, UK most people are affluent consumers
of global products and culture. Many are widely travelled and fly
overseas.

7.  Demographic (population) changes are an important part of globalisation.
 Demography has changed massively over the last 50 years and is predicted
to change even more in the next 50 years – both in terms of population size
and distribution.
 Places that experience economic growth usually trigger an increase in the
number of people living in region due to changes in the:
1. Birth rate
2. Death rate
3. Migration – natural increase

8.  The Industrial Revolution lead to fall in death rate and the birth rate –
due to benefits of modern healthcare, sanitation, nutrition and
education.
 Economic growth is normally coupled by population growth e.g. the
UK went from 5 million in 1750 to 40 million in 1900.
 Similarly, India has boomed from 300 million to over a billion today.
 However, population growths remain high when a countries birth
rate does not drop due to cultural preferences for more children not
changing – this is the case in large parts of Africa.

9. The Demographic Transition Model

10. Remember to refer to these reasons as push and pull
factors;
Push and pull factors
Things that
draw/attract
people to an
area
Things that
encourage
people to leave
the place they
live in

11. Pull FactorsPush Factors
• Unemployment
• Lack of services/amenities
• Poor safety and security
• High crime rates
• Crop failure
• Drought
• Harsh climate (too hot or too
cold)
• Flooding
• Poverty
• War
• Employment/jobs available
• Better services
• Safer area
• Low crime rate
• Fertile land for growing crops
• Good food supplies
• Less risk of natural hazards
(drought, hurricanes etc.)
• More wealth
• Stable political group
• Attractive climate
• Better quality of life

12. A Net Migration gain occurs when more people immigrate than emigrate.
A Net Migration loss occurs when more people emigrate than immigrate.
The movement of people has led to a globalisation of population with
diverse populations made up of many different beliefs, cultures and mixed
societies.
Migration is largely dependent on a combination of push and pull factors.
However it is also largely dependent on the barriers facing a migrant known
as ‘intervening obstacles.’ Examples include:
 Social obstacles e.g. family ties back home.
 Economic obstacles e.g. The cost of setting up a new home.
 Lack of information about destination e.g. Where to stay upon arrival.

13. This revised the simple ‘push-pull’ model in two ways:
• It introduced the idea of intervening obstacles that need to be overcome before migration takes
place.
• Source and destination are seen as possessing a range of attributes; each would-be migrant
perceives these attributes differently, depending on personal characteristics, such as age, sex
and marital status.

14.  An alternative migration destination that exists between the
migrant’s place of origin and their destination.
 E.g. Polish people migrating to Ireland pass through London on route
and instead settle there.
 An intervening obstacle is an environmental or cultural feature that
hinders or slows down migration.
 For example, not having a visa travelling from the UK to the USA.

15. In 1945, when WW2 ended, worldwide economic reconstruction began and
globalisation became noticeable. The factors that accelerate it were/are:
1. Transport:
In the 1960’s the Boeing 747 made international travel more common, and more
recently, the expansion of cheap flight sectors has increased air travel e.g.
Easyjet and Ryanair.Secondly containerisation (shipping goods) since the 1940’s
has increased globalisation.
2. Transnational corporations (TNC’s):
These are firms with operations spread through out the world, operating in many
nations as both makers and sellers of goods and services. E.g. Coca-Cola and
McDonalds. The BBC is one too (interestingly part funded by the government of
the UK). They have caused massive economic and cultural changes.
3. Computer & internet (and media):
Computer aided design (CAD) and manufacturing (CAM) have made
manufacturing less human reliant allowing firms to become more footloose. Also,
ICT has allowed video conferencing and emails, allowing TNC’s to expand
worldwide. People are now able to connect wherever they are due to social
networking e.g. Facebook and Skype. It has also made things like shopping and
education easier to access via the internet.

16. •
4. International organisations:
 The International Monetary Fund (IMF), which channels loans from worlds
richest nations to countries which seek economic help. In return, the
requesting country has to agree to free-market economies, which
means TNC’s can enter, promoting globalisation.
 The World Trade Organisation (WTO) and World Bank also work along
side the IMF.
 Non-governmental organisations (NGO’S) such as Oxfam, also have
had major influence, working to connect places through aid and debt
relief.
5. Markets:
More people are resident in urban areas and are significant consumers of
goods and services. In 2007 China already had 30 million affluent
consumers and by 2015 it is expected to be the world’s largest market for
consumer goods. Also, the growth of major stock markets has been an
important influence. This causes new stock markets to emerge e.g.
Shanghai.

17.  Film stars
 Musicians
 Celebrities
 Doctors and health care
professionals
 Computer programmers
 Property developers
 Writers
 Academics
 Sportsmen
 Bankers
 These people have desirable
skills or money which is highly
prized by countries and they
will be allowed to move easily.
 For example, there are
200,000 Americans living in the
UK which is an example of
international migration.

18. Within countries internal migration too has increased. In the poor
and emerging economies rural-urban migration dominates. This is for
2 reasons:
1. Media – television, radio, books and newspapers
2. Foreign Direct Investment – mainly in urban areas

19. Global Groupings

20. Gross National
Product (all trade)
The value of all the goods and services earned by a
company including companies working abroad (TNCs).
Gross Domestic
Product (internal
trade)
The value of all the goods and services earned by a
country excluding foreign earnings.
Per Capita Statistics providing an average per person.
Purchasing Power
Parity
Relates average earnings to prices and what they will
actually buy.
Physical Quality Of Life
Index
Made up of life expectancy, literacy rates and infant
mortality.
Human Development
Index
Made up of life expectancy, literacy rates, infant
mortality and school enrolment.
Human Suffering Index Made up of daily calorie intake, access to clean
water, inflation rate, access to communications,
political freedom and civil rights.
Economic Development Indicators
Human Development Indicators

21. 1. GNP - the market value of all the products and services produced in one
year by labour and property supplied by the citizens of a country.
2. GDP - monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced
within a country's borders in a specific time period, though GDP is usually
calculated on an annual basis.
3. Balance of trade (Imports-Exports) – the difference in what leaves the
country and what enters the country.
4. Natural increase - the difference between the number of live births and the
number of deaths occurring in a year, divided by the mid-year population
of that year, multiplied by a factor (usually 1,000).
5. Life expectancy - the average period that a person may expect to live.
6. Number of doctors per capita – the number of doctors per 1000 people.
7. Proportion of people living in urban areas – the difference in the number of
people living in rural areas to urban areas.
8. Dependency ratio - A measure showing the number of dependents (aged
0-14 and over the age of 65) to the total population (aged 15-64).
9. HDI Ratio - is a statistical tool used to measure a country's overall
achievement in its social and economic dimensions.

22. Countries can be put into broad economic and political groups
because wealth and power aren’t shared out equally around the
world. These groups change over time as the wealth and power of
countries change.
For example, most countries used to be classed as either More or Less
Economically Developed. It’s now thought that this system is too
simplistic – there are too many stages of economic development to put
all countries into only 2 categories.
The Brandt Line
- shows the north
and south divide
in wealth.

23. LDCs – 50 poorest countries classified by the UN.
NICs - Countries undergoing industrialisation where average earning and
exports have increased dramatically since the 70’s. For example, the BRICS
(Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa).
Ex-soviet states – After the break up of the soviet Union in ’89, there were 15
ex soviet states remaining, which scored poorly in HDI and GDP
G8 – Aim to create deeper international co-operation and an understanding
of climate change and international trade.
OECD - It is a global ‘think
tank’ for 30 of the world’s
wealthiest nations and ensures
wealth is distributed evenly
across the nations.
OPEC - Established to
regulate the global oil market.
Stabilise prices and ensure a
fair return for the 11 member
states who between them
supply 40% of the world’s oil.

24.  Least Developed Countries (LDCs) are a group of around 50 countries that
are defined by very low incomes, poor health, low education, economic
instability and their heavy debt to richer countries, e.g. Mozambique, Sudan,
Ethiopia, Afghanistan. Their economies are usually based on agriculture, so
crop failures can lead to economic disaster.
 Countries are moved out of the LDC group when conditions improve, e.g.
Botswana.
 The majority of LDCs are located in the African continent, with a few located
in Asia as well as Oceania, and only one in the Americas (Haiti).
Less Economically Developed Countries have started to develop their
economies and this can be seen in their increasing GDP, calorie intake
per day, birth rates and death rates, e.g. Egypt, Namibia.

25.  Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) aren’t yet classified as developed
countries (like the UK), but aren’t thought of as LDCs (like Bangladesh)
either.
 Their economies are usually growing very fast, and there has often been a
recent move from a mostly agricultural economy to one involving
manufacturing and exporting.
 The term was originally used for the Asian ‘Tiger’ economies of Singapore,
Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan.
The four ‘BRIC’ countries are Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
They are in the same group as they all have newly advanced economic
development. They are middle income countries, which are becoming
high income countries.

26.  Russia and some of the surrounding countries in central Asia and eastern
Europe used to make up one large state called the Soviet Union
 A lot of independent countries have been created since the Soviet Union
collapsed in 1991 – these are mostly now classed as middle-income countries
(E.g. Estonia)
 Middle-income countries have growing economies, but the growth isn’t as
rapid as the NICs and their development hasn’t reached the same level, e.g.
Ukraine
 Recent growth in some ex-Soviet states is due to the exploitation of natural
resource, e.g. oil and gas in Kazakhstan
 The privatisation of industries (state controlled in Soviet times to privately
controlled now) has led to economic recovery and growth in many ex-Soviet
states, e.g. Belarus.

27. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of 12 major
oil-producing countries. The petrodollar earnings of these countries make them
some of the wealthiest countries in the world. However, although most OPEC
members display well above average levels of wealth, it is often unevenly
distributed among citizens. OPEC countries control around 2/3 of global oil
reserves. Because they’re a large group in control of a large amount of oil, they
can make sure they get a fair price from oil-consuming countries (e.g. The UK)
Examples:
 African OPECs: Algeria, Angola, Libya Nigeria.
 South American OPECs: Ecuador, Venezuela.
 Middle East OPECs: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates (UAE).
 Half of OPECs are from the Middle East due to the vast oil reserves present
there.
 Indonesia was a recent member but left OPEC in 2007.
 Some members have left since OPEC was founded because they wanted to
produce more oil than the agreed OPEC quotas allowed (e.g. Gabon)
 Other countries have been invited to join (e.g. Bolivia and Sudan)

28.  The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is a
group of 34 of the richest and most powerful countries.
 The top eight are called the G8 – one of the world’s most powerful and
wealthy groups – it’s made up of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
Russia, USA and the UK.
 They meet to discuss and provide possible solutions to economic,
environmental and social issues.
 Members of the OECD are always changing too, e.g. Potential new
members include Brazil, China, India and more recently South Africa
(BRICS).

29. Trade Blocs are groups of countries that make agreements to reduce barriers to
trade, e.g. by removing tariffs (taxes on imported goods). Blocs increase trade
between members, and members can work together as a larger organisation to
trade with non-members.
Benefits of membership of a trade bloc are linked to two important concepts:
1. Economies of scale – the advantages companies gain because of increased
sales. There’s a larger market for all companies within the trade bloc because
it’s easier to trade with all other member countries. This increases sales. More
sales means more products need to be made, so companies can buy the
raw materials for their products in greater numbers, saving money. Buying raw
materials in bulk means each product costs less to make, so companies make
more profit.
2. Comparative advantage – countries can concentrate on developing specific
industries. Being in a trade bloc means it’s easier to trade for all the different
goods and services a country needs, because trade is less restricted. So
countries can specialise in producing the things they’re good at making and
trade for the things they’re not good at making. Production will increase in
each member country because they’re concentrating on what they do best,
so production will increase in the trade block overall.

30.  Free trade zone
 MOST developed trade bloc in
the world
 Common currency
 Migration increase
 Judicial System
 Parliament
 Humans Rights Act
 Health and Safety Legislation
 Cultural links and spread
 Agreement between the countries
of North America – USA, Canada
and Mexico.
 Made trade easier by removing
things like import taxes on some
goods.
 Trade has increased but there are
other impacts, e.g. Job losses in the
USA because the manufacture of
some goods has been moved to
Mexico, where labour is cheaper.
The EU NAFTA

31.  These groupings of countries highlight the inequalities in wealth and power
around the world.
 Most of the wealth and power is in the hands of a few countries, e.g. The G8
have over 60% of the gross world product (the total income of the world),
and control most of the military power, even though they’re only 8 countries.
 These groupings can also show how wealth and power can change.
 For example, Russia didn’t officially join the G7 (to form the G8) until 1997
because of the power issues of the cold war (a period of political struggle
between the USA and the Soviet Union) and economic problems in Russia
after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
 Because wealthy countries often form groups together, they become more
closely integrated.
 This mean’s they’re more likely to get even wealthier and develop solutions to
their own economic, environmental and social problems at a faster rate.
 This can lead to a widening of the gap between poorer and wealthier
countries.

32.  A company that has operations in more than one country to produce or sell
products and services.
 Help to build bridges between nations.
 They bolt together different economies and societies through their supply
chains and marketing strategies.
 TNCs have their roots in the colonial businesses of the 18th and 19th century
e.g. East India Company.
 TNCs build their businesses by buying foreign firms in mergers or acquisitions
 Much of the manufacturing is subcontracted to third parties. This can make
it difficult to enforce good factory working conditions
 Most TNCs are assembly industries – manufacturing operations that take the
products of many different industries and fit them together to make finished
goods. They rely on a chain of suppliers. Some many be made by
independent subcontractors and others are owned by the parent company.
 E.g. the Mini factory in Oxford is owned by BMW and 2500 suppliers provide
parts to assemble the mini. Some are from inside the EU to avoid tariffs and
others like the engine are brought all the way from the factory in Brazil that is
part owned by BMW.
 Some of the parts may be sourced locally and then assembled close to the
market. This is called glocalisation.

33. How do TNC’s grow?
Motive – Profit. They control costs of raw materials and production costs, and
do this by merges and take over's in 3 ways.
1) Horizontal integration – Buying up competition.
2) Vertical integration – controlling and owning every stage of production.
3) Economies of sale – expand production to increase efficiency and reduce
unit production costs.
Means – The banks. Companies invest overseas too, to boost their market or
take advantage of labour or environmental laws. Flows of money around the
world connect businesses and countries.
Mobility – Transport and communications. Accelerated and cheaper transport
(containerisation and cheap flights) and communication systems (fibre optics)
along with production systems such as ‘just in time’ (companies demand goods
on short time scale rather than holding stock) which provides cheap fast turn
around, enabling companies to be faster than their competitors.
How do TNCs affect global wealth?
TNCs bring Foreign Direct Investment to nations – even if wages are low workers
will still spend money after they have been paid = stimulates growth of other
local services.
When TNCs locate in a trade bloc they bring wealth to poorer regions as they
often source parts locally.
One of the most effective mechanisms for wealth redistribution.

34. For:
 Raising living standards – TNCs invest in the economies of the developing
nations
 Transfer of technology – south Korean firms e.g. Samsung have learned to
design products for foreign markets
 Political stability – investment by TNCs has contributed to economic
growth and political stability e.g. China
 Raising environmental awareness – due to large corporate image TNCs do
respond to criticism e.g. Co-op has ‘green credentials’
Against:
 Tax avoidance – many avoid paying full taxed in countries they operate in
through concessions
 Limited linkages – FDI does not always help developing nations economies
 Sweatshops – workers are employed for long hours, low pay in poor
conditions
 Growing global wealth divide – selective investment in certain global
areas is creating a widening divide e.g. Southeast Asia vs. sub-Saharan
Africa
 Environmental degradation – example of Bhopal, India disaster in 1984

35.  Tesco began in 1919 as a grocery stall in the East End of London. By 1956,
the first Tesco self-service supermarket opened in Maldon. Throughout the
1970s and 1980s, success followed success in the UK market.
 Key the firms growth has been a strategy of diversification into new markets,
becoming a ‘one stop’ shop for all electrical goods, toys and home
products in addition to food.
 Tesco products are usually manufactured in low-wage countries. Low-cost
items such as the Value Jeans (£3) are sourced via Tesco agents in Hong
Kong, which use suppliers in China, Thailand, Mauritius, India, Bangladesh
and Sri Lanka.
 In 2004, the first Tesco stores opened in China, where rising wealth among
the elite means that there is a growing number of affluent customers. In
2007, it moved into the USA.
Exploitation?:
 Wages in factories are low, but so are living costs and many of Tesco’s
overseas employees are shop managers who receive a good wage.
Damage the environment?:
 Shipping goods around the world releases huge amounts of GHGs, but has
pledged to cut on packaging of its own brand products.
Glocalisation:
 Pays attention to local customers’ needs. For example, Thai wet markets.

36. Against TNCs Benefits of TNCs
Tax avoidance. TNCs may avoid paying
full taxes, through transfer pricing and tax
concessions. This means governments
find it harder to raise revenues, provide
services and respond to the demands of
local people.
Political stability. TNC investment has
contributed to economic growth and
political stability. This may be contrasted
with conditions in much of Africa, where
instability, civil war and distance from
markets has made the investment
environment less favourable.
Limited linkages. FDI does not always
help developing world economies. If links
are made with local firms then more
wealth may be generated.
Transfer of technology. TNC s can be
responsible for the transfer of technology
and managerial know-how.
Growing global wealth divide. By
selectively investing in certain regions
while bypassing others.
Raising living standards. TNCs invest in the
economies of developing countries. They
are sometimes active in raising wages and
can help spread wealth globally.
Environmental degradation. TNCs are
often a major cause of environmental
degradation, this has the greatest
impact on the poor and can cause
deaths.
Raising environmental awareness. TNCs
respond to criticism due to having a large
image to uphold. Many large firms are trying
to address issues with transport, carbon
emissions and packaging, whilst also
increasing their fair trade commitment.

37. Global Networks

38. Links between different countries in the world, which includes flows of capital,
traded goods, services, information & people are very important. Some places
are well connected but others poorly.
 Network: Illustration or model that shows how different places are linked
together. E.g. the Tube (underground train) map of London.
Global hub: A node (point on a network map) that is especially well
connected.
Flows: The connections between the hubs are known as flows.
Connections between these hubs are called flows and include:
1. Money - major capital flows are routed through global stock markets.
2. Raw materials - e.g. food and oil traded between nations.
3. Manufactured goods and services - value of world trade is 70 trillion
dollars.
4. Information – internet has brought real-time communication between
distant places.
5. People - movement of people still an issue due to border controls and
immigration law.

39.  The Core – The most developed and highly populated region of a
country. The growth of core regions is fed by flows of labour from less well
– developed regions. Particularly visible of states like India and China
where populations are massive.
 Switched on places – Nations, regions or cities that are strongly
connected to other places through the production and consumption of
goods and services. In contrast, places that are poorly connected are
said to be relatively switched off i.e. North Korea.
 Wilderness Areas – are areas of the world that have remained relatively
untouched by man and is home to only a small number of indigenous
people. Examples are Amazonia, Borneo and Antarctica (which is
unpopulated).
 Cumulative Causation – the process by which economic activity leading
to prosperity and increasing economic development tends to
concentrate in an area with an initial advantage, draining investment
and skilled labour from the peripheral area (part of the backwash effect).

40. A Shrinking
world?
Distant places start
to feel closer and
take less time to
reach. Sometimes
known as ‘time –
space compression’
Telephone - these
replaced 3-week boat
trips and laid the
ground for TNCs to
operate in different
countries
simultanesouly. Parts
of Africa are now
'leap-frogging' straight
to mobile phones
Air Travel - faster
planes with greater
capacity e.g. Airbus.
Firms e.g. Easyjet have
allowed mass air travel
Internet - large
amount of data can
be moved across
cyberspace and
allows office staff to
work from home
GIS/GPS - first
GPS in 1970s,
now 24 in orbit.
GIS can collect,
manage and
analyse satellite
data

41.  easyJet was founded in 1995. It began as a small company, running flights
only within the UK. Most of Europe’s major cities are now interconnected via
the cheap flight network.
 At the start, the airline only had two aircraft. In 1996, flights to Barcelona
commenced and therefore the company started to expand rapidly. It now
has 300 flight routes in the EU. In 2005, easyJet announced its new markets:
Istanbul, Marrakech, and Rijeka.
 Technology has helped to build the easyJet global network. It was one of
the first airlines to embrace the internet, and the first online sale was in April
1998. By 2006, the company owned 122 aircraft, carrying 33 million
passengers per year and bringing revenues of nearly £2 billion.
 Places that easyJet fly to become more ‘switched-on’. For example, Tallinn
in Estonia is home to 400,000 people. In October 2004, easyJet started to fly
British tourists there, suddenly it became an affordable destination for UK
tourists. The new route has brought more money to Tallinn and boosted
trade for its businesses, such as hotels, bars and nightclubs, restaurants.

42. These are often major network nodes and are switched on places. These
are often world cities. They are normally the core of the country’s
economy. They possess qualities which makes countries want to trade
with them:
 NATURAL: coastline ideal for trade, strategic location, oil resources and
physical factors which aid growth of industry.
 HUMAN: large labour force, affluence, skilled labour and languages
spoken (e.g. English call centres in India).
A government can encourage the formation of a hub by allocating an
area as an export processing zone – a small industrial area often on the
coast) where favourable conditions are created to attract foreign TNCs.
These conditions include low tax rates and exemptions from tariff and
export duties.
They may be technopoles – a cluster of technologically innovative
businesses and research institutes e.g. Silicon Valley California, Silicon Fen
Cambridge (UK).
They will experience a multiplier effect - where there are positive spin offs
from investment. Other firms may gain business supplying parts, the
increase spending power of the workers stimulates the service sector and
higher tax revenues may be invested in education and infrastructure.
Business clustering may occur – e.g. central London is home to a cluster
of television production companies and universities that deliver media
courses.

43. The process by which economic activity leading to prosperity and increasing economic
development tends to concentrate in an area with an initial advantage, draining
investment and skilled labour from the peripheral area (part of the backwash effect).

44.  In the richer parts of the world, wealth has spread to peripheral
parts of the economies and is not solely concentrated in the core
as development began a long time ago (since industrial
revolution in 1750). This is what we call trickle down.
 However, in places that have industrialised quite quickly (like Brazil
and South Africa), many people still live in poverty despite the
presence of global hubs like Sao Paulo and Johannesburg.
 Other places like Nigeria which have seen massive growth for its
elite from the expansion on the oil industry. However, the Ogoni
people living in the delta where oil is extracted have received no
money and had to suffer an environmental catastrophe.

45.  The very poorest nations remain switched off.
 They may lack global hubs, or strong flows of trade
and investments.
 Conditions are poor for most people in rural and
urban areas e.g. Sudan, Chad and Somalia.
 There are many reasons for why places continue to
be switched off.

46. Roots
Demography – The study of population.

47.  National scale: The UK census goes back to 1801, with a good
level of detail recorded from 1841. Some census data is now
available for the public to view.
 Local scale: Church records e.g. births, baptisms, deaths and
marriages have been recorded since the middle ages in UK.
 Personal scale: Personal recollections of family members.

48. Since the census in 1901 there have been a number
of demographic, economic and migratory changes
have been identified. These include:
• Family size
• Population structure
• Migration
• Employment
• Social status and aspirations
• Ethnicity

49. Changing factor How this has changed
Family size Population rise from 37m in 1901 to 61 million in 2007. In 2011 it reached 63.2
billion. Even though household size has fallen (small families, gay couples,
pensioners and divorcees) life expectancy has risen. This increases extended
households.
Population
structure
UK now has a top heavy population structure. In 1931, just 7% were aged over 65
and 24% under 16. However nowadays it has changed to 16% and 19%
respectively. Life expectancy has also risen to 77 (men) and 82 (women) in 2007.
Migration The UK is more mobile now. People now migrate towards settlements with
service jobs, generally, towards the south – east. 26% of the UK now live in
London. Counter – urbanisation now exists as well as age selective migrations.
Employment Industrial decline and manufacturing decline have changed where people live
and what jobs they are employed in. There's been a move towards ‘white
collar’ service work. See diagram p 122 Philip Allan.
Social status and
aspirations
Social mobility has increased meaning that more people are moving around,
and out of poverty into the middle classes. More people going into further
education and into non – manual work.
Ethnicity Around 8% of the UK are made up of minority groups. From 1950s a large scale
migration from the UK’s former colonies and then the expansion of the EU in
early 2000 both changed the ethnic make up of the UK. Segregation exists in
some districts.
What has changed in the UK since 1901?

51.  Population growing due to
natural increase
 Death rate falling due to
improvements in food
supply, health and hygiene
 Post war baby boom
 Population grew from 38
million to 55 million
between 1901 and 1971
 Population increased more
slowly
 Most growth now due to
immigration
 BR and DR at a fairly low rate
 Family size small, life
expectancy rising
 Reports in 2007 suggested that
BR was on the rise due to child
bearing age migrants
 Total population grew from 55
million in 1971 to 61 million in
2007
Change in Population over Time

52.  These are a great way
to show the structure
of a population
 Particularly plotting
them over time
A population pyramid for the UK in 2010

53. During the 20th Century fertility rates fell
There have been a number of factors that have lead to this:
• Education about contraception
• Knowing the risks of smoking and drinking during
pregnancy
• Secularisation – decrease role of religion
• Consumerism – increased consumption
There has also been a longer life expectancy rate due to:
• Healthcare improvements – better hygiene,
vaccinations, NHS.
• Improvements in nutrition, diet and lifestyle.
• Better global connections.

54.  This means we are going to have a higher
dependent population.
 We can work this out with this equation.
Dependency ratio =
(Population under 16) + (Population over 65)
(Population 15 – 64)
X 100

55. Advantages of greying
population
Disadvantages of greying
population
• Voluntary charitable
work
• Spending money on
goods and services
• Earning money and
paying tax
• Bringing wisdom and
experience to some
sectors
• Economic costs –
providing health care,
retirement homes and a
pension is going to
become increasingly
expensive (Baby boomers
will cost £30 billion a year)
• Housing shortages due to
longer life expectancy
• Emotional burden

56. On the Move

57.  Displaced person – People who are forced to move, by war, famine,
political persecution or natural disaster.
 Refugee – ‘A well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race,
religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political
opinion, is outside the country of their nationality, and is unable to or,
owning to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of the protection of
that country’
 Asylum seekers – the migrants who claim for asylum/residence to be
granted as they believe themselves to be a refugee. If refugee status is
given they are allowed to stay, but if it is turned down, the immigrant may
be deported
 Illegal migrants – People who avoid border and immigration controls and
enter a new country illegally. Many are voluntary migrants seeking work,
but some may be forced as part of ‘human trafficking’ to enter
prostitution or other illegal activities
 Voluntary migrants – People who move for quality of life reasons, usually
economic gain (economic migrants). Many move temporarily (contract
workers and professionals), returning home after months or years.

58.  Globalisation has made moving about much
easier in recent years.
 In 2005 190million people were living outside their
country of birth – 3% of the population.
 8% of the UK’s current population is foreign born.
 The former colonies have played a big part in the
formation of the multicultural societies in places like
Britain...migrants have come in waves.

59. Some estimates say that 4-8 million illegal African migrants are in the
EU. Huge areas of Africa have been wracked by conflict, civil unrest,
famine and poverty, so the push factors into the EU are strong.
Migrating illegally into Europe has its costs:
 Migrants pay traffickers €1,000 - €4,000 each.
 The Sahara desert land route is dangerous and there are many
heat-related deaths and killings by bandits.
 Fishing boasts used on the sea routes can be lethal.
 A common route, from Senegal to the Canaries, can take 8-10
days in potentially rough seas, in overcrowded boats.
 Being caught often leads to deportation.

60. • The immigrants besieging Malta are from Africa, many coming via
Libya.
• In 2006, 1,700 illegal migrants arrived in Malta by boat, up from 500
in 2003. Most had missed mainland Italy or Sicily and landed in
Malta by mistake. EU patrol boats that find illegal immigrants in
boats cannot send them back, as international law obliges them to
help. Maltese fisher men are often overwhelmed by migrants –
many cling to tuna nets in the open sea.
• Key to reducing the migrant flow might be an agreement with Libya
to police its waters more carefully.

61. A person seeking to be classed as a refugee is an asylum seeker. If
the claim for asylum is granted, the refugee is normally allowed to
stay in the host country. If the claim is turned down the immigrant
may be deported.
The majority of asylum seekers are from the middle and near east
(Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan) or other countries where
political and ethnic difficulties exist (Russia, Serbia, Sudan and
Somalia).

62. From 2000 migration between the EU has increased with many
nations experiencing positive net migration.
There is a negative net migration however for the Eastern
European countries-as many are low income so people seek better
economic opportunities (post accession migration - since joining
the EU).
The core EU countries(UK, Germany and France) have positive net
migration (mainly from Eastern Europe and from outside).
EU countries around the Mediterranean basin have the highest net
migration as ‘sun seekers’ move from the North to the South
especially people retiring and migration from Africa.

63.  1995 EU border controls were removed when the Schengen
Agreement was put in place. This enabled the easier movements
of goods and people (often without passports). The UK did not
sign, preferring to keep its border controls. The new EU members in
eastern Europe implemented this agreement in 2007-2008.
 2004 was the original EU expansion of 8 low income Eastern
European countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Hungary,
Slovenia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic). UK allowed free
migration of these people (as well as Switzerland and Ireland) but
other EU member states imposed restrictions for up to 7 years.
 Schengen brings benefits, as EU labour can move to where there is
demand, but also costs – once someone is in one EU country, they
can move to most others with ease. The EU has set up Frontex, an
external border control to stop illegal migrants seeping in the
borders with non-EU members.

64. Pull Factors
• The lifting of restrictions in the UK with the
A8 countries joining the EU in May 2004
• A8 nationals coming to the United
Kingdom are legally allowed to work, if
registered with the Government's Worker
Registration Scheme
• Polish newspapers full of recruitment
adverts from agencies
• Higher wages – e.g. nurses can earn 4
times the amount than back home
• Free health care – NHS spent £350 million
on maternity services for foreign-born
mothers
• Free education
• Cheap accommodation – the housing in
the UK is cheaper and of better quality
• Ease of migration – Only UK, Ireland &
Sweden decided to allow unlimited
migration from the new member
countries in 2004
• Good Exchange rate – migrants send
remittances (money) home to their
families
Push Factors
• Increased insecurity and lower
living standards in Poland
• Unemployment: 20 – 35%
• 40% youth unemployment rate.
• Low income levels per capita -
around 40% of the European
average
• Cuts in the public sector have
meant that workers have faced
falling real wages and an
intensification of work.
• A reduction in farm subsidies is on
the horizon in the form of the
Hausner Plan.
• Low availability of housing – in
2004 there were 300 dwellings for
every 1000 people

65. Source Benefits Source Negatives Host Benefits Host Negatives
Economic Polish
economy grows
because money
is sent back to
Poland.
Shortage of labourers as most
migrants are working age =
economy doesn’t grow as much
Migrants who plan to settle only
send around 8% remittances
home
Fills skills gaps – many
are highly skilled
Workers will work for
less than British workers
Money earned by the
polish workers isn’t all spent
in the UK but send home to
Poland
Drives wages for jobs
down
Exploitation from agency
‘masters’
Social Skills learnt
can be taken
back to Poland
Unemployed
reduced
Poland’s population has fallen
Birth rate decreased as people
of reproductive age are leaving
Growing worker exploitation of
polish
Significant amounts of ‘brain
drain’
Ageing population develops
Family break up as generally
young men migrate leaving
families behind
A culture of emigration and a
sense that leaving is a good thing
- societies undervalue themselves
Migration of working
age has helped the
problems caused by the
UKs ageing population
Young migrants pay
taxes which support
older retired people
Increased culture as
Polish products have
opened up areas
Numbers attending
Catholic church has
increased
Increased strain on
services e.g. education/
health care
Social/cultural tensions
Perception and prejudice
Increased crimes
Overcrowding
Demand for resources
such as housing leads to
shortages, rising prices etc
Language support
needed
Environmental Less pressure
on resources
such as land
Increased immigration
from Poland has meant
more air travel = global
warming
Increased congestion,
urban air pollution and
urban sprawl

66. • Young migrants, just finished vocational training or secondary education:
80% of all A8 migrants to the UK are 18–34 years old; 18–24-year-olds form
the largest age group (43% of total migrants).
• The vast majority of the 800,000 to 1 million migrants who have come to the
UK since 2004 are from Poland. There are also significant numbers from
Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia.
• These migrants represent 4–5% of the labour force of their source countries
(2007).
• In the past, immigration has tended to concentrate in urban areas.
However, many have settled in rural areas and work on farms and in food
processing. The UK’s A8 rural hotspots are: Peterborough and Herefordshire
In 2007 10% of the people living in some rural areas were immigrants.
• Temporary immigrants send about 25% of their earnings home as
remittances. Immigrants who plan to settle in the UK send only about 8%
home. For Poland, this income amounted to around €6.4 billion in 2006, or
2.5% of Polish gross national income (GNI).
• Average earnings in the UK for the Poles are only about £6 per hour. There is
also a growing problem with worker exploitation as unscrupulous gangs
prey on A8 workers.
• A significant brain drain is also occurring from Poland.
• For some A8 countries, the loss of its more able workforce is significant.

67.  The Spanish Costas have long been a popular destination for
Northern Europeans. 1.8 million properties are foreign owned, with
600,000 of them being British. A lot of them are holiday owned, but a
large number are permanent residents. 60% of migrants are over 45,
with a large part of this being a retired population, business owners
and property speculators.
Push and Pull Factors
• Spanish climate is warmer than Britain and has less rainfall – this leads
to improved health.
• Lower property prices in Spain and increased value in properties in
UK – lump sum to support their retirement.
• Lower tax rates and reduced cost of living.
• Slower lifestyle.
• Lower crime rate
• Family and friend can holiday there.
• A reduction in distance between Spain and the UK due to the rise of
low cost airlines such as easyJet and increased internet use means
they can keep in contact with family and friends back home, using
social networking sites such as Skype and Facebook.

68. Negatives
Housing Although housing is cheaper many areas have no access to
mains water so have to use deposit tanks which isn’t safe to drink
50000 illegal homes built in Spain and many Britain’s have brought
these
Valencia law – allows developers to build on part of your land if it
will improve the area for other people
Often purpose build accommodation is isolated
•Coastal development has lead to destruction of natural landscape
•Inflation of property prices
Services Postal system is not very organised
Health system struggles to cope with increased demand
Health care bills very expensive (no National Health Service and
they are away from their families often)
Isolated retirement communities and designed for people in good
health, not for people who are frail
Social Language barrier – people struggle to communicate and
integrate with locals = conflicts

69. The policy tries to balance the costs of migration with the benefits and only
allows certain migrants: genuine applications, favouring those with skills and
education, and the Worker Registration scheme (WRS) allows those who will fill
low-skill, low wage gaps.
In 2005/2006 2.75 million applied for a visa to the UK, which is 57% more than in
2001/2002, and around 20% were refused due to forged documents.
In 2008 the UK introduced the 5 Tier points based system from non-EU
immigrants:
1. Tier One: Highly skilled - This tier includes entrepreneurs, top scientists and
business people. No job offer will be required.
2. Tier two: Skilled with job offer - People with qualifications / work-related
experience; job offer in a "shortage area" such as nursing.
3. Tier three: Low skilled - Workers from the expanded European Union, who
do not need prior permission to arrive.
4. Tier four: Students - Those paying for tuition in the UK.
5. Tier five: Temporary workers, Youth mobility - Professional sports people or
professional musicians, who want to work in the UK for an event such as the
Olympics or a football match, or a concert. The youth mobility aspect is
intended to cover cultural exchanges or working holidays by young
people.

70. Policy Advantages Disadvantages
Border Controls Physical borders, policing, passports
and visas all gov’s to count people
in and out
Cost of installing systems –
UK’s border control runs
at £2 billion. May put of
potential highly skilled
migrants
Work Permits Allows temporary workers to be
controlled and matched to skills
shortages
Can be abused, with
some not leaving when
their time is up and
becoming illegal
immigrants
Refugees and
asylum seekers
Prestige gained by accepting
vulnerable groups and respecting
human rights
Public may perceive
refugees and asylum
seekers as a cost with few
benefits attached.
Asylum system is costly.
Integration Citizenship tests such as in the UK
and USA might help integration by
expecting a basic level of
language and understanding of
cultural norms
Critics argue passing a
test does not prevent
social tensions and racism

71. World Cities

72.  Two processes are key to the growth of a city. The first is internal growth
results from city dwellers having a high birth rate. The second is rural-urban
migration. Most of those who move to cities from the countryside are
young, fertile people who therefore cause a high birth rate within cities –
migration fuels high internal growth.
 The poorest areas of the world have the fastest urban growth rates, and
migration tends to dominate internal growth. This is even more the case
when one city dominates in a country, with much of the growth consisting
of slums.
 Many rural-urban migrants are well informed about the city to which they
are migrating. Extended family or friends may have arranged jobs for the
migrants. The majority who move are young and relatively skilled. They may
be aware that life in the cities is not good, but will put up with the problems
in the short-term knowing that it will benefit them in the long-term.
Slum – an urban settlement in which, according to the UN, over 50%
of its inhabitants lack one or more of the following: durable housing,
sufficient living area, improved water supply, access to sanitation
and secure tenure (ownership).

73. 1. Urbanisation:
• The growth in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
• It occurs because of migration – especially rural-urban migration.
• Urbanisation is happening quickly in developing countries because of
massive rural-urban migration – poor migrants set up shanty towns.
2. Sub-urbanisation:
• The movement of people from the city centre to lower density housing on
the outskirts of the city.
• As urbanisation increases, city centres become overcrowded. Improvements
in infrastructure mean people can live further away and still travel to the
centre easily.
• As megacities grow, more suburbs are added so older suburbs aren’t on the
outskirts anymore.
• A complex pattern of wealthy and poorer areas develop. Wealthy people
live in the suburbs on the outskirts of the city because they can afford bigger
houses. Also, they move into poorer areas and renovate the houses –
gentrification.

74. 3. Counter-urbanisation:
• The movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural
areas.
• Improvements in transport and communications mean people can
commute to work or work from home.
• This happens because of high property prices and overcrowding in cities.
People may also prefer more quiet rural areas.
4. Re-urbanisation:
• The movement of people back into redeveloped city centre residential
areas.
• In developed countries, lots of city centres have been redeveloped. This
attracts young, affluent people who want to be near the cultural activity of
the city centre, e.g. redeveloped canal areas such as Brindleyplace,
Birmingham.

75. Megacity – An urban area with a population of over 8 million.
Rapidly growing cities and megacities are very diverse. This is for a number of
reasons:
• Level of development. Many of Asia’s cities are centres of wealth, many of
Africa’s are desperately poor.
• Type of migrant. Some migrants may be young, skilled and entrepreneurial,
others may be older, poorer and perhaps forced to migrate.
• Growth characteristics. Some cities may be growing largely because of
migration, others by internal growth.
• Planning. Many Asian cities are beginning to plan their growth, whereas in
Africa planning is prevented by poverty and lack of planners.
• Rate of population growth. This varies from 2-4% per year for Latin American
cities, to 4-8% for some African and Asian cities.
• Processes. Different urban process are occurring in different cities – the cycle
of urbanisation.

76. Urban cycle:
• Massive urbanisation is occurring – people are migrating to Mumbai from all
over India.
• Suburbanisation is occurring – some people are moving north, away from
the inner city on the southern tip of the island. Suburbs are being built along
the main rail and road routes out of the city.
Economy:
• Unit the 1980s, the economy was based mainly on textiles manufacturing
and shipping. There’s been an increase in IT and financial services.
• Mumbai’s a major centre for out-sourced work, e.g. the UK-based financial
services company Prudential has its call-centre in Greater Mumbai.
• Mumbai’s a major media centre for India, e.g. the Bollywood film industry.
Housing patterns:
• The wealthiest area (Malabar Hill) is near to the Central Business District.
• Half of the population of Mumbai live in shanty towns, e.g. Dharavi is the
biggest shanty town – it’s next to the CBD.
Interlinked:
• Cadbury’s has its global headquarters in London, and its subsidiary
company, Cadbury India, has its main office in Greater Mumbai. There are
flows of trade, money, information and people between the company.

77. World city – a city with major economic and political power. Examples are New
York and Paris.
A world city is not defined by size, but by influence. This might take the form of:
• Political influence – New York is home to the United Nations.
• Transport and communications – Heathrow in London has more international
passengers than any other airport.
• Economic power – the presence of stock exchanges and the headquarters
of major TNCs.
Full World Cities Major World Cities Minor World Cities
Developed
world
London, New York, Paris,
Tokyo, Chicago,
Frankfurt, Hong Kong,
Los Angeles, Milan,
Singapore
San Francisco, Sydney,
Toronto, Zurich,
Brussels, Madrid,
Moscow
Amsterdam, Boston,
Düsseldorf,
Melbourne, Prague,
Washington, Rome,
Stockholm, Berlin,
Budapest, Miami
Developing
world
Mexico City, São
Paulo, Seoul
Bangkok, Beijing,
Buenos Aires,
Istanbul,, Manila,
Shanghai,
Johannesburg.

78. To move up the urban hierarchy towards world city status, economic
development needs to go hand in hand with social and environmental
improvements. Many of the features of sustainable cities depend on
good urban governance.
Growing in cities in poorer countries can be unsustainable for several
reasons:
• Lack of adequate housing – due to rapid growth, poverty and lack
of resources.
• Poor health – linked to lack of water, sanitation and medical facilities.
• Weak urban governance – a lack of will, combined with a lack of
resources, makes change difficult.
• Low environment quality – resulting from poor transport infrastructure,
lack of waste systems and industrial pollution
• Poverty – resulting from low wages and underemployment.

79. Strategy Disadvantages Advantages
Eviction – The UN estimates
that 6.7 million people were
evicted from slums, 2000 -
2002.
• International
condemnation.
• The process is often
violent and chaotic.
• Slums may reappear.
• A rapid solution with
immediate impact.
• Allow infrastructure
projects to complete.
• Will work if new housing is
provided.
Security of tenure – 30-50%
of people in developing
cities have no legal right to
occupy the land they
inhibit.
• Compensation may
have to be paid to
landowners.
• Encourage further illegal
land occupation.
• No guarantee that
homes will improve.
• Low cost.
• Utility companies will
connect areas with
secure tenure.
• Groups may form to
improve conditions.
Consolidation – residents
gradually improve their
homes.
• Starts when tenure is
secured.
• May take decades.
• Poor quality of life.
• Proceeds at an
affordable pace.
• Low cost.
Social housing – new homes
are built for slum dwellers.
• May lead to eviction.
• Costly.
• Open to corruption.
• Creates good-quality
housing.
• Removes slum housing
quickly.

80. Global Challenges for the Future

81. Economic benefits
• Emergence of worldwide production markets - different countries can
specialise and use resources optimally to produce the goods and services
they are able to do most efficiently.
• Consumers get much wider variety of products to choose from and at
more competitive prices.
• Companies are able to procure input goods and services required at most
competitive prices.
• Companies get access to much wider markets.
• Increased free trade between nations e.g. Trade blocs/EU/NAFTA.
• Businesses and investors get much wider opportunities for investment.
• Increased liquidity of capital allowing investors in developed nations to
invest in developing nations.
• Rise of Tiger Economies (countries like South Korea) have benefited from
rapid growth due to FDI.
• People in these NICS enjoy significantly higher incomes and purchasing
power parity.
• Helpful in employment generation and income generation.
• Multiplier effect.
• Standardisation of products: the same products can be seen in many
places, e.g. Coke and McDonalds.
Benefits of Globalisation

82. • Some use "globalisation" to mean the creation of a world government which
regulates the relationships among governments and guarantees the rights
arising from social and economic globalisation. Politically, the United States
has enjoyed a position of power among the world powers; in part because
of its strong and wealthy economy.
• With the influence of globalisation the People's Republic of China has
experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. If China
continues to grow at the rate projected by the trends, then it is very likely
that in the next twenty years, there will be a major reallocation of power
among the world leaders. China will have enough wealth, industry, and
technology to rival the United States for the position of leading world power.
• Spread of democratic ideals to developed nations
• Reduction of likelihood of war between developed nations
• So it promotes understanding and goodwill among different countries.

83. • Increase in information flows between geographically remote locations. Arguably this is a
technological change with the advent of fibre optic communications, satellites, and
increased availability of telephone and Internet.
• Growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and
identities which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to increase one's standard of living
and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and
participate in a "world culture“ (global village effect).
• Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity (e.g.
through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies). Some consider multiculturalism
to promote peace and understanding between peoples.
• Greater international travel and tourism. WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are
on planes at any time.
• Higher levels of health care and education in developing countries
• Greater immigration, including illegal immigration
• Spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to other countries (often adapted to their
culture – through glocalisation).
• Worldwide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games.
• Development of the system of non-governmental organisations as main agents of global
public policy, including humanitarian aid and developmental efforts.
• The creation of the international criminal court and international justice movements.
• Raising awareness of global crime-fighting efforts and cooperation.
• The emergence of Global administrative law.
• Language - the most popular language is English. About 35% of the world's mail, telexes,
and cables are in English. Approximately 40% of the world's radio programs and about
50% of all Internet traffic uses English.

84. • Global environmental challenges might be solved with international
cooperation, such as:
─ climate change,
─ cross-boundary water and air pollution,
─ over-fishing of the ocean,
─ and the spread of invasive species.
• Increases in environmental protection in developed nations

85.  The interconnectedness of these markets, however meant that an economic collapse in
any one given country could not be contained. The growth was quicker than any
transnational regulatory regime, so the instability of the global financial infrastructure
dramatically increased, as evidenced by the 2008 + financial crises.
 Exploitation of Underdeveloped Countries: TNCs, based in developed countries, purchase at
lower rates the raw materials from backward countries, process them overseas or in their
own countries and sell the manufactured goods with big profit in backward countries.
 Increase in Unemployment: TNCs employ machines to reduce the number of employees:
they are capital intensive rather than labour intensive. Further, the governments of
developing countries have started withdrawing investment from industries in the public
sector. All this has led to huge unemployment in those countries.
 Deindustrialisation and unemployment in MEDCs due to the global shift and outsourcing in
some cases, e.g. moving call centers to India.
 Widening of Rich-poor Gap: Globalisation brings benefits to the rich who are small in
number and keeps the vast majority of people in poverty and misery. It is a game of winners
and losers. Those who are already rich succeed in taking advantage of privatisation while
the poor and weak are doomed to suffer.
 Harmful Effects of Consumerism: Globalisation produces consumerism. People being
attracted by attractive goods and advertisements, want to buy these goods. They would
not hesitate to earn money for this by unfair means. This has resulted in vast increase in
corruption and other social evils.
 Harmful Effects on Small Industries and Small Business: In the free economy, the big fish has
got license to eat the small fish. Small-scale and cottage industries cannot grow in
competition with big ones, this leads to cloning in our high streets.

86.  Adverse Effects on Social Security and Social Welfare: Because of privatisation,
governments in many LEDCs are withdrawing from the sector of social welfare, and private
companies have entered education, health and other such fields related to development.
As a result of this, poor people are facing a lot of difficulties.
 Cultural Homogenisation: Each nation/society has its own distinct culture, but under
globalisation the cultures of LEDCS are eroded and they are required to accept the values
and norms of developed countries. E.g. fast food. Some people feel their cultures are being
diluted.
 Erosion of Democracy: Globalisation has considerably increased the wealth and power of
TNCS and they have tended to interfere with and control the economic policy and politics
of developing countries.
 Gender-Insensitive: women have suffered a lot under globalisation. In the privatized
economy, the interests and concerns of women, particularly of poor women, have been
seriously ignored.
 Creation of a two speed world between and within countries– number of billionaires at their
highest and yet many still live in poverty. Wealthiest 1% get the same money as poorest 57%,
e.g. Dhavari.
 Sweatshops – low wages, long hours and poor working conditions. Many factory workers
(see p 161 Philip Allan)
 Child labour -An estimated 211 million children between the ages of 5 and 14 are working
around the world according to the International Labor Organization. In places like factories
and on plantations e.g. cocoa farms of the Ivory coast (see documentary on blog).
 More international crime – e.g. gun crimes on deindustrialised estates in inner cities of the UK
and due to migration Roma gypsies in UK and Spain
 Human trafficking

87. • Deforestation - Rainforest exploitation occurs due to developing countries
trying to repay international debts, and to try to become more developed
through earning money. Also developed countries are looking to the
rainforest as resources are becoming more scarce. Deforestation is an
environmental disaster due to the exploitation of rainforest resources:
• Hardwood trees such as mahogany for furniture, paper etc.
• Oil
• Gold
• Cattle ranching
• Many factories are built in developing countries with less environmental
regulation. Globalism and free trade may increase pollution. (On the other
hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage,
and it is argued that developing countries should not, via regulation, be
prohibited from increasing their standard of living.)
• Oil spills
• Pollution in towns and cities through more and more cars on the roads – acid
rain and global warming
• Pollution of water sources through over abstraction and industrial waste
• General waste as a result of consumer living

88. Strategy Example Viability
Fair Trade
An attempt to reduce the
economic unfairness of
globalisation.
Shoppers can choose to buy
fair trade coffee and more
of the money goes to the
producers of the coffee
beans.
Buying fair trade good means more
money goes to poor workers. As the
number of schemes grows, it becomes
harder to monitor how ‘fair’ they are.
Ethically sourced goods
Consumers can avoid
purchasing goods produced
under exploitative
sweatshop conditions.
Gap received bad publicity
during the 1990s due to
claims that Indonesian staff
suffered poor working
conditions.
Outsourcing and supply chains among
TNCs make codes of practice hard to
enforce. Goods produced for
companies by third parties may have
used sweatshop labour.
Charitable donations and
international aid
NGOs collect money directly
from the public to help
address the economic
unfairness of globalisation.
In 1984-1985, 2004-2005 and
in 2014-2015, Band Aid raised
money for famine relief and
for Ebola.
Aid can result in dependency for
poorer nations and can make it
difficult for emerging businesses to
profit. In Zambia, clothing
manufacturers have gone bankrupt
due to the second-hand clothes
donated by OECD countries.
Trade reforms
Governments and
international lobbying
organisations have tried to
improve terms of trade for
poor nations.
Huge subsidies paid to
European farmers under the
Common Agricultural Policy
and protective trade tariffs
encircling the EU force up
the cost of imported African
goods.
The Commission for Africa has drawn
attention to the need for reforms of
subsidies, tariffs and non-tariff barriers
for poorer countries. European farmers
resist measures that open markets up
to greater competitions, as this could
threaten their livelihoods.

89. Recycling, reusing and refusing:
Many local campaigns exist to raise awareness of recycling or refusing to buy
items that carry too much packaging. The viability of recycling schemes can be
threatened by the energy used in shipping much of the paper and glass to
China for reprocessing. The cheap cost of imported goods encourages people
to treat many items, such as clothes and mobile phones as disposable.
Local buying:
Fiji water is a brand of bottled water that is transported from Fiji to the UK –
drinking water is available from taps in the UK at a far less cost to the
environment. Locally produced meat and vegetables may cost fewer food
miles than imported food. The energy used in producing winter crops in
greenhouses can generate even more carbon emissions than importing food.
Organic buying:
Attempts to reduce the environmental impacts of food production by avoiding
the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. However, organic food is often
imported from abroad, making it energy intensive.
Carbon credits
Offers the chance to erase the environmental damage caused by greenhouse
gas emissions. Trees soak up carbon dioxide, so paying for a tree planted after
you have taken a flight abroad can neutralise some of the carbon produced.