Connecting the dot with the Nursing Process and Critical thinki.docx

Connecting the dot with the Nursing Process and Critical
thinking
Manda McIntyre
Debra Hunt
1
Overview
Develop a educational program on the nursing process to first
semester students.
Utilize advance nursing knowledge to assist students in
understanding the nursing process, critical thinking skills, and
implementation needed to deliver best nursing practice.
This practicum experience will involve teaching novice-
nursing students beginning their first semester of the nursing
program. It is at this time that students are introduced to the
nursing process and critical thinking skills. Nurse educator
teaches the students that the American Nurses Association
Standards hold the nursing process as the framework for critical
thinking. The writer chose the nursing as an educational
curriculum to provide a thorough understanding of the nursing
process for the nursing students to gain knowledge of critical
thinking, problem soloing, and passing of the NCLEX-RN
examination. The nursing process is used by nurses worldwide
to explore the delivery of care.
2

The nursing process was developed in the 1950’s as an
educational tool to promote patient centered nursing.
It provides a solid framework for the nursing practice.
It is integrated throughout in the nursing curricular in most of
the nursing colleges and the National Council Licensure
Examination-Registered Nurse (NCLEX-RN).
It provides the student the ability to use critical thinking skills
and response on the basic of the scientific method.
A scientific method that us a step-by-step process to identify
and problem solve.
Critical thinking is a vital process for the students to connect
the dot in the nursing process.
Introduction
The nursing process was introduced in the 1955 by Hall
and Johnson (1959). Nursing process is the essential core of
practice for the nurse to provide holistic, patient-centered care.
It is provide critical thinking competency that should be taught
through out the nursing curriculum. The nursing process is a
systematic approach to identifying patient’s actual problem or
potential problems and establish a plan to meet the identified
needs. It is a process that can be implemented in all areas of
nursing. The nursing process is a framework that nursing
students and nurses should use consistently and methodically
use throughout their career to enable them to organize data and
deliver evidenced based practice-nursing care.
3

Nursing students will:
Define and explain the importance of the nursing process.
Discuss the components of nursing process.
Analyze critical thinking in nursing practice's
Implement the nursing process to a patient
care assignment.
Demonstrate the use of critical thinking to prior-
itize for a client assignment.
Program Objectives
The nursing process and critical thinking is the essential
core of practice for nursing students to deliver holistic, patient,
patient-centered care. It is important that novice-nursing student
learn what the nursing process is and how it will be used
throughout their nursing career. According (1998) to Ferguson
objectives are statements of desired behaviors, observable,
teachable, and learnable that exhibit evidence of learning. The
objectives are written to assist the students to focus on what is
the important to learn.The students chosen for this program are
first year novice nursing students.
4
Describe Development
Agenda
Welcome-Ice breaker
Content outline

Teaching strategies, Flipping Class
Powerpoint with speaker’s notes
Resources
Handouts
Post-Test
This is an ongoing program that will be taught every
Monday from 10.00 am to 11:30am. Their will be two instructor
teaching this program, and will have a total of fifteen students
each. The class will be held on the first floor, room 128 and
130. At the beginning of class I introduced myself and give a
short summary of my nursing experience. Overview of what is
expected from the students for them to succeed in learning the
nursing process and critical thinking skills. At the end of class
time will be allowed for answers and questions and the
students given a folder which included the syllabus, handouts
,and how to excess webinars and tutorials.
5
Introduction
I Ice Breaker
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250w.png
An icebreaker exercise will be implemented as a means of

showing a caring attitude toward the new nursing students. It
is very important for the instructor to demonstrate behaviors of
caring because it make it easier for the student and instructor to
form a relationship early in the semester so they can work
together as a team. The BINGO game will be used in a non-
traditional method. The students will be asked to interview
each other to obtain the information and write the name of the
individual in the square and when they achieved “BINGO” call
it out! Prizes of penlight, pens, bookmarks, and note pads will
be handed out. Icebreaker provide students the chance to
interact with other and begin to build a relationship and reduce
anxiety. The students will spent 15 minutes talking and
interacting with each other to get acquaint and answers to the
question. The first three BINGO winners won a prize. At the
end I asked each student to tell me one thing they learned about
someone in the class
6
Content/Teaching Strategies
ContentTeaching Strategies
Flipping Class Concept Mapping
Traditional Method Post-test
The Teaching strategies that will be implemented are to
promote active learning process and critical thinking skills in
the students. The flipped classroom is one of the method used
which provide the student with instruction that is delivered
online, outside of class. The student In a flipped classroom,
content delivery may take a variety of forms such as such video
lectures on line or may be provided on a DVD or a jump drive.
The “value of a flipped class is in the repurposing of class time
into a workshop where students can inquire about lecture
content, test their skills in applying knowledge, and interact
with one another in hands-on activities. During class sessions,

instructors function as coaches or advisors, encouraging
students to use their skills.” The second method is the
Traditional method in which the instructor primary teach in the
classroom.
7
Define Importance of Nursing Process.
Scientific method
Flexible and constantly evolving
Problem solving approach
Organize framework for nursing profession
Nursing utilizes critical thinking skills
Provides continuity of care for patients
Five steps identify by acronym: ADPIE,
The nursing process is a educational tool integrated in nursing
schools to assist novice nursing students and nurses to provide
best practice care. It offers nursing a organizal framework for
the critical thinking process. It is a process that is flexible
and steps are develop upon each other. Each phase overlap the
previous phase. The importance of the nursing process is that it
provide holistic, patient-focused, and effective care. The five
steps of the nursing process start with Assessment, Diagnosis,
Planning, Intervention, and end with Evaluation. These steps
are taught to assist the the students to explore patients health
status, identify problems, interpret results, and develop a
collaborative care plan to meet the need of the patients.
8
Teaching Steps of Nursing Process

The nursing process is a educational tool integrated in
nursing schools to assist novice nursing students and nurses to
provide best practice care. It offers nursing a organized
framework for the critical thinking process. It is a process
that is flexible and steps are develop upon each other. Each
phase overlap the previous phase. The importance of the nursing
process is that it provide holistic, patient-focused, and
effective care. The five steps of the nursing process start with
Assessment, Diagnosis, Planning, Intervention, and end with
Evaluation. These steps are taught to assist the the students
to explore patients health status, identify problems, interpret
results, and develop a collaborative care plan to meet the need
of the patients.
The nursing process consist of five steps. The acronym ADPIE
is use to discuss each steps of the nursing process. Assessment
is the collection of data. Nursing Diagnosis specific problem is
identify. Planning: when nurses collaborative with patient to
set goals. Implementation: phase when intervention are carried
out. Evaluation: this phase the patient is assess to the
response of the nursing interventions. Nursing process is an
excellent tool for novice nursing students, it present a problem-
solving approach that enables the student to recognize patient’s
problems and potential problems and facilitate a plan of to
meet the patient’s need. Nursing process framework is a
template for care that connect the dot to the critical thinking
process.
9
ASSESSMENT
Initial Assessment: Performed on a patient with a specified time
after admission to health care organization.
Problem Focused Assessment: Continuing process integrated
with nursing care to verify exact illness identified in previous

assessment and to detect new or unnoticed problems.
Emergency Assessment: Completed during physiological or
psychiatric crisis to detect life threatening.
Time lapsed Reassessment: Completed several moths after
initial assessment to compare the patient status to baseline
data previously collected.
Assessment is the first step of the nursing process.
Assessment is a continuous process carried out during each
steps of the nursing process. Assessment is the initial phase of
the nursing process. There are four steps in collecting
information from the patient. The four steps enable the nurse to
gather information about the overall health status and establish
a plan of care according to the needs identify. Connecting the
dots are part of the assessment and critical thinking skills..
10
Assessment
Assessment is the first step of the nursing process. Assessment
is a continuous process carried out during each steps of the
nursing process. Assessment is the initial phase of the nursing
process. There are four steps in collecting information from the
patient. The four steps enable the nurse to gather information
about the overall health status and establish a plan of care
according to the needs identify. Connecting the dots are part of
the assessment and critical thinking skills..

11
Assement
Collect Data
Validate Data
Documenting
Data
Organize Data
Assessment
Collection Data
Subjective data or covert data
Objective data or covert data
To collect comprehensive data the nurses use a variety of skills
to complete thorough assessment. When the nurse first meet the
patient assessment start immediately. The patient is the primary

source of information. The data can be subjective or objective
data. Subjective date is the verbal statement communicate by
the patient. This data is not measurable and obtained verbally
from the patient. For example “I have sharp pain in my stomach
after I eat.” Objective data is obtain by observation,
measureable , and tested. Objective information is obtain by
using the senses other diagnostic tests for example an
abdominal x-ray.
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Assessment contOrganizing dataValidating dataDocumenting
data Using a framework to categorize and organize the data.
Frameworks provide a guide during the nursing interview and
physical examination to prevent omission of pertinent data.
Nursing conceptual models provide one framework.
Example of framework is Orem’s self care model and Neuman’s
systems model.
Act of “double checking” the information that present.
Validating that information is accurate and factual.
Validate that cues and inferences are accurate and free of from
bias and interpreted correctly (Alfaro-LeFevre, 2001).
Validation of information prevent inappropriate nursing
diagnoses and nursing plan of care.
Data is recorded actually and factually.
Information become a permanent part of the chart.
Types of documentation can be used: Traditional written
assessment record or Computerized assessment record.
Nursing can used format of SOAPnotes, PIE notes, and DAR
notes to summarize the nursing assessment.
The assessment is a critical steps of the nursing process and is
essential to provide best practice care. The four activities of
the assessment phase is collecting data, organizing data,
validating data, documenting data. The steps enable the nurse

to gather information about the patient and family that can be
implemented in diagnosis, planning, goals, and evaluation.
SOAP notes are usually related to primary health issues.
S-stand for subjective data and symptoms,
O- objective finding the nurses are using their senses and
relevant laboratory data, vital signs, and diagnostic procedures
A- stands for assessment, condition change
P-stands for plan, nursing intervention that deal with the
specific problem
P-stand for problem
I-stand for interventions
E-evaluations
PIE notes include nursing progress note, goals and reviewed
daily to prevent less redundary
Focus DAR notes
D-data
A-action
R-response
Dar focus notes are used on broader scale. The nurse can focus
on the patient’s strengths as well as problem areas.
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Nursing Diagnosis
Second step of the Nursing Process
Interpret & analyze collected data
Clinical judgment concerning a patient’s actual or potential
health problem
Nursing Diagnosis is formulate according to (NANDA : North
American Nursing Diagnosis Association)- Statement of how
the patient is RESPONDING to an actual or potential problem
that requires nursing intervention

Nursing Diagnosis is a tool used by nurse educators, nursing
colleges, and health care organization. Nursing diagnosis is not
a medical diagnosis, it a problem present during the nursing
assessment which is caused by the disease. NANDA enables the
nurses to use a common language to describe the patients
health relate to illness. A total of 206 nursing diagnosis labels
are currently approved by NANDA. Nursing diagnosis is the
foundation for establishing a patient’s nursing care plan.
14
Nursing Diagnosis Types
The nurses use the nursing diagnoses as a way to communicate
nursing requirements for patient care to other nurses and
medical care team. It is important for the patients to have a have
accurate nursing diagnosis to ensure patient receive quality
nursing care.
15
Actual Nursing Diagnosis
3 part statement
Related to (R/T)
Defining Characteristics
(signs & symptoms)
Risk Nursing Diagnosis

Two-part statements because they do not include defining
charactertics.
Ex: Risk for Aspiration related to loss of consciousness
Wellness Diagnosis
Diagnostic Label
Related Factors
(etiology)
Ex: Readiness for to enhance well-being
One part statements without risk factors or defining character
tics
Nursing Diagnosis
Case Study

Mrs. Lorraine is a 36 –year-old house wife, mother of three –
year-old triple girls, who was admitted to the hospital yesterday
with bilateral pneumonia.
Vital signs:T-101.2 P-104 R-29 BP-116/66.
IV D51/2 NS infusing at 125cc/hr.
Appetite is poor; drinking only small amount of fluids.
Auscultation of chest reveals bilateral crackles and wheeze.
Frequent productive cough of thick green-yellow mucous.
States she get “short of breath “ with any activity.
Her husband is home with the triple, and she is worried about
him having to take care of the girls.
16
Planning/Goal/Outcomes
Third step of Nursing Process
Four critical elements of planning include:
Decision making/Establishing priorities
Formulating goals and developing outcomes using the
SMART
Individualized nursing interventions
Documentation
Third step of the nursing process includes the construction of
guidelines that establish the proposed direction of nursing
practices in the resolution of nursing diagnoses and the
development of the patient’s plan of care. Prior to this step is
the collection of assessment data and the development the of
nursing diagnoses. A plan of action is formulated with specific
goals to resolve the nursing diagnoses or health issues of the
patient . S- specific to the patient, M-measurable, A-action

oriented, R-realistic, and T- time specific.
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Types of PlanningInitial PlanningOngoing PlanningDischarge
PlanningIndividualize care plan
Base on initial assessment
Prioritized problem, identifying appropriate patient goals.
Implement nursing care to increase resolution of the patient’s
problems.
Patient is the primary source of information.Nurses continue to
update patient’s plan of care
Nurses who care for the patient are all involve in the patient
care.
Plan of care is revise as new information is collected and
evaluated.
Includes critical anticipation and planning for the patient’s
needs after discharge.
Involves patient and family in discharge planning.
Anticipate date of discharge.
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Planning Goals/Outcomes
Patient will experience adequate respiratory function within 48
hours as evidenced by:
Respiratory rate 12-18, decrease dyspnea
Goals should be:

Short-term goals
Long-term goals
Expected outcomes
Patient-centered
Measurable and observable
Time-limited
Reasonable and realistic
Clearly stated
Goals derived from the nursing diagnosis are broad statement
about what the patient will be after the nursing interventions
has been implemented.
A goal or expected outcome statement describes patient
behaviors that would demonstrate a reduction, resolution, or
prevention of a particular problem identified in the nursing
diagnosis. Short term goals- is an objective behavior or
response that expects the patient to achieve in a short period of
time, usually less than a week, a few hours or days.
Long-term-goals-Is an objective behavior or response that
expects the patient to achieve over a longer period of time,
several hours, weeks and or months.
Expected outcomes: is an objective behavior that expects the
patient to achieve.
Goals/expected outcomes must be congruent with the response
component of the nursing diagnosis statement.
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Intervention/Implementation
Safe for the patient
Based on scientific rationale
Stated clearly and concisely
Realistic for the patient, nurse, and resources available
Congruent with other therapies the patient is receiving.

Nursing intervention are based on the nursing diagnoses and
identified goals/expected outcomes. interventions are prioritized
according to the order in which they will be implemented.
Interventions should be individualized to meet biopsychosocial
needs of the patient.
All phases of the nursing process, it is important to include the
patient and family or significant others in the process of
planning and implementing appropriate nursing actions. Nursing
interventions assist patient to maximize her capabilities. Nurse
must understand the rational, technique, and possible effects of
each intervention action.
Finally the nurse must document care given to patient. “the old
saying, “if it is not charted it has not been done”
Accurate and completed documentation of patient care is a legal
requirement in all health care settings.
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Intervention/Implementation
Independent
Dependent
Collaborative
Patients with multifaceted it takes a team of nurses and other
health professionals to provide the best quality care. The
patient is the most important part of the team, and through a
collaborative team based approach, patients can receive the
highest quality of care. Independent- nurse initiates
intervention and act independently without doctor orders.
Dependent- Nurse requires a doctor to implement intervention.
Collaborative-requires a multiple team of nurses and health care
professional with skills and knowledge. Implementation this

phase is the “doing and documenting of the process.
Intervention that was identified in the original planning is
implemented.
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Example of Nursing Care Plan
Evaluation
What the expected behavior?
Was the patient able to perform the expected behavior in the
time
specified in the goal?
Was the patient able to perform the behavior as well as
described in the expected outcomes statement?
The patient’s role in the nursing process is never more
important than in the evaluation process.
The nurse can assess through objective data whether or not the
nursing actions were effective.
The patient provides necessary subjective data regarding the
effectiveness of the plan of care.
Goals should be sign by RN and indicate whether the goal was
resolved, partially resolved, or not resolved at all.
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Critical Thinking
Scientific Knowledge Base
Nursing Process
Experience
Competencies
Problem -solving

Nursing students need for critical thinking in nursing has
been accentuated in response to the rapidly changing health care
organization. Nurses must think critically to provide effective
evidence based practice care whilst coping with the expansion
in role associated with the complexities of current health care
systems.” According to Simpson & Courtney (2008) It is
important that nurse educator assist nursing students in gaining
competences in critical thinking skills by using a varies of
teaching strategies that include case studies, role play small
group discussion and questioning. Critical thinking and the
nursing process are connected by the problem solving method.
24
Describe Implementation Learning Agreement
Clear written Objectives
Measurable
Time
Methods of Achievement
Methods to Evaluate
The learning agreement is a process used to transfer the
responsibility of learning from the instructor to the nursing
student (Barrington & Street,2009). This process enables the
student to move from passive learning to active learning
process. This higher level of thinking enables the nursing
students to grow and achieve their career goals. The objectives
are clearly stated and by the end of the program the students
will be able to define, and implement the nurse process and
critical thinking skills.

25
Reflection Value Professional Career
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eflection.jpg
Accomplishing the outcomes that the novice nursing
students gain a understanding of the nursing process and critical
thinking skill will provide a solid foundation to provide
holistic patient centered care. My goals for the future include
becoming a nursing professor at the university I graduate
from. As nurse educator I will be able to prepare novice nursing
students to face challenges of life –threatening situations.
Nursing students will be provide hand on experience that helps
to develop personal philosophies and values that will inevitably
follow them into their own practice.
26
Highlight Professional Relationships
Dean of program
Program Director
Faculty Fulltime & part-time
First semester students
New Class of Spring 2014
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jcxEd4aji.jpeg
To implement this program required the support of the
Dean of the Nursing Department, Program Director current
nursing instructors, and mentor. The effects of the program
focus will be immediately, seen pass taking the course. The

students will be given a questionnaire evaluation upon
completing the course. The Dean of the Nursing allowed me to
attend faculty meetings to observe the interactions between the
different faculty of the department. Meeting new students each
semester and welcoming them to the school was highlight of
relationship.
27
Resources
Faculty
Student Support Services
Computer Labs
Webinar ,video
Center for the Global learner
Center for Academic Excellence
Nurse educators should provide students with information
on available resources to help deal with potential problems.
Novice nursing students explore their support systems and
begin to formulate a record of available sources to help them
to be successful. The school’s web page will be opened and
the students were shown how they could access the information
needed to contact the different resources for students. Faculty
information was provided for each students and office hours.
28
Summary
Overview
Program Objectives
Project Agenda
Introduce/Icebreaker
Content Outline
Teaching Strategies, Flipping Class, Traditional Method

PowerPoint's with strategies with speaker’s notes
Resources
Handouts
Fast pace changes in the health care system have put a large
demands on nurse educators to educate novice nursing students
on the nursing process and critical thinking skills. Nurses must
be able to make quit accurate decision in the time of emergency
situation. The nursing process will enables nurses to identify
health care needs, determine priorities, establish goals,
outcomes, implement intervention, and evaluate provide
evidence based practice care.
29
References
BuzzBuzzBingo.com.Create,Download, Print, Play, BINGO.
(2015). Retrieved from http://BuzzBuzzBingo.com
Kowalczyk, N., Hackworth, R., & Case-Smith, J. (2012).
Perceptions of the use of Critical thinking teaching methods.
Radiologic Technology, 83(3), 226-235.
MacLeod, L. (2012). Making SMART Goals Smarter.
Perspective on behavior, 10(26), 68-72.
Redman, R. (1999). Competency assessment: methods for
development and implementation in nursing. Competency
Assessment: Methods for Development and Implementation in
Nursing Education, 4(2), 1-7.
30

References cont
Simpson, E., & Courtney, M. (2008). Implementation and
evaluation of critical thinking strategies to enhance critical
thinking skills in Middle Eastern nurses. International Journal
of Nursing Practice, 14(6), 449-454.
Year Nursing Students, T. (2007). Nursing students, nursing
process and quality care. Nursing Journal of India, 98(1), 49-55.
Yildirim, B., & Ozkahraman, S. (2011). Critical thinking in
nursing process and education. International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science, 13(1), 257-262.
http://research.nla.gov.au
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Flower_r
eflection.jpg. (2013). Retrieved from
http://ttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Flo
wer_reflection.jpg
Venn Diagram of Historical Events (Early America – 1776)
Input Historical Event 1
Input Historical Event2

List Unique Elements of
Historical Event 1
List Unique Elements of
Historical Event 2
List Shared Elements of
Historical Events 1 and 2
See the attached examples below. Please list five significant
historical events/leaders from this era (Chapters Five and Six)
and choose two to compare and contrast. Your Discussion
Forum response will satisfy the following requirements:
a. Five events and the date each event occurred is listed
b. Two events are chosen and a Venn Diagram is completed
showing (at least three in each category) the similarities and
differences of each chosen event.
c. Three of the following five questions have been answered
· These events are still significant today because____.
· If I could change the outcome of one of my listed events I
would change___ because____.
· If only one of these events/individuals could have taken place;
I would chose ___ because____.
· If I could change the outcome of one of my chosen events I
would choose___ because____.
· What would you say is the most important result of each of
your chosen events?
Recommended Resource: A Hypertext Timeline of American
Educational History
CHAPTER 5
5.1 The Secondary School Movement
The secondary school movement that emerged after the Civil
War provided opportunities for young people to stay in school
longer. Although the high school had been introduced onto the

American education scene as early as 1821, the high school
movement had grown slowly in the years before the Civil War.
The first American comprehensive (and coeducational) high
school, offering both English and classical courses of study,
opened in Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1831. High schools soon
appeared in several other larger cities.
However, by 1860 there were only 300 high schools in the
nation compared to more than 6,000 academies. Of these, more
than 100 were located in Massachusetts, the only state that had
enacted legislation requiring communities to provide secondary-
level education.
Unlike the common school, the high school had not yet been
overwhelmingly demanded by the masses. Rather, it appeared to
be more a reformer's response to urbanization and
industrialization. Middle- and upper-class reformers, adopting
the philosophy and rhetoric of the common school advocates,
viewed their efforts as democratizing secondary education and
providing a means of maintaining social values, addressing the
social problems in urban centers, and promoting economic
progress. As a result, prior to the Civil War, most high schools
were located in urban areas, where a sufficient number of
students and sufficient tax support were most often found.
In the years after the Civil War, however, a number of factors
similar to those that fueled the common school movement came
together to create a greater demand for secondary education:
population growth caused in large part by increased
immigration, rapid growth in industry, and technological change
that intensified the demand for skilled workers. A high school
education was increasingly seen as necessary to the full
realization of one's social and economic goals. This was as true
for artisans and small entrepreneurs in the cities as it was for
businessmen and professionals in rural communities (Herbst,
1996). Economic growth also created a larger tax base that
could be used to support an expanded education system.
The convergence of these factors brought a dramatic increase in

the number of public high schools—from about 500 in 1870 to
6,000 in 1900. During the 1880s the number of free public high
schools surpassed the number of fee-charging academies, and by
the end of the century, high schools had pushed out the majority
of academies altogether. Although fewer than 10% of the high
school age population attended high school, in 1900 over half a
million students enrolled and 62,000 graduated.
The Kalamazoo Case and Increased Tax Support
The public secondary school movement gained momentum from
the decision of the Michigan Supreme Court in the famous
Kalamazoo case (1874), which originated when the school board
of Kalamazoo, Michigan, moved to establish a publicly
supported high school and hire a nonteaching superintendent.
Three taxpayers brought suit to prevent the board from levying
a tax to support the high school. They charged that because the
instruction in the schools was not practical, and therefore not
necessary or beneficial to the majority of people, those few who
did benefit should be the ones to pay for it (Stuart et al. v.
School District No. 1 of the Village of Kalamazoo, 1874).
The taxpayers referenced the Michigan constitution, which
authorized the establishment of common schools and a
university but did not mention secondary or high schools, and
which specified that English, not Latin, was to be the language
of instruction (the curriculum of the high school was primarily
college prep and thus emphasized Latin).
The court ruled in favor of the school board, arguing that it
would be inconsistent with the intent of the constitution's
framers to set up elementary schools and a state university and
then expect citizens to obtain a private secondary education.
The court also held that it was within the power of the school
board to hire a superintendent and that when the voters of the
district had voted to support a high school, it was within the
authority of the school board to decide the curriculum.

By ruling that the legislature could impose taxes for the support
of secondary schools, the Michigan Supreme Court provided the
precedent for public support of secondary education. As a result
of the growth in secondary education, in the decade between
school years 1879–1880 and 1889–1890, total expenditures for
the public schools increased 81%, from $78 million to $141
million (Snyder & Dillow, 2013).
Compulsory Attendance and Increased Literacy
Compulsory attendance laws soon followed in the wake of the
Kalamazoo decision. Although Massachusetts had passed the
first compulsory attendance law in 1852 (requiring all children
between ages 8 and 14 to attend school 12 weeks a year, 6 of
them consecutively), the widespread push for compulsory
attendance laws did not take place until after the Civil War,
when they emerged as a complement to child labor laws.
Although not directed at school attendance, child labor laws had
the effect of regulating school attendance. For example, laws
enacted in Massachusetts in 1836 and Connecticut in 1842 said
that no child under 15 could be employed in any business or
industry without proof of having attended school 3 out of the
past 12 months. The passage of similar laws in other states
drove the adoption of compulsory attendance laws.
Simultaneously, technological advances in industry decreased
the need for child labor.
By 1918 all states had enacted laws requiring full-time school
attendance until the child reached a certain age or completed a
certain grade. Compliance with these laws was not full or
immediate, but the laws combined with other factors to raise
attendance rates from 50% in 1865 to 72% in 1900. By 1900
children attended school an average of 99 days per year, twice
as many as they had a century earlier (Snyder & Dillow, 2013).
One result of the increase in school attendance was a declining

illiteracy rate: from 20% of all persons over 10 years of age in
1870 to 7.7% in 1910 (Snyder, 1993). However, illiteracy rates
varied by segment of the population and region. As a result of
the pre–Civil War prohibitions on teaching African Americans
and the inadequate provision of education after the war, African
Americans had the highest illiteracy rate: 30.5% in 1910. The
illiteracy rate was also high among the older population, which
had not benefited from universal, compulsory education.
Native-born Whites had the lowest illiteracy rate in 1910: 3.0%.
Regionally, the South, which not only had the most African
Americans but also had been the slowest in developing systems
of common schools, had the highest illiteracy rate.
The Standardization of the Curriculum
In its origins the high school had been viewed as providing a
more practical curriculum than the academy. However, at the
end of the 19th century, it was still oriented toward preparing
students for college, despite the fact that the majority of
students did not go there. As high school enrollment increased,
there was growing concern among educators that the needs of
the terminal student were not being met and that, as a
consequence, many dropped out.
Many questions also arose regarding the proper relationship
between the elementary school and the high school, and the high
school and higher education, as well as what should be taught at
each level. Then, as now, institutions of higher education
complained about the preparation provided by the high schools,
and the high schools complained about the varied and
conflicting entrance requirements of colleges and universities.
The Committee of Ten
In an attempt to address some of these issues, and in an effort to
standardize the high school curriculum and college entrance
requirements, the National Education Association (NEA)
established the Committee of Ten in 1892. Charles Eliot, the

much-respected president of Harvard University, chaired the
committee, which was largely composed of representatives of
higher education. Its report, The Report of the Committee on
Secondary School Studies (NEA, 1894), recommended four
curricula: classical, Latin-scientific, modern language, and
English.
However, while maintaining that the purpose of secondary
schools was not only to prepare students for college, and while
acknowledging that few secondary students in fact went on to
college, the committee
embraced the position common to both mental disciplinarians
and those who embraced a classical curriculum, that education
is primarily concerned with fostering a set of skills that are
valuable for every human being and not with developing a set of
skills particular to one's specific occupation. (Diener, 2008, p.
68)
Vocational training, they believed, should come after high
school.
Although the recommendations of the Committee of Ten came
under immediate attack from many educators for failing to
recognize that many students were terminal and could benefit
from a vocational education, they determined the standardized
curricular patterns for several decades. They also laid the
groundwork for recurring proposals for a core curriculum that
were to be made throughout the 20th century. Finally, the report
had a major influence on the work of the Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching, which established the
Carnegie Unit as the standard unit to measure contact hours
with the instructor for a yearlong high school course. The
Carnegie Unit made it possible for institutions to standardize
output and faculty workloads.

Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education
The opposition that greeted the recommendations of the
Committee of Ten did not diminish with time, and within 25
years little support for them could be found. The demands of an
increasingly industrialized economy "created an atmosphere in
which specific technical skills and not general intellectual skill
were valued" (Diener, 2008, p. 66). Concerns also remained that
high schools were not able to attract and retain students, who
were then left to roam the streets.
In 1913 the NEA responded by appointing another committee,
the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education
(CRSE), to review the curriculum and organization of secondary
education in light of the many changes that had taken place in
society and the workplace, as well as in the secondary school
population and educational learning theories. Unlike the
Committee of Ten, which was made up almost exclusively of
university representatives, the CRSE included high school
teachers and principals, school district administrators, normal
school teachers and administrators, representatives of state
departments of education, the U.S. commissioner of education,
and other representatives of the U.S. Bureau of Education. After
5 years of work, the CRSE issued its report, the Cardinal
Principles of Secondary Education (NEA, 1918).
The Cardinal Principles has been described by the curriculum
historian Herbert Kliebard (2004) as a "convenient
counterpoint" to the report of the Committee of Ten. The
underlying philosophy of the CRSE was that education in a
democracy should "develop in each individual the knowledge,
interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his
place and use that place to shape both himself and society
toward ever nobler ends" (NEA, 1918, p. 9).
A second major theme of the Principles was the concept of
social efficiency. A "cult of efficiency" had gained favor in the

business community after the Civil War, and it found life in the
schools in the form of the curriculum theory of social
efficiency, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.
Advocates of social efficiency argued that in order for society
to function efficiently, students to use their time efficiently, and
schools to operate efficiently, education should help students
understand their function in society and should offer them only
those subjects that would prepare them most directly for what
their lives had in store (Kliebard, 2004).
The report identified seven objectives that it said should guide
the curriculum: (1) health; (2) command of fundamental
processes (reading, writing, and oral expression); (3) worthy
home membership; (4) vocation; (5) citizenship; (6) worthy use
of leisure; and (7) ethical character. Only one of the objectives,
"command of fundamental processes," was concerned with
academics, and, unlike the Committee of Ten report, which
focused on the four curricula, the Principles focused on goals or
objectives outside the curriculum; the curriculum was instead
seen as the instrument through which students would achieve
the goals.
The Cardinal Principles were widely accepted by educators and
the public and represented two significant reforms: "First, they
directly facilitated the assimilation of all students into a
common culture, and second, this was the first time that the
school curriculum became the means through which
nonacademic goals were to be attained" (Horn, 2002, p. 35).
After a decade of debate over whether secondary education in
the United States should follow the European model of dual
systems (academic and vocational/industrial) or a unitary,
"democratic" system, the Principles provided the blueprint for
the American comprehensive high school and its distinguishing
feature— academic and vocational studies under the same roof
(Wraga, 2000).

The comprehensive high school would serve two complementary
functions: a specialized function that would address the
variegated needs of a heterogeneous student body and a
unifying function that would promote the social interaction of
students from different backgrounds (Wraga, 2000). Social
interaction was facilitated by extracurricular activities and the
intermingling of students in those parts of the curriculum that
would be common to all of them (such as health, citizenship,
and ethics). The "devotion to utility" reflected in the Cardinal
Principles represented not only a rejection of traditional liberal
education but also an articulation of progressive educational
philosophy, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 6 (Graves,
2010).
The Manual Training Movement
Concurrent with the high school movement, and anticipating the
more functional emphasis of the Cardinal Principles, was the
manual training movement, which prepared the way for
vocational education. It began in the 1870s with the training of
engineers, but soon spread to public education and was
promoted by John Runkle, president of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Manual training was intended to
develop perception, dexterity, hand–eye coordination, and
visual accuracy, and was not specific to any trade or vocation or
the manufacture of any product (Herbst, 1996).
Many who did not welcome the involvement of business and
industry in the curriculum of the school welcomed manual
training at the secondary level. Separating instruction from
production provided manual and mental training for future
draftsmen, engineers, and craftsmen, while also providing all
students the opportunity to discover and pursue their
mechanical interests and talents and encouraging them to remain
in school. These arguments, most persuasively and forcefully
made by Calvin Woodward, dean of the O'Fallon Polytechnic
Institute of Washington University (a manual training high

school), appealed to educators, parents, and others who were
critical of the narrow academic focus of the traditional high
school (Herbst, 1996).
The movement to integrate manual training into the public
schools did not go unchallenged. Some educators agreed with
the Committee of Ten's contention that the public schools
should not be in the business of preparing workers for business
or the crafts. Others, coming from the opposite perspective, saw
little relationship between the skills gained in manual training
and those needed by industry.
Still others objected to manual training because of its
association with reform schools, where it was considered the
appropriate program for students who were unprepared or
unable to benefit from academic instruction. Manual training
had also traditionally been associated with the schooling of
Native Americans and African Americans, and a number of the
critics of these programs, most notably W. E. B. DuBois,
questioned the limits manual training placed on the
occupational and economic advancement of these minorities.
Despite these and other objections, manual training was
introduced in numerous schools, typically in the form of
drafting, art education, or mechanics. However, manual training
never really gained the support of a critical mass of educators,
many of whom held it in low esteem, and as a result, it never
gained a lasting place in the curriculum. It did, however, play a
major role in setting the stage for another movement—the
vocational education movement.
Vocational Education
By the turn of the 20th century, business leaders had become
increasingly concerned that the United States was losing ground
in world markets, particularly to Germany. The success of the
German technical schools in preparing highly skilled workers

was seen as a major factor in that country's economic success.
Industry's interest in vocational education coincided with
progressive reformers' criticism of the public schools for their
inattention to the interests and needs of the child. By 1910
business leaders, public officials, unions, and progressive
educators had come together to create the vocational education
movement (Cuban, 2001). They pressured the schools to offer a
separate vocational curriculum.
The initial response of school districts, especially those in the
larger cities, was to open trade, technical, and industrial high
schools. The next major step came with the introduction of day
and evening continuation schools for youth already at work, and
cooperative education programs jointly sponsored by the
schools and industry. The latter arrangements freed the public
schools from investing in shops, kitchens, and other specialized
workspaces. Equally important, artisans, master craftsmen, and
other experienced tradespersons served as instructors, leaving
the high school teachers to concentrate on academic and
citizenship education (Herbst, 1996).
Vocational education programs tended to be concentrated in the
cities, where they were seen as addressing both the need for a
trained workforce and a curriculum for immigrant children
"whose difficulties with the traditional college prep curriculum
were believed to be most acute" (Graham, 2005, p. 41). The
children of immigrants responded enthusiastically to the
programs.
In the South, vocational education was initially geared toward
African Americans. According to one historian's interpretation,
both immigrants and African Americans occupied a somewhat
analogous position—numerically large and politically weak.
Both groups were also accustomed to the dominant group,
native-born Whites, making educational policy decisions for
them. In this instance the dominant group had decided that

vocational training would be good for "others" (Graham, 1974).
Labor leaders originally opposed the concept of a differentiated
vocational curriculum; they saw it as exacerbating class
differences. However, they came to accept the argument that the
benefits vocational education offered by keeping students in
school and providing them the skills necessary for higher
paying jobs outweighed this negative. They also believed, or at
least hoped, that as long as vocational education was part of the
comprehensive high school, students from different social
classes would have the opportunity to interact.
.
Vocational education was already established in the high school
curriculum when a business-led coalition succeeded in securing
federal support for it through the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917,
the first federal legislation to provide direct federal funds to the
public schools. The act provided federal money to help pay for
the preparation and salaries of teachers in the agriculture, trade
and industrial, and home economics fields. It was important not
only because of the funding precedent it established but also
because it, in effect, rejected a common curriculum for all high
school students (Graham, 2005).
Vocational education was one of the most lasting reform
initiatives of the 20th century (Horn, 2002) and was key to
attracting larger numbers and a wider range of students to the
high school. Not only was a new curricular option created, but
many existing subjects were also infused with criteria taken
from vocational education; for example, courses such as
business mathematics and business English were accepted as
legitimate substitutes for the traditional forms of these subjects
(Kliebard, 2004). By the late 1920s separate vocational tracks
and vocational guidance counselors were in place in most urban
comprehensive high schools. Vocational education had become
a fundamental part of the public school system.

The Comprehensive High School
By the mid-1920s, the work of the CRSE and the introduction of
vocational education had given shape to the American
comprehensive high school. It had become an institution based
on the concept of democracy that offered a range of curricula to
students of differing abilities and interests.
Four basic curricula were offered: (1) the college preparatory
program, which included courses in English language and
literature, foreign languages, mathematics, the natural and
physical sciences, and history and social sciences; (2) the
commercial or business program, which offered courses in
bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing; (3) the industrial,
vocational, home economics, and agricultural programs; and (4)
a modified academic program for students who planned to
terminate their formal education upon high school completion.
Students self-selected different educational tracks based on
their abilities, goals, interests, and prospects for further
education. As guidance counselors became more common,
standardized tests were used to sort students into the different
curricular tracks.
Despite the opportunity for alternative curricula, the college
prep curriculum remained the dominant track in most
comprehensive high schools. In his study of the high school
curriculum during the 1920s, Counts (1926) attributed this to
the social prestige associated with the traditional curriculum.
Additionally, in many schools, especially small high schools,
enrollments and resources typically could not support all four
curricula, and despite efforts to break the stranglehold of the
college preparatory curriculum and the inroads made by
vocational education, often the only program offered was the
academic one.

The domination of the traditional academic curriculum, as well
as a structure that anticipated students moving through graded
classrooms, studying the same subjects in the same ways, and
taking exams for promotion, resulted in many students being
left behind. For instance, developmentally challenged students
aged 10 to 15, many from poor and immigrant families, crowded
the upper elementary grades, "shamed and bored as individuals
and collectively producing what educators called 'waste'—a
social sin in an age that glorified the concept of social
efficiency" (Tyack & Cuban, 1995, p. 186).
Emergence of the Junior High School
The junior high school, which appeared in the first decade of
the 20th century, offered grades 6 and 7, or 6, 7, and 8, and was
designed, in part, to address the problems of the high school
noted above. It was also a response to the Committee of Ten's
recommendation that academic work begin earlier and that
elementary schooling be reduced from 8 to 6 years and
secondary education be extended down 2 years. The concept
appealed to several types of reformers.
One group was concerned about attrition and preparing students
for the world of work. They felt the junior high school would
prevent students from dropping out and would provide them the
opportunity to explore their vocational interests or even receive
vocational training before high school. Another group was
encouraged by the work of developmental psychologists such as
G. Stanley Hall that emphasized the developmental differences
between childhood and preadolescence, and between
preadolescence and postadolescence, and suggested that, for
educational purposes, children at these stages were better kept
separate.
According to these reformers, the junior high school period was
one in which "differences of abilities or extra-school conditions

and of prospects will acutely manifest themselves, forcing us to
differentiate curricula" (Snedden, cited in Kliebard, 2004, p.
95).
A third group of reformers was concerned with transforming the
curriculum of the entire school system. As discussed in the
following chapter, these progressive reformers wanted to break
the rigidity of the traditional classroom and introduce new
subjects and new ways of teaching. They believed that
reorganizing the intermediate grades would provide the impetus
for reorganizing the entire public school system (Tyack &
Cuban, 1995).
Although the concept of the junior high school did receive
widespread support, its adoption and incorporation into school
systems was slow. The first junior high school was established
in Columbus, Ohio, in 1909 and was followed by a second the
next year in Berkeley, California. Ten years later 94% of the
secondary schools in the country still followed the traditional
pattern of 8 years of elementary school and 4 years of high
school. Two decades later this pattern still characterized about
two thirds of the secondary schools (Tyack & Cuban, 1995).
It was not until after World War II that a rapid growth in
enrollments and new school construction drove efforts to end
the dominance of the 8–4 pattern and cemented the junior high
school as a rung on the U.S. education system ladder.
5.2 Growth of Parochial Schools
As discussed in Chapter 4, in the mid-19th-century Catholics
became increasingly concerned with the heavily Protestant
sectarian practices in the public schools and the fact that
Catholic students were not excused from these practices.
In 1853 the First Plenary Council of Bishops urged every parish
to establish and support a Catholic school in the parish. In 1866
the Second Plenary Council repeated the call and admonished

bishops to see to it that schools were established in connection
with every church in their dioceses. The Third Plenary Council
in 1884 went from pleading to admonishing parishes to establish
a Catholic school within 2 years. If possible, schools were to be
free. Parents were to send their children to these schools unless
given permission by the bishop to attend elsewhere.
With the urging of the Catholic Church and the increasing
number of Catholic immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Germany,
and Eastern Europe, the number of Catholic schools increased at
a rapid rate. "By 1895, . . . an overwhelming working-class
Catholic population had built some four thousand Catholic
schools [nationwide], which enrolled 755,038 children, an
increase of 50 percent in a decade" (McGreevy, 2003, p. 114).
In some large cities such as New York and Chicago, Catholic
schools accounted for as much as 20% of the total enrollment,
and in Detroit the figure was up to 40% (Vinyard, 2008).
The proliferation of parish schools, including boys' prep schools
and convent boarding schools,
took form according to local circumstances, quality of sister-
teachers, and parents' preferences; Irish nuns for Irish children,
German nuns for Germans. Catholic publishers printed
textbooks for religious education and conscientious nuns
insisted upon additional books and lessons equal to the best of
the public schools. (Vinyard, 2008, p. 1)
The growth of the Catholic schools met with concern from many
Protestants. An attempt was made to amend the U.S.
Constitution to prohibit any level of government from providing
financial aid to religious schools. While the proposed
amendment (the Blaine Amendment) failed, the majority of
states did enact such prohibitions.
Other efforts were made to force all children to attend public

schools. In 1922 an Oregon law was amended to prohibit
children from attending private schools until after the eighth
grade. The law's stated goal was to ensure that children,
especially the children of immigrants, were "Americanized." A
private military school and the Society of the Sisters of the
Holy Name challenged the law, set to go into effect in 1926. In
1925 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned it, upholding the right
of parents and guardians to send their child to the school of
their choice (Pierce v. Society of the Sisters of the Holy Name,
1925).
Catholics were not the only denomination that established their
own schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A number
of Protestant groups, including the Lutherans, Dutch Calvinists,
Seventh-Day Adventists, Presbyterians, and Baptists also
established private schools. Overall the sum of these schools
did not equal that of the Catholic schools, but each was
important to the denomination and to the provision of education
in the United States.
5.3 Expansion of Higher Education
As discussed in Chapter 3, throughout the first half of the 19th
century, as the population grew and expanded westward, the
number of colleges grew rapidly. By the outbreak of the Civil
War, 20 states had established 21 public colleges supported
largely from public lands. Additional incentive for the
establishment of public institutions was provided by the Morrill
Acts of 1862 and 1890, the second of which was important in
the establishment of colleges for African Americans.
The period after the Civil War also saw expanded opportunities
for higher education for women. Within 15 years after the war,
one half of the colleges and universities in the United States
admitted women, and almost one third of the students were
female.
The period after the Civil War saw not only phenomenal growth

in the number of new colleges but also in their roles. Many
institutions developed into large, multipurpose research
universities as we know them today. At the other end of the
higher education spectrum, a new entry, the junior college, was
introduced to provide courses parallel to the first 2 years of the
university.
The Morrill Acts and the Land Grant College Movement
A growing recognition among farmers and laborers that
education could improve their economic conditions, and that the
classical curriculum offered by most existing colleges was
irrelevant to their needs, led them to urge the establishment of
new institutions that would provide more practical programs. In
response, with the backing of industrial interests but over the
objections of many private colleges, the first Land Grant
College Act, also known as the Morrill Act after its sponsor,
Representative Justin Morrill of Vermont, was passed by
Congress and signed by President Lincoln in 1862.
The act granted 30,000 acres of public land in the form of land
scrip to each state for each senator and representative it had in
Congress in 1860. The income from the land was to be used to
support at least one college that would teach subjects related to
"agriculture and mechanical arts." The money could be used to
establish agricultural and mechanical schools at existing
colleges, to add support to existing programs, or to open new
colleges.
Despite the fact that some states squandered the revenue from
these endowments (U.S. National Archives and Records
Administration, 2013) and "shady land deals made the future of
some colleges less secure than it might to have been," (Loss,
2012), within a decade 24 land grant colleges enrolled 2,600
students, 13% of the total U.S. collegiate population (Williams,
2003). Among the first of the new institutions were the
universities of Maine (1865); West Virginia and Illinois (1867);

the University of California (1868); the University of Nebraska
and Purdue University (1869); The Ohio State University
(1870); and the University of Arkansas and Texas A&M
University (1871).
The quarter century after the Civil War was not positive for
land grant colleges, though. Their faculties were inadequate,
and they attracted far more engineering than agricultural
students (Williams, 2003). However, the passage of the Hatch
Act in 1887, which established and funded agricultural
experimental stations at land grant colleges, and the Morrill Act
of 1890, which provided for direct annual grants to each state to
support educational programs at land grant colleges, gave
strength to the movement.
The second Morrill Act also mandated that no grant be given to
any state that denied admission to its land grant colleges on the
basis of color or race without providing a separate landgrant
institution for "colored students." Soon after, 17 states, mostly
in the South, also established separate land grant colleges for
African Americans. These land grant schools account for
approximately 75% of the Historically Black Colleges and
Universities (HBCUs) in the United States, institutions
established before 1964 with the principal mission of educating
African Americans. In 1994 the Tribal Land-Grant Colleges and
Universities Program added over three dozen more land grant
institutions.
The two Morrill Acts provided the incentive for a shift from the
classical to a more applied curriculum and for greatly expanded
state systems of higher education. The acts provided the
financial stability land grant colleges needed and at the same
time promoted state support (Williams, 2003). They also marked
a major shift in the federal government's involvement in the
provision of education. For the first time the federal

government sought to influence the direction of curriculum, and
for the first time it made a significant and direct financial
contribution to the effort.
Higher Education for Women
Another group for whom opportunities for higher education
expanded in the period after the Civil War was women. As
previously noted, a number of women's seminaries and a few
women's colleges had opened prior to the Civil War. Although
most were not equal to the best men's colleges in terms of
admission standards or degree requirements, they probably
compared favorably with the majority of male institutions of the
period that claimed collegiate status (Newcomer, 1959).
After the Civil War, women increasingly sought higher
education.
Some, such as Mary Sharp College, which was founded in 1850
and required both Latin and Greek for graduation, were
comparable to the finest men's colleges (Woody, 1929). Prior to
the Civil War, Georgia Female College (1836), Oxford Female
College (1852), Illinois Conference Female College (1854),
Ingram University (1857), and Vassar College (1861) were
among the women's colleges offering a 4-year course leading to
an A.B. (artium baccalaureus, or Bachelor of Arts) degree
(Newcomer, 1959). In addition, several formerly all-male
institutions (such as Oberlin in 1833; Antioch in 1853; and the
State University of Iowa in 1858) began admitting women prior
to the Civil War.
Although the door to higher education for women was thus
opening, it had not yet opened very wide. Prior to the Civil War
only 3,000 women in the entire nation attended colleges or
universities that offered A.B. degrees (Newcomer, 1959). After
the war, however, women's higher education began to flourish,
as several private women's colleges (for example, Wellesley,
1875; Smith, 1875; Radcliff, 1879; and Bryn Mawr, 1880) were

established and offered programs comparable to those found in
the men's colleges. In 1884 Mississippi chartered the first
public-supported state women's college, Mississippi State
College for Women. In addition, an increasing number of state
universities began admitting women, albeit selectively.
Women had an increased presence in higher education for a
number of reasons. The growth of public secondary education
was no doubt a major factor. The Civil War itself was another,
in that it brought a decline in male college enrollments that
women were eager to fill. The opening of several professions to
women also increased their interest in higher education.
Although overall the numbers were small, more and more
women were becoming physicians and ministers, and, to a lesser
extent, lawyers. Yet another major factor contributing to the
push was the women's rights movement. Many women turned
the energies that they had been giving to the emancipation of
slaves to securing equal political and economic rights for
themselves and their sisters.
Whatever the combination of factors, and despite the prejudices
against them, the number of women attending colleges and
universities increased markedly after the Civil War. As depicted
in Table 5.2, only 5 years after the war ended, more than one in
five college students was female, and in 10 years this had
increased to one in three. A majority of these were attending
normal schools, as teaching remained the most accessible and
socially acceptable profession for women.
Emergence of the Modern University
Some historians have called the period between the end of the
Civil War and the beginning of the 20th century the Age of the
University. During this period over 200 new colleges were
established in the United States. Feeding this growth in higher
education was the rapid growth in industry, technology, and
commerce.

As the number of institutions of higher education grew, so did
their roles. Many of the new institutions, as well as many of the
older ones, bore the name university. However, it was difficult
to tell an American college from a university. The first major
step in creating institutional differences in patterns as well as
practice was made by Johns Hopkins University. From its
inception in 1876, Johns Hopkins had patterned itself after the
German universities, placing heavy emphasis on graduate
studies and research. In 1885 the University of Pennsylvania
and Bryn Mawr followed Johns Hopkins's lead and also began
admitting students to newly created graduate departments.
Following the lead of these innovators, other colleges and
universities began to examine their programs. A number of more
established private institutions (for example, Harvard,
Columbia, and Yale) and the larger state institutions (such as
Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin) began
moving in the direction of establishing graduate programs and
emphasizing research. In most of these institutions graduate
study was open to women, a number of whom took advantage of
the opportunity to study what had previously been possible only
by "special arrangements" (Woody, 1929).
Another major curricular innovation in higher education was the
introduction of the elective system championed by Harvard's
president, Charles Eliot, which broke with the practice of
dictating the courses to be taken in each year of college. While
Eliot did not reject the proposition that the purpose of education
was to train the faculties of the mind, he believed that any
subject had the potential to foster mental discipline, not just the
traditional subjects (Diener, 2008).
Eliot demanded that new subjects like history and political
science be included in the group of studies deemed essential for
a liberal education, and he removed the requirement that all
freshmen study the classical languages (Diener, 2008).

Although the elective concept met stiff resistance on some
campuses, many leading colleges and universities adopted it. By
the end of the 19th century, the American university had come
to look much as we know it today, with an undergraduate
college of liberal arts and sciences, a graduate college, and
various professional colleges.
Founding of Junior Colleges
While some university presidents moved to add a graduate level,
others attempted to become less involved in undergraduate
education by introducing what eventually became the
freestanding junior college. Some university presidents and
deans viewed the first 2 years of higher education as more
appropriate to secondary education and wanted to free their
faculties from what they considered secondary education
responsibilities so that they could devote themselves to research
and graduate education.
Others, such as the University of Chicago's president, William
Rainey Harper, felt that separating the first 2 years from the
second would meet the needs of those who could not afford to
attend for 4 years, as well as those who were not interested in
research or were not academically qualified for it. In 1892,
under Harper's leadership, the University of Chicago initiated a
reorganization whereby the freshman and sophomore years were
designated the "academic college" and the junior and senior
years the "university college." Four years later they were
renamed the junior and senior colleges, and students were
awarded an associate in arts degree upon completion of the
junior college (Butts & Cremin, 1953).
The first freestanding junior college, the Joliet (Illinois) Junior
College, was established in 1901, and Harper was instrumental
in its development. Although initially established to offer
courses that would transfer to 4-year institutions, it soon began
to offer terminal and vocational programs as well (Gutek,

1986). Other junior colleges, some of them former academies or
small liberal arts colleges, opened in several other parts of the
country. The junior college was a popular choice for women,
who were still denied admission at many 4-year institutions.
A major impetus for the junior college movement came in
California, which passed a law in 1907 permitting school boards
to "prescribe a post graduate course of study for the graduates
of such high school or other schools, which courses of study
shall approximate the studies prescribed in the first two years of
university courses." By the early 1920s the concept of the junior
college was well established. During the late 1920s, encouraged
by the Smith-Hughes Act, junior colleges developed more
extensive vocational and technical education programs. By the
end of the decade, over 400 junior colleges were in operation,
enrolling more than 50,000 students.
5.4 Improved Teacher Training and Professionalism
Teacher training benefited from a strengthening of the
curriculum and standards at the normal schools. Additionally, at
the same time that the number of colleges and universities was
increasing, and the role of the university evolving, many
universities also established departments of pedagogy or teacher
education. The entry of the universities into teacher training
brought a movement to develop a science of education and a
scientific approach to the learning process. The work of Johann
Herbart was a major contribution to this movement.
Strengthening of the Normal School Curriculum and Standards
Between the end of the Civil War and 1900, the number of
normal schools exploded from 50 to nearly 350. Unfortunately,
in many of these institutions the academic background of both
the faculty and students precluded them from teaching or
studying at a collegiate level: High school completion was
seldom required for admission, and the majority of instructors
did not hold a college degree themselves (Diener, 2008). The
majority of these institutions focused on the technical training

of teachers rather than providing a broad liberal education.
However, as the new century advanced, improvements in the
quality of faculties, students, and facilities were matched by an
expansion of the curriculum. A burgeoning population had
created an increased demand for elementary and common school
teachers, while the secondary school movement created a
concomitant demand for secondary teachers. Normal schools
began to broaden their curricula to include the training of
secondary school teachers, and they began to require high
school completion for admission and college degrees for
faculty.
During the second and third decades of the 20th century, normal
schools, responding in part to competition from colleges and
universities entering teacher training (described in the next
section), expanded their programs from 2, to 3, and eventually
to 4 years. By this time many of them were beginning to call
themselves state teachers' colleges and offering B.A. degrees.
The passage of teacher certification statutes that specified the
amount and type of training required of teachers contributed to
this move, as did the requirement by accrediting agencies that
secondary school teachers have bachelor's degrees. Between
1911 and 1930, there were 88 such conversions (Tyack, 1967).
In time, with the broadening of the curriculum to embrace many
of the liberal arts, the "teacher" designation was dropped and
most became simply "state colleges." Some of these former
normal schools have become among the largest and most
respected universities in the United States.
Universities Enter Teacher Training
Paralleling the development and growth of teachers' colleges
was the establishment of departments or chairs of pedagogy in
colleges and universities. Teacher training at the college or
university level, typically consisting of one or two courses in

the "science and art" of teaching, had been offered at a limited
number of institutions as early as the 1830s, and the universities
had always been institutions for the education of those who
taught in the Latin grammar schools, academies, and high
schools. However, they did not prepare these students as
teachers per se, but as individuals who had advanced knowledge
of certain subject matter.
Universities did not become involved in teacher preparation to
any significant extent until after the Civil War. Their
involvement stemmed from the increased demand for secondary
school teachers, the entrance of the normal schools into the
training of secondary school teachers (to which the universities
objected), and the growing recognition that the
professionalization of teaching demanded study of its theory
and practice.
The University of Iowa established the first permanent chair of
pedagogy (education) in 1873. Other Midwestern universities
followed, and in 1892 the New York College for the Training of
Teachers became a part of Columbia University. By the turn of
the century, teacher training departments had become
commonplace in the major colleges and universities. By 1894–
1895 there were more than 200 colleges offering teacher
education courses, and 27 had organized departments or schools
of pedagogy (Lagemann, 2000).
Herbartianism
An important outgrowth of the involvement of universities in
teacher education was the movement to develop a science of
education and the scientific investigation of educational
problems. One of the earliest contributors to this movement was
the German philosopher and educator, Johann Friedrich Herbart
(1776–1841).
Herbart believed that the development of character was the

primary goal of education, and that this could best be achieved
by a scientific approach to the learning process that placed
greater emphasis on the development of ideas and less on
emotion and feeling.
Herbart proposed, much along the lines of current thinking in
brain research, that learning takes place through the process of
apperception, by which the child interprets new information in
light of past experiences. By this process two or more ideas
become related and will relate to future ideas or experiences.
Thus, teaching must ensure the association of ideas by making
sure the student understands how new material is related to
previous material. Because instruction is most successful if it
stimulates interest, the curriculum should be directed at
arousing student enthusiasm. Such an approach, with its
emphasis on the relationship of concepts and information, was
designed to break down the isolation of disciplines found in the
traditional curriculum.
Although Herbartianism was short-lived, its ideas and pedagogy
had a profound influence on teaching methods and the
curriculum, particularly at the elementary level, long after the
movement itself faded (Kliebard, 2004). Herbart demonstrated
not only the significance of methodology in instruction, but
also, equally important, that education could become a science.
The National Herbartian Society was founded in 1892 and 8
years later became the National Society of the Scientific Study
of Education. Most books on teaching methods published
between 1895 and World War I were pervaded by Herbartian
ideas, and as late as the 1950s the Herbartian steps could be
found in teacher education tests (Connell, 1980).
The Herbartians provided a well-articulated and methodical
approach to education at a time when teachers and teacher
education were seeking just such a systematic and

comprehensive view (Connell, 1980). Before the end of the 19th
century, teachers across the country began organizing lessons
around the five steps. Although many of them may have done so
rather mechanically, the process did force attention to
methodology.
Teacher Certification
The growing public school system demanded not just more
teachers but more qualified teachers trained in the most recent
educational pedagogy and psychology. The traditional method
of assessing teacher quality had been certification following a
written examination and often an oral examination by a lay
committee. However, the ability and objectivity of these panels
was always suspect. In a Baptist area Congregationalist teachers
might not be hired, and vice versa. In the South, prospective
teachers might be hired only if they said that states' rights had
caused the Civil War, and in the North only if they blamed
slavery (Tyack, 1967). The written exams in most states,
although free of bias, tested only what might be expected of a
common school graduate and contained no questions on
pedagogy.
This began to change by the mid-19th century, as state
departments of education became involved in teacher
certification. In 1843 New York authorized the state
superintendent to set examinations and issue certificates that
would be valid statewide. Indiana followed in 1852,
Pennsylvania in 1854, and by the end of the century the
superintendents of most other states were given the same
authority (Angus, 2001). By 1921, 26 states issued all
certificates, 7 states developed the regulations and examinations
but the county issued the certificate, and 12 states developed
regulations and questions but the county administered the
examination and issued the certificate (Butts & Cremin, 1953).
At the same time that certification was being centralized at the

state level, certification requirements were being upgraded. In
1900 no state required high school graduation for certification.
In the first decade of the 20th century, this changed as a few
states began to require high school graduation for an elementary
school teaching certificate and in others the number of years of
secondary school completion required for certification was
increased to 2, 3, or 4.
By 1921, 4 states required high school graduation plus some
professional training of their teachers, and 14 states required
high school graduation but no professional training. Thirty
states did not yet specify any academic requirement for
certification (Butts & Cremin, 1953). Nonetheless, the trend
toward increasing certification requirements had clearly begun.
In the years to come, certification requirements would
increasingly define who was qualified to teach and what
knowledge teachers should possess.
5.6 New Directions in the Education of Native Americans and
African Americans
While educational opportunities at all levels expanded for
White Americans in the post–Civil War era, two minority racial
groups, Native Americans and African Americans, were also
finally gaining access to public schooling.
The education of Native Americans had historically been
provided, with government support, by various religious groups.
After the Civil War, the federal government came to play a
more direct role by operating controversial boarding schools as
well as a growing number of onreservation day schools through
the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). However, as documented in
the 1928 Meriam Report, conducted for the government by
independent investigators, the quality of these schools and the
education they offered was inferior. Significant reform would
not come for several decades.
For African Americans, the emancipation from slavery brought

not only freedom from bonds but also the freedom to be
educated. During the period of Reconstruction immediately after
the Civil War, great strides were made in establishing schools
for African Americans. However, the gains of Reconstruction
were short-lived, and its end brought not only an end to these
efforts, but also a reversal of many of the gains. By the end of
the century, debate within the African American community
centered on what kind of education African Americans should
have and the best way to achieve social and civil rights.
Meanwhile, the separate and unequal education system already
in place would characterize American education for more than
half a century.
Mission Schools
In the period between the Revolution and the Civil War, the
policy of the federal government toward Native Americas was
one of pushing them ever farther westward. The federal
government negotiated treaties in which the tribes ceded land in
exchange for money, promises of land ownership, and the
provision of various protections and services, including
education.
The primary way the federal government met its treaty
obligations to provide education was through financial support
of mission schools operated on the reservations by various
religious groups. The objective of this education was to
assimilate Native students into American society.
Most of the schools followed a program of studies known as the
50/50 curriculum: Half of the time was spent in the traditional
common school academic subjects, as well as the religion of the
sponsoring denomination, and the other half of the time in
vocational and agricultural training for boys and domestic arts
for girls. Native language and culture were excluded from the
curriculum (Hale, 2002), and the use of Native language and
cultural practices outside the curriculum was discouraged if not

forbidden.
While European Americans attempted forced assimilation of
Native Americans, most Native Americans resisted their efforts
and sought to preserve their languages and cultures. They also
sought to adapt their traditions to the demands and opportunities
of the modern world.
For example, in 1821 a Cherokee named Sequoyah (1770–1843)
completed an 85-character phonetic Cherokee alphabet, the first
Native American script in North America, as well as the only
known instance of one individual creating an entirely new
system of writing (Wilford, 2009). Because each character
represented a sound in the Cherokee language, it was easy for
the Cherokees to master and to learn to read and write using it.
By 1828 a printing press using the characters was turning out
pamphlets, hymns, the Bible, and a newspaper.
Despite the efforts of the Cherokees and others, however, the
federal government refused to recognize their right to coexist
with Whites on the East Coast. The Indian Removal Act of 1830
resulted in the forced removal of the so-called Five Civilized
Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole)
from the Southeast to the Indian Territory of present-day
Oklahoma, and temporarily interrupted missionary efforts.
However, the missionaries soon resumed their work with
increased federal aid and remained the primary providers of
education to Native Americans into the 20th century (Coleman,
1993). In fact, it was not until 1917 that this arrangement,
which in effect constituted government support of sectarian
education, ended, and educational programs became
institutionalized in the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
The mission school experience was not a positive one for most
Native Americans or, for that matter, for their missionary

teachers. The missionaries failed to recognize that most Native
Americans were intensely religious and were invested in
preserving their religions and cultures at all costs (DeJong,
1993). The federal government provided a little money but no
standards. The net result of 100 years of effort and hundreds of
thousands of dollars was thus "a small number of poorly
attended mission schools, a suspicious and disillusioned Indian
population, and a few hundred alumni who for the most part
were considered outcasts by whites and Indians alike" (DeJong,
1993, p. 59).
After the Civil War a new assimilation approach to Native
education became popular. This approach advocated the
incorporation of Native Americans into the predominant White
culture and, like the praying towns of colonial times, was based
on the belief that the most lasting and efficient way this
assimilation could take place was to remove children from their
tribal setting and subject them, in a strict disciplinary setting, to
an infusion of American language and customs.
Beginning with President Grant's "Peace Policy" of 1869,
thousands of Native American children as young as 5 years of
age were forced into federal or religious boarding schools away
from their families. The "Peace Policy" was seen as a more
economical solution to the "Indian Problem" than costly
military campaigns against the tribes to gain control of their
lands (Pember, 2007).
The first major boarding school was established in 1879 at
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, by Captain Richard Henry Pratt, a
veteran of the Indian Wars that had broken out on the western
plains after the Civil War. His motto at the Carlisle school was
"kill the Indian, save the man." The school was operated with
military precision and harsh discipline. Students were given
new names and forbidden to speak in their native tongue, and
those caught breaking this rule faced harsh punishment.

Students were required to wear uniforms and boys to keep their
hair short and follow a strict regimen.
Manual labor performed by students was required to keep the
schools self-supporting. The boarding schools provided only the
rudiments of a common school education, along with basic
vocational and industrial training, and in the crowded
conditions and with inadequate medical care, disease and death
were common. By the turn of the century, 25 off-reservation
boarding schools had been established, enrolling 6,000 students
annually, along with 81 on-reservation boarding schools with
over 8,000 students in attendance (Coleman, 1993).
The boarding schools were subject to much criticism. The
physical and living conditions were often unhealthy and
substandard. Dropout rates were high. Students often returned
to the reservation rather than enter White society and upon their
return often found reentering life there difficult. They also
found either that they were unable to apply the training they had
received, or that it was irrelevant. In the end, then, the boarding
schools failed to produce the assimilated and educated Native
American that had been envisioned at their inception. As former
commissioner of Indian affairs Francis Leupp wrote in 1910,
"[T]he Indians did not fail in their quest for an education, but
the educational system failed the Indians" (Dejong, 1993, p.
129).
By the 1920s, "responding to complaints that the schools were
too expensive and encouraged dependency more than self-
sufficiency," (Marr, 2008, p. 13), the federal government closed
most of the off-reservation boarding schools.
Reservation Day Schools and Public Schools
In the last quarter of the 19th century, in part as a response to
the criticisms of the boarding schools, and in part as a result of
President Grant's efforts to institutionalize education programs

under the BIA, government schooling expanded rapidly in the
form of BIA-operated day schools on the reservations. The on-
reservation day schools offered a couple of important
advantages over the off-reservation boarding schools: They
were less expensive to operate, and they were more acceptable
to parents. As a consequence, the number of day schools
increased from 150 in 1877 to 301 in 1900 (Coleman, 1993).
Also increasing in numbers were Native Americans attending
public schools. Native Americans in the eastern United States
who were not under the jurisdiction of the federal government
had attended off-reservation public schools for years, but
increasingly public schools were placed on the reservations.
These schools were initially built to accommodate Whites who
rented land on some reservations. But early in the 20th century,
Native American children began to attend them, and by 1923
over half of the Native American children nationwide attended
public schools either on or off the reservation (Marr, 2008).
But despite the progress made in providing access and the
attempts by Congress to compel and coerce attendance, as late
as the 1920s, large numbers of Native children did not attend
school. Moreover, the goal of Native American education
providers remained what it had been from colonial times:
assimilation of the Native American into White culture and
society. The education offered was typically low on academics
and high on practical, vocational training. It was not until after
the very critical 1928 Meriam Report (discussed in Chapter 7)
that significant changes were initiated in Native American
education.
Education of Free and Freed African Americans
As discussed earlier, during the colonial period and the early
republic, various missionary and denominational groups
provided limited and sporadic schooling to African Americans,
both free and slave. However, by the third decade of the 19th

century, the rise of militant abolitionism and the fear of slave
revolts had led several Southern states to enact the so-called
Slave Codes, which, among other things, prohibited the
education of slaves.
In the North, although most states had abolished slavery, little
public support was given to educating free African Americans,
and most grew up without any formal education. Those who did
attend more often than not found themselves in segregated
schools. An important legal support for this segregation (and
also for segregation for the remainder of the century) was
provided by the Massachusetts Supreme Court decision in
Roberts v. City of Boston (1850), which said that separate
schools did not violate the rights of the African American child.
Despite these obstacles, some free African Americans did obtain
an education. The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 found
about 4,000 African Americans in schools in the slave states
and 23,000 in the free states (West, 1972). A few African
Americans even obtained a higher education in England or
Scotland or attended the limited number of American colleges
that admitted African Americans, notably Oberlin in Ohio and
Berea in Kentucky. Still others attended the three African
Americans colleges (known today as Historically Black
Colleges and Universities, or HBCU) established before 1860:
Cheyney State College (1839) and Lincoln University (1854) in
Pennsylvania and Wilberforce University (1856) in Ohio.
Many who gained a higher education prior to 1860 did so under
the auspices of the American Colonization Society, which was
established in 1817 to send free African Americans to the
colony of Liberia in Africa, founded by the society in 1822.
Their education was undertaken to provide the doctors, lawyers,
teachers, clergy, and civil servants needed by the new colony.
Although not all those educated by the society went to the
colony, and some who went did not remain, enough did to

provide the colony and the Republic of Liberia, which it became
in 1847, with its leadership elite (Pifer, 1973).
Reconstruction
During the post–Civil War period known as Reconstruction
(1865–1877), hundreds of teachers supported by various
northern churches, missionary societies, and educational
foundations moved to the South to educate newly liberated
African Americans. The first of the educational foundations,
established in 1867, was the Peabody Fund for the Advancement
of Negro Education in the South. It later merged with the Slater
Fund to support industrial education and teacher preparation.
Among the other groups involved in the education of southern
African Americans, the largest was the General Education
Board set up by John D. Rockefeller in 1902 (Pifer, 1973; West,
1972).
Another major force in African American education in the South
during Reconstruction was the Freedmen's Bureau, established
by President Lincoln as part of the Department of War. Aided
by various missionary and aid societies, the bureau established
some 3,000 schools, and by 1869 some 114,000 students
attended bureau schools.
These schools followed the New England common school model
in terms of their curriculum (reading, writing, grammar,
geography, arithmetic, and music) and moral outlook (the
importance of certain values and the responsibility of
citizenship), but added a new dimension—industrial training.
Consistent with the rationale for the education of immigrants
and Native Americans, vocational and industrial training was
considered the best education to prepare African Americans for
the occupations they were most suited to perform (Gutek, 1986).
Other providers of education for former slaves were freed

people themselves. Some former slaves had gained literacy
before the war or while serving in the military. Once the war
was over and the Slave Codes nullified, they taught other freed
people. And, despite limited financial resources, the freed
people often purchased or rented land on which to locate
facilities, contributed the materials and sweat equity to build
schoolhouses, and sacrificed so that their children might attend
classes during the day, while the adults often made time after
work to attend night school. (Krowl, 2011, p. 2)
This "grass roots movement" was an important force in moving
Southern states to a system of universal schooling in the
immediate post–Civil War period (Anderson, 1988).
Segregation of the Public Schools
Another factor changing the face of education in the South
during Reconstruction was legislation leading to the
establishment of tax-supported public school systems. Many
freedmen recently elected to state legislatures were a force in
this movement. Many of these African American legislators, as
well as some their White colleagues, advocated integration in
the newly established schools. In fact, many of the state statutes
or constitutional provisions established the schools without
making reference to either integration or segregation.
However, none of the Southern states actually instituted an
integrated system, and what began as the custom of racial
segregation became law in all the Southern states. Still, the
efforts of the various groups and agencies did result in a
dramatic reversal of the educational status of African
Americans, who moved from a literacy rate estimated at 5%–
10% at the outbreak of the Civil War to one of 70% by 1910.
As impressive as these figures are, they hide the poor condition
of African American (and White) education in the South. While
the rest of the country became increasingly urbanized, the South

remained predominantly poor and rural well into the 20th
century. As described by the historian Patricia Graham (2005),
in the South,
public funds were scarce, and needs were great, thus reducing
the amount available for public education. Schools floundered
in rural areas where the population concentrations were small,
where publicly subsidized transportation was not available, and
where the jobs were predominantly agricultural and did not
seem to require much formal study. Furthermore, white
immigration to the South was very low, thereby eliminating one
stimulus to schooling, preparing non-English speakers for
citizenship. Finally, and most importantly, when schooling was
seen as primarily serving the needs of the society to prepare
citizens, few whites wished to spend much of their limited funds
on schooling for their black neighbors, who, despite the post–
Civil War amendments to the Constitution, still did not enjoy
full rights as citizens. (pp. 19–20)
After the 1870s the federal government effectively withdrew
from the promotion of the civil and educational rights of
African Americans, and the education of African Americans
quickly deteriorated. Following Reconstruction the pay of
African American teachers in the South fell to less than half
that of White teachers, as did expenditures for African
American schools.
These differences translated into shorter school terms,
inadequate textbooks and materials, and dilapidated facilities
(Anderson, 1988). The Primary Source Readings at the end of
this chapter describes one such school in rural Tennessee taught
by W. E. B. DuBois. Perhaps not surprisingly, in 1900 the
enrollment rate for African American school-age children was
31%, compared to 54% for Whites, and the illiteracy rate for
African Americans was over 40%, compared to 6% for Whites
(Snyder, 1993).

By 1900 White southerners had regained control of their legal
and political systems. With the passage of laws mandating
separation of the races, known as Jim Crow laws, and the 1896
Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which, in saying
that separate railroad cars did not violate the Constitution,
established the "separate but equal" legal doctrine, a system of
racial segregation was established in the South that remained in
effect until the desegregation movement of the 1950s and 1960s.
In the period after Reconstruction, ever-increasing numbers of
White children from lower socioeconomic families entered the
public school system; between 1880 and 1895, White enrollment
in the public schools increased 106%, compared to 59% for
African American enrollment (Frazier, cited in Hare & Swift,
1976). The "rise of the poor Whites" placed increased financial
demands on public revenues and often resulted in funds being
diverted from African American schools to improve White ones
(Gutek, 1986).
To this was added the disenfranchisement of African Americans
by many Southern states and the delegation of authority to local
school boards to divide state education funds as they saw fit.
The disproportionate distribution of funds was justified,
according to the state superintendent of Alabama, because most
"colored" children are "only capable of receiving and profiting
by an elementary education which costs comparably much less
than that suitable for the white race in its more advanced stages
of civilization" (Graham, 2005, p. 21).
From the court approval of segregation, African Americans' loss
of political power, and decreased financial support for African
American education emerged the "separate and inferior" system
that marked so much of the South until the Supreme Court
reversal of Plessy v. Ferguson in 1954 and the subsequent civil
rights movement (discussed in Chapter 8).

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