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International Conference on
 Language, Literature and
          Culture



                              2
THE STUDY OF GRAMMATICAL COLLOCATION
  A SURVEY OF AZERBAIJANIAN ENGLISH
              LEARNERS'
     KNOWLEDGE OF COLLOCATION OF
             PREPOSITIONS



               Parisa Farrokh
               p_farrokh@yahoo.com
               English Translation
               Department, Lahijan Branch,
               Islamic Azad University,
               Lahijan,
               Lahijan, Iran                 3
Abstract
This paper has a two fold purpose.First to survey different
linguistic attitudes toward the phenomenon of collocation
and it's categorization as well as to emphasize the role of
grammatical collocation in the process of second language
learning.Second the present study aims to find out the
Azerbaijanian English learners‘ knowledge of collocation
of prepositions based on Benson et al s categorization .
Since preposition is not used in Azeri, therefore the results
of this study may be used as additional information for the
teachers especially in teaching English grammar and
translation courses.
                                                          4
Also, the results may help Azerbaijanian
translators, English learners and translator
trainees for being able to provide the best
translation     of    English      collocation     of
prepositions. In Benson et al's category the
collocation divided into two main groups: lexical
and grammatical collocations. Each group
subdivided into different collocations of noun ,verb
,adjective, adverb and preposition. Collocation of
prepositions    subcategorized     in    grammatical
collocation and consists of four collocations :verb+
preposition,    noun+      preposition,    adjective+
preposition and preposition+noun.30 junior English
                 preposition+noun.30
learners of Azerbaijan University of Foreign
                                                    5
Languages participated in this experiment.
They were selected from 50 students who participated in
an OPT general proficiency test. To conduct the present
study, a completion multiple choice test involves 40
questions ,10 questions for each collocation, was given to
the students .Atotal of 1010 collocational errors was
found.287errors related to verb+preposition,275 errors
related to preposition+noun,230 errors related to noun+
preposition and 200 errors related to adjective+
preposition. Based on the findings of this research, the
errors of collocation of prepositions resulted either from
ignorance of rule restrictions or interlingual transfer.
KeyWords: collocation, grammatical collocation,
preposition ,collocation of prepositions,
                                                       6
Introduction
 Although it is generally accepted that
 collocations are both indispensable and at
 the same time problematic for foreign language
 learners and especially for adult learners,
 learners’ difficulties with collocations have not
 been investigated in detail by EFL practitioners
 so far (Nesselhauf, 2003). They therefore should
         Nesselhauf, 2003)
 play an important role in second or foreign
 language acquisition .


                                                 7
The aim of this research is the investigation of
collocation,     grammatical     collocation   and
Azerbaijanian English learners‘ knowledge of
collocation of prepositions based on Benson et
al's categorization.
     categorization.
In this relation ,the research questions have been
formulated as follows:do Azerbaijanian English
                 follows:
learners' have problem in collocation of
prepositions?what are the most frequent errors
of collocation of prepositions?what is/are the
main source(s) of errors of collocation of
prepositions?

                                                 8
The following gives a general review of the
literature related to English collocation. First of
                                collocation.
all, the notion of collocation that was introduced
by different scholars is reviewed. In addition, the
                          reviewed.
scholars’ viewpoints about the differences
between       collocation     and     other   word
combinations were reviewed, too. After that, the
                                 too.
types of collocations classified by different
researchers are investigated. Last, the study on
                   investigated.
Azerbaijanian English learners' knowledge of
collocation of prepositions and the sources of
errors of collocation of prepositions         were
discussed.
discussed.
                                                  9
Notion of Collocation
Collocation, originated from the field of lexicon
  studies, is a term defined and understood in
  many different ways (Bahns, 1993). Generally,
                         Bahns, 1993)
  there were two different sides of assertions about
  this term. One of them argued that collocation
       term.
  was related to meaning; the other argued that
                  meaning;
  collocation was not a semantic relation between
  words.
  words.

                                                  10
The literature reviews related to the two assertions
  were arranged in this section.On the one hand,
                          section.
  for the assertion that collocation was concerning
  meaning, J. R.Firth has been regarded as the one
  responsible for bringing the term into
  prominence in the field of lexicon study (Carter
  &McCarthy, 1988; Hill, 2000). In Firth's view,
                1988;        2000)
  the meaning of a word should be known by the
  company it keeps (Hill, 2000). In other words,
                             2000)
  collocation was about the meaning of a word and
  about its relationship with other words (Hill,
  2000)
  2000).

                                                   11
Such a notion about collocation is often applied
to the subsequent research related to collocation.
                                      collocation.
Similar to McIntosh (1961) and Palmer (1976),
                        1961)               1976),
Bolinger and Sears (1981) also mentioned that
                      1981)
the ranges and variety of collocations were
enormous.
enormous. They regarded collocation as a kind
of habitual association of words and asserted
that collocations resulted from native speakers'
experiences of the expressions repeated again
and again in certain given circumstances.
                           circumstances.




                                                 12
Therefore, depending on the context, the
collocations, like good chance, high probability,
and strong likelihood, might be considered
acceptable, but the collocations like strong
chance, good probability, and high
likelihood, unacceptable. Sinclair (1966), in a
                                       (1966),
volume of papers in memory of J. R. Firth,
showed an interest in generating lexical sets by
the use of collocation. For Sinclair, grammar and
lexis were two different aspects.




                                                13
Grammar could be described by structures
(syntagms) and systems (paradigms), while lexis
 syntagms)
was about lexical items collocating with one
another—collocations
another—                  and sets
respectively.
respectively.According to Sinclair, collocation
was referred to as the co-occurrence of two
                          co-
words, but this co-occurrence was not indicative
                co-
of two words occurring as a small fixed
grammatical set. Instead, it had two important
              set.
features.
features.
First, there might be several or many words
between the two relevant items or the two
relevant items might even occur over sentence
boundaries.
boundaries.                                    14
Second, collocation was independent of grammatical
  types.
  types. In other words, collocation was not analyzed
  by grammatical structures. The examples “he
                     structures.
  argued strongly,” “the strength of his argument,”
  “his argument was strengthened” (Carter &
  McCarthy, 1988, p. 35) illustrate a constant
               1988,      35)
  relationship between the two words. On the other
                                 words.
  hand, however, some researchers held different
  views from the above scholars' opinions. For
                                       opinions.
  example, McCarthy (1991) argued that the notion
                        1991)
  of collocation was made use of as a kind of
  cohesive device.
            device.

                                                  15
He claimed that "collocation refers to the
probability that lexical items will co-occur, and is
                                    co-
not a semantic relation between words." (p. 65).
                                    words. (p. 65)
Such opinion suggested that collocation served
other function besides meaning in sentences.
                                         sentences.
Another instance was Aghbar's (1990)          1990)
proclamation.
proclamation.He proposed that the notion of
collocation was not raised creatively for the first
time;
time; in fact, people had a memory of having
heard or seen these constructions before and
used them as such.
              such.



                                                   16
Collocation and Other
Combination of Words
Words can be combined in numerous ways to form
 meaningful thought groups if those words not
 restricted.
 restricted. That is what makes it hard to clarify
 the notion of collocation. Among these possible
               collocation.
 combinations of words, some are fixed and
 others are more loose.
                  loose.



                                                 17
In order to attain a clearer understanding of
  collocation, it is necessary to draw a distinction
  among collocations, idioms, and other kinds of
  word combinations (Bahns, 1993; Wang, 2001;
                         Bahns, 1993;          2001;
  Wu, 1996), though these combinations are quite
       1996),
  similar to one another, even, in a sense,
  belonging to the category of collection. Wood
                                   collection.
  (1981) adopted both semantic and syntactic
   1981)
  criteria for distinguishing collocations from
  idioms, colligations, and free combinations. In
                                   combinations.
  Wood's point of view, an idiom was fully non- non-
  compositional and non-productive, while a free
                       non-
  combination was fully compositional and
  productive.
  productive.
                                                   18
. However, Wood's interpretation about collocation
   and colligation is still rather vague. On the other
   hand, a collocation, as Nattinger and DeCarrico
   (1992) suggested, with its meaning in a
   restricted sense, was less frozen than an idiom,
   and a colligation was compositional and
   permitted only limited lexical variation.
   Lewis(2000) had far more explanation to
   differentiate collocation from colligation.




                                                     19
Collocation is the way one word co-occurs with
                                        co-
  another word, colligation is the way one word
  regularly co-occurs with a particular (grammar)
              co-
  pattern, so, for example some verbs typically
  occur with a particular tense, or a noun might
  typically appear preceded by a personal
  pronoun, rather than an article (pass my/your
  driving test, It's my/your/our responsibility to...,
  but I'll take the responsibility for...) (p. 137)
                                               137)
  Benson,       Benson,      and     Ilson       (1986b)
                                                  1986b)
  distinguished        collocations      from       other
  combinations of words--compounds, idioms,
                        words--compounds,
  transitional        combinations          (transitional
  collocations), and free combinations..                20
The following are the summaries of the five types
  of word combinations, which are listed from the
  most fixed combination to the freest one
  proposed by Benson (1989) and Benson et al.
                        1989)                  al.
  (1986b).
   1986b).




                                                 21
1. Compounds, the most fixed word combination,
  are completely frozen, and no variations at all
  were possible. The instances of nominal
          possible.
  compounds are like “floppy disk” and “aptitude
  test”, and an illustration of compound verb (or
  phrasal verb) is break through”.
                         through”.
2. Idioms referred to relatively frozen expressions
  whose meanings did not reflect the meanings of
  their component parts. The illustrations of
                      parts.
  idioms were to “kill two birds with one stone”,
  “to kick the bucket”, “to spill .the beans”, and so
  on.
  on.

                                                    22
3.       Transitional       combinations       (transitional
     collocations), whose meanings were close to
     their component parts, were regarded as more
     frozen and less variable than collocations.
                                               collocations.
     Instances of such were “for old time's sake”, “the
     facts of life”, “to be in a tight spot”, and the like.
                                                      like.
4. Collocations were loosely fixed, arbitrary
     recurrent word combinations and the meaning
     of the whole did reflect the meaning of the parts.
                                                 parts.
     “Pure chance”, “to commit murder”, “close
     attention”, and “keen competition” shared the
     features of this category.
                      category.

                                                          23
5. Free combinations were taken as the least
 cohesive of all combinations. Their components
 were the freest in regard to being combined with
 other lexical items.The typical combinations of
 this sort were “to recall an adventure” (an event,
 an accident) and “to analyze” (report,
 investigate) a murder.




                                                  24
Echoing what Benson et al. (1986b) attested,
                              al. 1986b)
  Bahns (1993) also admitted that different from
          1993)
  idioms, the main characteristics of collocations
  were that their meanings reflected the meaning
  of their constituent parts, and that, in
  comparison with free combination, they were
  used frequently, sprang to mind readily, and
  were psychologically salient. In other words,
                          salient.
  there are "transitional areas" (Cruse, 1986, p. 41
                                         1986,
  between free combinations and collocations, and
  between collocations and idioms).
                             idioms).

                                                   25
The Classification of Collocations

When it comes to the classification of collocation,
 Benson et al.'s (1986a) has been second to none
            al. 1986a)
 so far (Liu, 1999a, Tsai, 1996). Much collocation
              1999a,       1996)
 research (Bahns 1993;Chang, 1997; Liu, 1999a,
                   1993;         1997;      1999a,
 1999b, 2000a
 1999b, 2000a; Wang, 2001) was conducted by
                         2001)
 using what Benson et al. advocated about
                             al.
 collocation.
 collocation.




                                                  26
According to Benson et' al., collocation could be
sorted systematically into two major groups--
                                          groups--
lexical    collocations       and     grammatical
collocations. A lexical collocation could be made
up of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, like
“warmest regards”, “strictly accurate”, and etc.
There were seven types of lexical collocations,
labeled from a to g, whose structures and
examples were given below.




                                                 27
Lexical Collocations Adapted
 from Benson et al. (1986a)
                al. 1986a)

 a.verb (donating creation or activation)+ noun
 (pronoun or prep. phrase)
               prep.
 compose music; make an impression;
            music;         impression;
 b. verb (meaning eradication or nullification)+
 noun
 revoke a license; demolish a house
           license;
 c. adjective + noun
                                             28
strong tea; a rough estimate
       tea;
d. noun + verb
bees buzz; bombs explode
     buzz;
e. noun1 of noun2
   noun1 noun2
a pack of dogs; a herd of buffalo
           dogs;
a herd of buffalo
f.adjective + adverb/ adverb + adjective
sound asleep; hopelessly addicted
       asleep;
g. verb + adverb
anchor firmly; argue heatedly
        firmly;
                                           29
On the other hand, a grammatical collocation was
 made up of a dominant word,such as a noun, an
 adjective, or a verb, and a preposition or
 grammatical structure like an infinitive or a
 clause.
 clause. Benson et al. (1986a) further categorized
                    al. 1986a)
 the grammatical collocations into eight small
 groups, marked as G1 to G8, among which, G8
 collocations contained nineteen English verb
 patterns.
 patterns. To make the types clear, the researcher
 of the present study has listed the structures and
 examples of grammatical collocations here.
                                         here.



                                                  30
G1 noun + preposition ;          Apathy toward
G2 noun + to inf.
              inf.               He was a fool to
do it.
   it.
G3 noun + that clause                He took an
oath that he would do his duty.
                           duty.
G4 preposition + noun;
                   noun;          in advance; at
                                     advance;
anchor
G5 adjective + preposition       They are afraid
of him.
   him.
G6 predicate adjective +to inf.
                            inf.   It was stupid
for them to go.
            go.
G7 adjective + that clause        She was afraid
that she would fail the exam.
                        exam.                   31
G8There are 19 patterns in G8:
 svo to o (or) svoo
He sent a book to his brother. He sent his brother
                        brother.
 abook
 svo to o
 They described the book to her.
                              her.
 svo for o (or) svoo
She bought a shirt for her husband. She bought
                              husband.
 her husband a shirt.
                 shirt.
 sv prep. o (or) svo prep. O
    prep.            prep.
He came by train .We invited them to the meeting.
                                         meeting.

                                                 32
Sv to inf.
      inf.               They began to speak
  sv inf.
     inf.                     He had better go.
                                            go.
  svv-ing
  svv-                        They enjoy
  watching television.
  svo to inf.                 She asks me to
  come.
  svo inf.                    She heard them
  leave.
  svov-
  svov-ing                    I caught them
  stealing apples.



                                               33
sv possessive v-ing
              v-         Please excuse my
waking you so early.
sv(o) that-clause
sv(o) that-              They admitted
that they were wrong.
svo to be c             We consider her
to be very capable.
Svoc                    She dyed her hair
red.
svoo                    We bet her ten
pounds.



                                            34
sv(o)adverbial
  sv(o)adverbial                       He carried
  himself well.
  sv(o) wh-word
  sv(o) wh-                            He wants what I
  want.
  s(it) vo to inf. (or) s(it) vo that-clause
                                 that-
It surprised me to learn of her decision.
 It surprised me that our offer was rejected.
  svc (adjective or noun)
She was enthusiastic. The flowers smell nice




                                                         35
Sinclair (1991) divided collocation into two kinds--
          1991)                               kinds--
  downward collocation and upward collocation.
                                         collocation.
  Different from Benson et al., Sinclair made use
                              al.
  of two terms to classify collocations. One was the
                           collocations.
  term "node," which was employed to stand for
  the word studied; the other was the term
              studied;
  "collocate," used to represent any word
  occurring in the specified environment of a node.
                                                node.
  Based on Sinclair's assertment, when A was
                         assertment,
  "node" and B was "collocate"--collocation of A
                       "collocate"--collocation
  with a less frequent word B, it was called
  downward collocation, which contributed to a
  semantic analysis of a word.
                         word.
                                                    36
The examples of this type were “advantage over”,
  “afraid of”, “attitude toward”, and etc. In etc.
  contrast, when B was "node" and A was
  "collocate," it was called upward collocation. The
                                     collocation.
  examples of this type were “on purpose”, “by
  accident”, “with caution”, etc. In this kind of
                                etc.
  collocation, “the words tended to be elements of
  grammatical frames, or superordinates"(p. 116).
                            superordinates"(p. 116)




                                                   37
Similar to Benson et al. (1986a), Lewis (2000)
                         al. 1986a),         2000)
  listed different types of collocations that were
  found regularly together if collocation was
  defined as the way words occurred together.
                                          together.
  More types beyond Benson et al.'s classification
                                  al.
  were seen in his list. The researcher of the
                       list.
  current study has rearranged them from the
  collocations related to nouns (from 1 to 8) to
  other types of collocations.
                 collocations.




                                                  38
1. adjective + noun: a difficult decision
2. verb + noun: submit a report
3. noun + noun: radio station
4. verb + adjective + noun: revise the original
plan
5. compound noun: fire escape
6. binomial: backwards and forwards
7. trinomial: hook, line and sinker
8. noun + verb: the fog closed in
9. verb + adverb: examine thoroughly
10. adverb + adjective: extremely inconvenient
10.

                                                  39
11. discourse marker: To put it another way
11.
12. multi-word prepositional phrase a few years
12. multi-
ago
13. phrasal verb: turn in
13.
14. adjective + preposition: aware of ....
14.
15. fixed phrase: On the other hand ....
15.
16. incomplete fixed phrase: A sort of ....
16.
17. fixed expression: Not half!
17.
18. semi-fixed expression: See you
18. semi-
later/tomorrow/on Monday.
19. part of a proverb: Too many cooks ....
19.
20. part of a quotation: To be or not to be .... (pp.
20.
133-134)
133-134)                                            40
Collocation of prepositions
 Prepositions are generally troublesome to the
 learners for whom English is a foreign/second
 language (Ellis 1986, p.57). Boers and Frank
                  1986, p.57).
 (1998, p.42) argue that prepositions are difficult
  1998, p.42)
 for ESL/EFL learners because they have literal
 as well as figurative meanings. Jimenez Catalan
 (1996, p.174) claims that Spanish students have
  1996, p.174)
 difficulty with mastering English prepositions.
 Jabbour-
 Jabbour-Lagocki (1990, p.162) believes that
                     1990, p.162)
 English prepositions are notoriously difficult for
 ESL/EFL learners to master because of L1L1
 interference.
                                                      41
For native speakers, prepositions present little
  difficulty, but for a foreign/second language
  learner they are confusing and largely
  problematic. For instance, saying, we are at the
  hospital;
  hospital; or we visit a friend who is in the
  hospital.
  hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We
                                        couch.
  watch a film at the theater but on television. All
  these indicating that prepositions have strong
  collocational relations with other elements of
  language, and thus they are problematic for the
  EFL learners.



                                                   42
Both the conventional approaches (such as
  Grammar Translation Method) and the modern
  approaches (such as Communicative approach)
  to SLA have in different ways underplayed the
  role of collocations. Shei and Helen (2000)
                                       (2000)
  believe that collocations have been largely
  neglected by researchers, course designers and
  EFL practitioners. The importance of
  prepositions and their collocational properties
  on the one hand for the non-native learners of
                           non-
  English, and the problems that EFL students
  have with collocation of prepositions on the
  other hand, highlight the significance of the
  present study.
                                                    43
Furthermore, there is an abundant stock of phrasal
  and prepositional combinations in English that
  represent innumerable collocations, and the
  mastery over them and their collocational power
  can affect Azerbaijanian English learners'
  fluency as well as accuracy in both speaking and
  writing .As mentioned earlier,in this research the
  study of collocation of prepositions has been
  done       based       on     Benson    et     al's
  classification,i.
  classification,i.e.collocations    of
  verb+preposition,noun+preposition,adjective+p
  reposition and preposition+noun.
                    preposition+noun.

                                                    44
Research Methodology

The purpose of this study is to show the most
  frequent     errors of Azerbaijanian English
  learners' in collocation of prepositions. This
  research deals with collocation of prepositions
  according to Benson et al 's classification divided
  into four main collocations:
verb+ preposition, noun+ preposition, adjective+
  preposition and preposition+ noun.



                                                    45
Participants

The participants of the study were 30 junior
 English learners of Azerbaijan University
 of Foreign Languages participated in this
 experiment. They were selected from 50
 students who participated in an OPT
 general proficiency test. All of them have
 passed grammar ,reading and the
 principle of translation courses.

                                           46
Materials

To conduct the present study, a completion
 multiple choice test involves 40 questions
 ,10 questions for each collocation,was
 given to the students. Collocations taken
              students.
 from Oxford collocations dictionary.
                          dictionary.




                                          47
Procedures
 As it was already mentioned, participants of this
  study, were selected from among 50 students who
  participated in an OPT (Oxford Placement Test)
  general proficiency test. Their scores were below
                      test.
  the average (below 50). 40 multiple choice
                          50)
  questions were given to them .the following
  general patterns of collocation of prepositions
  have been used:
             used:




                                                  48
1. verb + preposition collocation: consist of,
                      collocation:
   insist on, indulge in, resist in
2. noun + preposition collocation: motivation
   in, admiration for, argument about
3. adjective + preposition collocation: good at
   ,bored with, superior to, tired of
4. preposition + noun collocation: in
astonishment, with embezzlement, on
credit,




                                                  49
Data analysis and results

Based on the results of this research, a total
 number of 1010 errors of collocation of
 prepositions has been obtained. 287errors 287errors
 of verb+preposition found in this research,errors
 such as “ glance out” instead of“ glance at”.
 Regarding the errors of preposition+noun 275
 errors obtained ,errors like “with air” instead of
 “by air”. In this research , errors related to
 noun+preposition collocation were 230errors,
                                        230errors,
 for example choosing “sympathy on” instead of
 “sympathy for”. 2oo errors of adjective+
 preposition found in this paper, errors like “good50


 in” instead of “good at”.(table1).
                       at”.(table1
Discussion and conclusion
Based on the results of this study, it was
 found that the Azerbaijanian English learners'
 have problems in using English collocation of
 prepositions.
 prepositions. The more frequent errors are verb+
 preposition collocations, preposition +noun,
 noun+ preposition and adjective+ preposition
 respectively.
 respectively. Regarding the source of students'
 errors, it can be concluded that ignorance of rule
 restrictions that is resulted from analogy and
 failure to observe the restrictions of existing
 structures were at times the reasons why
 students produced unacceptable collocations.
                                   collocations.
                                                  51
Some examples of this type of error are: “we
arrived in the hotel” instead of “we arrived at
the hotel”, “we lost with five goals to two”
instead of “we lost by five goals to two”(verb+
preposition), “I picked up the wrong bag in
mistake” instead of “ I picked up the wrong bag
by mistake”, “The man is now on the arrest”
instead of “The man is now under
arrest”(preposition+noun),
arrest”(preposition+noun),




                                              52
“He made a feeble attempt in a smile”
 instead of “He made a feeble attempt at a
 smile”,“He is a good judge for musical
 talent” instead of “He is a good judge of
 musical      talent”,(noun   +preposition)
 ,“School must try to make science more
 attractive for youngsters” instead of
 “School must try to make science more
 attractive to youngsters”, and “Results are
 accurate in within 0.2 seconds” instead of
 “Results     are    accurate   to   within
 0.2seconds(adjective+preposition).
     seconds(adjective+preposition)
                                           53
In some cases ,of course the interlingual transfer
may cause errors . An interlingual error is one
which results from language transfer. In other
                                transfer.
words, it is caused by the learners‘ native
language.
language. Some errors of this kind which have
been found in this study, are: “He was angry
                              are:
from his bad behaviour (angry at) that is
because of direct translation of the Azeri
sentence      ,“    onun     pis      davranɪşdan
                                      davranɪ
əsəbləşdi”,here the suffix “dan” means “ from”
   blə                      dan”
“and it is the reason of the error. Another
                                   error.
example, He fell ill from Cholera in 1849( ill
                                          1849(
with)which is the direct translation of Azeri
sentence “o 1849-cu vəbadan xəstələndi” here
                1849-                stə ndi”
                                                  54
also the suffix “dan” means “ from”.
                 dan”          from”.
To conclude the above research, the Azeri students
  make collocational errors while using collocation
  of prepositions , mostly on account of the
  ignorance of rule restrictions and interlingual
  transfer.
  transfer. Due to the importance of learning
  collocations , some suggestions can also be made
  about how to teach collocations.
                      collocations.




                                                  55
First, it is not sufficient merely to teach lexical
combinations,       including    collocations    of
prepositions in isolation. Rather, they should be
                  isolation.
taught within context. Second, not only should
                context.
the selection of collocations but also their
teaching should be with reference to L1, because
L1 showed to be highly influential in the
production of collocations. Third, since the use
                 collocations.
of collocations was highly correlated with
EFL/ESL         learners' language proficiency,
collocations should be considered as an
important factor in determining their overall
proficiency
                                                  56
The findings of the present study are of practical
as well as theoretical        importance to the
EFL/ESL practitioners in the teaching of
collocation and lexis to the EFL /ESL students. It
                                       students.
seems that collocational competence can
influence EFL/ESL learners' overall language
ability.
ability. Collocations have an effective role in the
successful and native-like performance of EFL
                  native-
learners.
learners.




                                                  57
Since teaching prepositions is of outmost
importance to the EFL/ESL students, a
conscious knowledge of those prepositions will
help them in their struggle towards the
acquisition, manipulation and production of
English as a foreign language. Moreover, the
                      language.
findings of the present study will give teachers
some hints and guidelines as to overcome
EFL/ESL students' problems in collocation of
prepositions.
prepositions.




                                               58
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Publishing Co. Ltd.
            Co. Ltd.
Table (1).The distribution of collocational errors among Azerbaijanian English learners



        Type of errors          Number of errors                   Percentage of
                                                                         errors
      Verb+preposition                              287                        28.5%
     Preposition+noun                               275                        26.9%
     Noun+preposition                               230                        24.6%
 Adjective+preposition                              200                          20%




                                                                                    64

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  • 1. 1
  • 2. International Conference on Language, Literature and Culture 2
  • 3. THE STUDY OF GRAMMATICAL COLLOCATION A SURVEY OF AZERBAIJANIAN ENGLISH LEARNERS' KNOWLEDGE OF COLLOCATION OF PREPOSITIONS Parisa Farrokh p_farrokh@yahoo.com English Translation Department, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Lahijan, Iran 3
  • 4. Abstract This paper has a two fold purpose.First to survey different linguistic attitudes toward the phenomenon of collocation and it's categorization as well as to emphasize the role of grammatical collocation in the process of second language learning.Second the present study aims to find out the Azerbaijanian English learners‘ knowledge of collocation of prepositions based on Benson et al s categorization . Since preposition is not used in Azeri, therefore the results of this study may be used as additional information for the teachers especially in teaching English grammar and translation courses. 4
  • 5. Also, the results may help Azerbaijanian translators, English learners and translator trainees for being able to provide the best translation of English collocation of prepositions. In Benson et al's category the collocation divided into two main groups: lexical and grammatical collocations. Each group subdivided into different collocations of noun ,verb ,adjective, adverb and preposition. Collocation of prepositions subcategorized in grammatical collocation and consists of four collocations :verb+ preposition, noun+ preposition, adjective+ preposition and preposition+noun.30 junior English preposition+noun.30 learners of Azerbaijan University of Foreign 5 Languages participated in this experiment.
  • 6. They were selected from 50 students who participated in an OPT general proficiency test. To conduct the present study, a completion multiple choice test involves 40 questions ,10 questions for each collocation, was given to the students .Atotal of 1010 collocational errors was found.287errors related to verb+preposition,275 errors related to preposition+noun,230 errors related to noun+ preposition and 200 errors related to adjective+ preposition. Based on the findings of this research, the errors of collocation of prepositions resulted either from ignorance of rule restrictions or interlingual transfer. KeyWords: collocation, grammatical collocation, preposition ,collocation of prepositions, 6
  • 7. Introduction Although it is generally accepted that collocations are both indispensable and at the same time problematic for foreign language learners and especially for adult learners, learners’ difficulties with collocations have not been investigated in detail by EFL practitioners so far (Nesselhauf, 2003). They therefore should Nesselhauf, 2003) play an important role in second or foreign language acquisition . 7
  • 8. The aim of this research is the investigation of collocation, grammatical collocation and Azerbaijanian English learners‘ knowledge of collocation of prepositions based on Benson et al's categorization. categorization. In this relation ,the research questions have been formulated as follows:do Azerbaijanian English follows: learners' have problem in collocation of prepositions?what are the most frequent errors of collocation of prepositions?what is/are the main source(s) of errors of collocation of prepositions? 8
  • 9. The following gives a general review of the literature related to English collocation. First of collocation. all, the notion of collocation that was introduced by different scholars is reviewed. In addition, the reviewed. scholars’ viewpoints about the differences between collocation and other word combinations were reviewed, too. After that, the too. types of collocations classified by different researchers are investigated. Last, the study on investigated. Azerbaijanian English learners' knowledge of collocation of prepositions and the sources of errors of collocation of prepositions were discussed. discussed. 9
  • 10. Notion of Collocation Collocation, originated from the field of lexicon studies, is a term defined and understood in many different ways (Bahns, 1993). Generally, Bahns, 1993) there were two different sides of assertions about this term. One of them argued that collocation term. was related to meaning; the other argued that meaning; collocation was not a semantic relation between words. words. 10
  • 11. The literature reviews related to the two assertions were arranged in this section.On the one hand, section. for the assertion that collocation was concerning meaning, J. R.Firth has been regarded as the one responsible for bringing the term into prominence in the field of lexicon study (Carter &McCarthy, 1988; Hill, 2000). In Firth's view, 1988; 2000) the meaning of a word should be known by the company it keeps (Hill, 2000). In other words, 2000) collocation was about the meaning of a word and about its relationship with other words (Hill, 2000) 2000). 11
  • 12. Such a notion about collocation is often applied to the subsequent research related to collocation. collocation. Similar to McIntosh (1961) and Palmer (1976), 1961) 1976), Bolinger and Sears (1981) also mentioned that 1981) the ranges and variety of collocations were enormous. enormous. They regarded collocation as a kind of habitual association of words and asserted that collocations resulted from native speakers' experiences of the expressions repeated again and again in certain given circumstances. circumstances. 12
  • 13. Therefore, depending on the context, the collocations, like good chance, high probability, and strong likelihood, might be considered acceptable, but the collocations like strong chance, good probability, and high likelihood, unacceptable. Sinclair (1966), in a (1966), volume of papers in memory of J. R. Firth, showed an interest in generating lexical sets by the use of collocation. For Sinclair, grammar and lexis were two different aspects. 13
  • 14. Grammar could be described by structures (syntagms) and systems (paradigms), while lexis syntagms) was about lexical items collocating with one another—collocations another— and sets respectively. respectively.According to Sinclair, collocation was referred to as the co-occurrence of two co- words, but this co-occurrence was not indicative co- of two words occurring as a small fixed grammatical set. Instead, it had two important set. features. features. First, there might be several or many words between the two relevant items or the two relevant items might even occur over sentence boundaries. boundaries. 14
  • 15. Second, collocation was independent of grammatical types. types. In other words, collocation was not analyzed by grammatical structures. The examples “he structures. argued strongly,” “the strength of his argument,” “his argument was strengthened” (Carter & McCarthy, 1988, p. 35) illustrate a constant 1988, 35) relationship between the two words. On the other words. hand, however, some researchers held different views from the above scholars' opinions. For opinions. example, McCarthy (1991) argued that the notion 1991) of collocation was made use of as a kind of cohesive device. device. 15
  • 16. He claimed that "collocation refers to the probability that lexical items will co-occur, and is co- not a semantic relation between words." (p. 65). words. (p. 65) Such opinion suggested that collocation served other function besides meaning in sentences. sentences. Another instance was Aghbar's (1990) 1990) proclamation. proclamation.He proposed that the notion of collocation was not raised creatively for the first time; time; in fact, people had a memory of having heard or seen these constructions before and used them as such. such. 16
  • 17. Collocation and Other Combination of Words Words can be combined in numerous ways to form meaningful thought groups if those words not restricted. restricted. That is what makes it hard to clarify the notion of collocation. Among these possible collocation. combinations of words, some are fixed and others are more loose. loose. 17
  • 18. In order to attain a clearer understanding of collocation, it is necessary to draw a distinction among collocations, idioms, and other kinds of word combinations (Bahns, 1993; Wang, 2001; Bahns, 1993; 2001; Wu, 1996), though these combinations are quite 1996), similar to one another, even, in a sense, belonging to the category of collection. Wood collection. (1981) adopted both semantic and syntactic 1981) criteria for distinguishing collocations from idioms, colligations, and free combinations. In combinations. Wood's point of view, an idiom was fully non- non- compositional and non-productive, while a free non- combination was fully compositional and productive. productive. 18
  • 19. . However, Wood's interpretation about collocation and colligation is still rather vague. On the other hand, a collocation, as Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) suggested, with its meaning in a restricted sense, was less frozen than an idiom, and a colligation was compositional and permitted only limited lexical variation. Lewis(2000) had far more explanation to differentiate collocation from colligation. 19
  • 20. Collocation is the way one word co-occurs with co- another word, colligation is the way one word regularly co-occurs with a particular (grammar) co- pattern, so, for example some verbs typically occur with a particular tense, or a noun might typically appear preceded by a personal pronoun, rather than an article (pass my/your driving test, It's my/your/our responsibility to..., but I'll take the responsibility for...) (p. 137) 137) Benson, Benson, and Ilson (1986b) 1986b) distinguished collocations from other combinations of words--compounds, idioms, words--compounds, transitional combinations (transitional collocations), and free combinations.. 20
  • 21. The following are the summaries of the five types of word combinations, which are listed from the most fixed combination to the freest one proposed by Benson (1989) and Benson et al. 1989) al. (1986b). 1986b). 21
  • 22. 1. Compounds, the most fixed word combination, are completely frozen, and no variations at all were possible. The instances of nominal possible. compounds are like “floppy disk” and “aptitude test”, and an illustration of compound verb (or phrasal verb) is break through”. through”. 2. Idioms referred to relatively frozen expressions whose meanings did not reflect the meanings of their component parts. The illustrations of parts. idioms were to “kill two birds with one stone”, “to kick the bucket”, “to spill .the beans”, and so on. on. 22
  • 23. 3. Transitional combinations (transitional collocations), whose meanings were close to their component parts, were regarded as more frozen and less variable than collocations. collocations. Instances of such were “for old time's sake”, “the facts of life”, “to be in a tight spot”, and the like. like. 4. Collocations were loosely fixed, arbitrary recurrent word combinations and the meaning of the whole did reflect the meaning of the parts. parts. “Pure chance”, “to commit murder”, “close attention”, and “keen competition” shared the features of this category. category. 23
  • 24. 5. Free combinations were taken as the least cohesive of all combinations. Their components were the freest in regard to being combined with other lexical items.The typical combinations of this sort were “to recall an adventure” (an event, an accident) and “to analyze” (report, investigate) a murder. 24
  • 25. Echoing what Benson et al. (1986b) attested, al. 1986b) Bahns (1993) also admitted that different from 1993) idioms, the main characteristics of collocations were that their meanings reflected the meaning of their constituent parts, and that, in comparison with free combination, they were used frequently, sprang to mind readily, and were psychologically salient. In other words, salient. there are "transitional areas" (Cruse, 1986, p. 41 1986, between free combinations and collocations, and between collocations and idioms). idioms). 25
  • 26. The Classification of Collocations When it comes to the classification of collocation, Benson et al.'s (1986a) has been second to none al. 1986a) so far (Liu, 1999a, Tsai, 1996). Much collocation 1999a, 1996) research (Bahns 1993;Chang, 1997; Liu, 1999a, 1993; 1997; 1999a, 1999b, 2000a 1999b, 2000a; Wang, 2001) was conducted by 2001) using what Benson et al. advocated about al. collocation. collocation. 26
  • 27. According to Benson et' al., collocation could be sorted systematically into two major groups-- groups-- lexical collocations and grammatical collocations. A lexical collocation could be made up of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, like “warmest regards”, “strictly accurate”, and etc. There were seven types of lexical collocations, labeled from a to g, whose structures and examples were given below. 27
  • 28. Lexical Collocations Adapted from Benson et al. (1986a) al. 1986a) a.verb (donating creation or activation)+ noun (pronoun or prep. phrase) prep. compose music; make an impression; music; impression; b. verb (meaning eradication or nullification)+ noun revoke a license; demolish a house license; c. adjective + noun 28
  • 29. strong tea; a rough estimate tea; d. noun + verb bees buzz; bombs explode buzz; e. noun1 of noun2 noun1 noun2 a pack of dogs; a herd of buffalo dogs; a herd of buffalo f.adjective + adverb/ adverb + adjective sound asleep; hopelessly addicted asleep; g. verb + adverb anchor firmly; argue heatedly firmly; 29
  • 30. On the other hand, a grammatical collocation was made up of a dominant word,such as a noun, an adjective, or a verb, and a preposition or grammatical structure like an infinitive or a clause. clause. Benson et al. (1986a) further categorized al. 1986a) the grammatical collocations into eight small groups, marked as G1 to G8, among which, G8 collocations contained nineteen English verb patterns. patterns. To make the types clear, the researcher of the present study has listed the structures and examples of grammatical collocations here. here. 30
  • 31. G1 noun + preposition ; Apathy toward G2 noun + to inf. inf. He was a fool to do it. it. G3 noun + that clause He took an oath that he would do his duty. duty. G4 preposition + noun; noun; in advance; at advance; anchor G5 adjective + preposition They are afraid of him. him. G6 predicate adjective +to inf. inf. It was stupid for them to go. go. G7 adjective + that clause She was afraid that she would fail the exam. exam. 31
  • 32. G8There are 19 patterns in G8: svo to o (or) svoo He sent a book to his brother. He sent his brother brother. abook svo to o They described the book to her. her. svo for o (or) svoo She bought a shirt for her husband. She bought husband. her husband a shirt. shirt. sv prep. o (or) svo prep. O prep. prep. He came by train .We invited them to the meeting. meeting. 32
  • 33. Sv to inf. inf. They began to speak sv inf. inf. He had better go. go. svv-ing svv- They enjoy watching television. svo to inf. She asks me to come. svo inf. She heard them leave. svov- svov-ing I caught them stealing apples. 33
  • 34. sv possessive v-ing v- Please excuse my waking you so early. sv(o) that-clause sv(o) that- They admitted that they were wrong. svo to be c We consider her to be very capable. Svoc She dyed her hair red. svoo We bet her ten pounds. 34
  • 35. sv(o)adverbial sv(o)adverbial He carried himself well. sv(o) wh-word sv(o) wh- He wants what I want. s(it) vo to inf. (or) s(it) vo that-clause that- It surprised me to learn of her decision. It surprised me that our offer was rejected. svc (adjective or noun) She was enthusiastic. The flowers smell nice 35
  • 36. Sinclair (1991) divided collocation into two kinds-- 1991) kinds-- downward collocation and upward collocation. collocation. Different from Benson et al., Sinclair made use al. of two terms to classify collocations. One was the collocations. term "node," which was employed to stand for the word studied; the other was the term studied; "collocate," used to represent any word occurring in the specified environment of a node. node. Based on Sinclair's assertment, when A was assertment, "node" and B was "collocate"--collocation of A "collocate"--collocation with a less frequent word B, it was called downward collocation, which contributed to a semantic analysis of a word. word. 36
  • 37. The examples of this type were “advantage over”, “afraid of”, “attitude toward”, and etc. In etc. contrast, when B was "node" and A was "collocate," it was called upward collocation. The collocation. examples of this type were “on purpose”, “by accident”, “with caution”, etc. In this kind of etc. collocation, “the words tended to be elements of grammatical frames, or superordinates"(p. 116). superordinates"(p. 116) 37
  • 38. Similar to Benson et al. (1986a), Lewis (2000) al. 1986a), 2000) listed different types of collocations that were found regularly together if collocation was defined as the way words occurred together. together. More types beyond Benson et al.'s classification al. were seen in his list. The researcher of the list. current study has rearranged them from the collocations related to nouns (from 1 to 8) to other types of collocations. collocations. 38
  • 39. 1. adjective + noun: a difficult decision 2. verb + noun: submit a report 3. noun + noun: radio station 4. verb + adjective + noun: revise the original plan 5. compound noun: fire escape 6. binomial: backwards and forwards 7. trinomial: hook, line and sinker 8. noun + verb: the fog closed in 9. verb + adverb: examine thoroughly 10. adverb + adjective: extremely inconvenient 10. 39
  • 40. 11. discourse marker: To put it another way 11. 12. multi-word prepositional phrase a few years 12. multi- ago 13. phrasal verb: turn in 13. 14. adjective + preposition: aware of .... 14. 15. fixed phrase: On the other hand .... 15. 16. incomplete fixed phrase: A sort of .... 16. 17. fixed expression: Not half! 17. 18. semi-fixed expression: See you 18. semi- later/tomorrow/on Monday. 19. part of a proverb: Too many cooks .... 19. 20. part of a quotation: To be or not to be .... (pp. 20. 133-134) 133-134) 40
  • 41. Collocation of prepositions Prepositions are generally troublesome to the learners for whom English is a foreign/second language (Ellis 1986, p.57). Boers and Frank 1986, p.57). (1998, p.42) argue that prepositions are difficult 1998, p.42) for ESL/EFL learners because they have literal as well as figurative meanings. Jimenez Catalan (1996, p.174) claims that Spanish students have 1996, p.174) difficulty with mastering English prepositions. Jabbour- Jabbour-Lagocki (1990, p.162) believes that 1990, p.162) English prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL/EFL learners to master because of L1L1 interference. 41
  • 42. For native speakers, prepositions present little difficulty, but for a foreign/second language learner they are confusing and largely problematic. For instance, saying, we are at the hospital; hospital; or we visit a friend who is in the hospital. hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We couch. watch a film at the theater but on television. All these indicating that prepositions have strong collocational relations with other elements of language, and thus they are problematic for the EFL learners. 42
  • 43. Both the conventional approaches (such as Grammar Translation Method) and the modern approaches (such as Communicative approach) to SLA have in different ways underplayed the role of collocations. Shei and Helen (2000) (2000) believe that collocations have been largely neglected by researchers, course designers and EFL practitioners. The importance of prepositions and their collocational properties on the one hand for the non-native learners of non- English, and the problems that EFL students have with collocation of prepositions on the other hand, highlight the significance of the present study. 43
  • 44. Furthermore, there is an abundant stock of phrasal and prepositional combinations in English that represent innumerable collocations, and the mastery over them and their collocational power can affect Azerbaijanian English learners' fluency as well as accuracy in both speaking and writing .As mentioned earlier,in this research the study of collocation of prepositions has been done based on Benson et al's classification,i. classification,i.e.collocations of verb+preposition,noun+preposition,adjective+p reposition and preposition+noun. preposition+noun. 44
  • 45. Research Methodology The purpose of this study is to show the most frequent errors of Azerbaijanian English learners' in collocation of prepositions. This research deals with collocation of prepositions according to Benson et al 's classification divided into four main collocations: verb+ preposition, noun+ preposition, adjective+ preposition and preposition+ noun. 45
  • 46. Participants The participants of the study were 30 junior English learners of Azerbaijan University of Foreign Languages participated in this experiment. They were selected from 50 students who participated in an OPT general proficiency test. All of them have passed grammar ,reading and the principle of translation courses. 46
  • 47. Materials To conduct the present study, a completion multiple choice test involves 40 questions ,10 questions for each collocation,was given to the students. Collocations taken students. from Oxford collocations dictionary. dictionary. 47
  • 48. Procedures As it was already mentioned, participants of this study, were selected from among 50 students who participated in an OPT (Oxford Placement Test) general proficiency test. Their scores were below test. the average (below 50). 40 multiple choice 50) questions were given to them .the following general patterns of collocation of prepositions have been used: used: 48
  • 49. 1. verb + preposition collocation: consist of, collocation: insist on, indulge in, resist in 2. noun + preposition collocation: motivation in, admiration for, argument about 3. adjective + preposition collocation: good at ,bored with, superior to, tired of 4. preposition + noun collocation: in astonishment, with embezzlement, on credit, 49
  • 50. Data analysis and results Based on the results of this research, a total number of 1010 errors of collocation of prepositions has been obtained. 287errors 287errors of verb+preposition found in this research,errors such as “ glance out” instead of“ glance at”. Regarding the errors of preposition+noun 275 errors obtained ,errors like “with air” instead of “by air”. In this research , errors related to noun+preposition collocation were 230errors, 230errors, for example choosing “sympathy on” instead of “sympathy for”. 2oo errors of adjective+ preposition found in this paper, errors like “good50 in” instead of “good at”.(table1). at”.(table1
  • 51. Discussion and conclusion Based on the results of this study, it was found that the Azerbaijanian English learners' have problems in using English collocation of prepositions. prepositions. The more frequent errors are verb+ preposition collocations, preposition +noun, noun+ preposition and adjective+ preposition respectively. respectively. Regarding the source of students' errors, it can be concluded that ignorance of rule restrictions that is resulted from analogy and failure to observe the restrictions of existing structures were at times the reasons why students produced unacceptable collocations. collocations. 51
  • 52. Some examples of this type of error are: “we arrived in the hotel” instead of “we arrived at the hotel”, “we lost with five goals to two” instead of “we lost by five goals to two”(verb+ preposition), “I picked up the wrong bag in mistake” instead of “ I picked up the wrong bag by mistake”, “The man is now on the arrest” instead of “The man is now under arrest”(preposition+noun), arrest”(preposition+noun), 52
  • 53. “He made a feeble attempt in a smile” instead of “He made a feeble attempt at a smile”,“He is a good judge for musical talent” instead of “He is a good judge of musical talent”,(noun +preposition) ,“School must try to make science more attractive for youngsters” instead of “School must try to make science more attractive to youngsters”, and “Results are accurate in within 0.2 seconds” instead of “Results are accurate to within 0.2seconds(adjective+preposition). seconds(adjective+preposition) 53
  • 54. In some cases ,of course the interlingual transfer may cause errors . An interlingual error is one which results from language transfer. In other transfer. words, it is caused by the learners‘ native language. language. Some errors of this kind which have been found in this study, are: “He was angry are: from his bad behaviour (angry at) that is because of direct translation of the Azeri sentence ,“ onun pis davranɪşdan davranɪ əsəbləşdi”,here the suffix “dan” means “ from” blə dan” “and it is the reason of the error. Another error. example, He fell ill from Cholera in 1849( ill 1849( with)which is the direct translation of Azeri sentence “o 1849-cu vəbadan xəstələndi” here 1849- stə ndi” 54 also the suffix “dan” means “ from”. dan” from”.
  • 55. To conclude the above research, the Azeri students make collocational errors while using collocation of prepositions , mostly on account of the ignorance of rule restrictions and interlingual transfer. transfer. Due to the importance of learning collocations , some suggestions can also be made about how to teach collocations. collocations. 55
  • 56. First, it is not sufficient merely to teach lexical combinations, including collocations of prepositions in isolation. Rather, they should be isolation. taught within context. Second, not only should context. the selection of collocations but also their teaching should be with reference to L1, because L1 showed to be highly influential in the production of collocations. Third, since the use collocations. of collocations was highly correlated with EFL/ESL learners' language proficiency, collocations should be considered as an important factor in determining their overall proficiency 56
  • 57. The findings of the present study are of practical as well as theoretical importance to the EFL/ESL practitioners in the teaching of collocation and lexis to the EFL /ESL students. It students. seems that collocational competence can influence EFL/ESL learners' overall language ability. ability. Collocations have an effective role in the successful and native-like performance of EFL native- learners. learners. 57
  • 58. Since teaching prepositions is of outmost importance to the EFL/ESL students, a conscious knowledge of those prepositions will help them in their struggle towards the acquisition, manipulation and production of English as a foreign language. Moreover, the language. findings of the present study will give teachers some hints and guidelines as to overcome EFL/ESL students' problems in collocation of prepositions. prepositions. 58
  • 59. REFERECES Aghbar, Aghbar, A. A. (1990). Fixed expressions in written texts: 1990) texts: implications for assessing writing sophistication. Paper sophistication. presented at a meeting of the English Association of Pennsylvania State System Universities. Universities. Bahns, Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: a contrastive view. 1993) collocations: view. ELT Journal 47(1), 56-63. 47( 56-63. Benson, M. (1989). The structure of the collocational 1989) dictionary. dictionary. International Journal of Lexicography, 2, 1- 14. 14. Benson, M., Benson, E. & Ilson, R. (1986a). The BBI Ilson, 1986a). combinatory dictionary of English: A guide to word English: combinations. Amsterdam: combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Benjamins. 59
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  • 64. Table (1).The distribution of collocational errors among Azerbaijanian English learners Type of errors Number of errors Percentage of errors Verb+preposition 287 28.5% Preposition+noun 275 26.9% Noun+preposition 230 24.6% Adjective+preposition 200 20% 64