The document discusses the structure and function of large biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It provides details on the monomers and polymers that make up each type of macromolecule, how they are synthesized and broken down, and their various roles in living organisms. The key macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids and proteins - are each discussed in separate sections that describe their monomer units, examples of important polymers, and structural and functional diversity within each class.
6. Figure 5.2
(a) Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes
a water molecule,
forming a new bond.
Longer polymer
(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer
Hydrolysis adds
a water molecule,
breaking a bond.
1
1
1
2 3
2 3 4
2 3 4
1 2 3
7. Figure 5.2a
(a) Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes
a water molecule,
forming a new bond.
Longer polymer
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
8. Figure 5.2b
(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer
Hydrolysis adds
a water molecule,
breaking a bond.
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
37. Figure 5.9
Chitin forms the exoskeleton
of arthropods.
The structure
of the chitin
monomer
Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible
surgical thread that decomposes after the
wound or incision heals.
42. Figure 5.10
(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of a fat
(b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)
Fatty acid
(in this case, palmitic acid)
Glycerol
Ester linkage
43. Figure 5.10a
(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of a fat
Fatty acid
(in this case, palmitic acid)
Glycerol
47. Figure 5.11
(a) Saturated fat
(b) Unsaturated fat
Structural
formula of a
saturated fat
molecule
Space-filling
model of stearic
acid, a saturated
fatty acid
Structural
formula of an
unsaturated fat
molecule
Space-filling model
of oleic acid, an
unsaturated fatty
acid
Cis double bond
causes bending.
49. Figure 5.11b
(b) Unsaturated fat
Structural
formula of an
unsaturated fat
molecule
Space-filling model
of oleic acid, an
unsaturated fatty
acid
Cis double bond
causes bending.
64. Figure 5.15-a
Enzymatic proteins Defensive proteins
Storage proteins Transport proteins
Enzyme Virus
Antibodies
Bacterium
Ovalbumin Amino acids
for embryo
Transport
protein
Cell membrane
Function: Selective acceleration of chemical reactions
Example: Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis
of bonds in food molecules.
Function: Protection against disease
Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy
viruses and bacteria.
Function: Storage of amino acids Function: Transport of substances
Examples: Casein, the protein of milk, is the major
source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have
storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the
protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source
for the developing embryo.
Examples: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of
vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to
other parts of the body. Other proteins transport
molecules across cell membranes.
65. Figure 5.15-b
Hormonal proteins
Function: Coordination of an organism’s activities
Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the
pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose,
thus regulating blood sugar concentration
High
blood sugar
Normal
blood sugar
Insulin
secreted
Signaling
molecules
Receptor
protein
Muscle tissue
Actin Myosin
100 µm 60 µm
Collagen
Connective
tissue
Receptor proteins
Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a
nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by
other nerve cells.
Contractile and motor proteins
Function: Movement
Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the
undulations of cilia and flagella. Actin and myosin
proteins are responsible for the contraction of
muscles.
Structural proteins
Function: Support
Examples: Keratin is the protein of hair, horns,
feathers, and other skin appendages. Insects and
spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons and webs,
respectively. Collagen and elastin proteins provide a
fibrous framework in animal connective tissues.
67. Figure 5.15b
Storage proteins
Ovalbumin Amino acids
for embryo
Function: Storage of amino acids
Examples: Casein, the protein of milk, is the major
source of amino acids for baby mammals. Plants have
storage proteins in their seeds. Ovalbumin is the
protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source
for the developing embryo.
68. Figure 5.15c
Hormonal proteins
Function: Coordination of an organism’s activities
Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the
pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose,
thus regulating blood sugar concentration
High
blood sugar
Normal
blood sugar
Insulin
secreted
69. Figure 5.15d
Muscle tissue
Actin Myosin
100 µm
Contractile and motor proteins
Function: Movement
Examples: Motor proteins are responsible for the
undulations of cilia and flagella. Actin and myosin
proteins are responsible for the contraction of
muscles.
71. Figure 5.15f
Transport proteins
Transport
protein
Cell membrane
Function: Transport of substances
Examples: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of
vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to
other parts of the body. Other proteins transport
molecules across cell membranes.
73. Figure 5.15h
60 µm
Collagen
Connective
tissue
Structural proteins
Function: Support
Examples: Keratin is the protein of hair, horns,
feathers, and other skin appendages. Insects and
spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons and webs,
respectively. Collagen and elastin proteins provide a
fibrous framework in animal connective tissues.
79. Figure 5.16
Nonpolar side chains; hydrophobic
Side chain
(R group)
Glycine
(Gly or G)
Alanine
(Ala or A)
Valine
(Val or V)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Tryptophan
(Trp or W)
Proline
(Pro or P)
Polar side chains; hydrophilic
Serine
(Ser or S)
Threonine
(Thr or T)
Cysteine
(Cys or C)
Tyrosine
(Tyr or Y)
Asparagine
(Asn or N)
Glutamine
(Gln or Q)
Electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Acidic (negatively charged)
Basic (positively charged)
Aspartic acid
(Asp or D)
Glutamic acid
(Glu or E)
Lysine
(Lys or K)
Arginine
(Arg or R)
Histidine
(His or H)
80. Figure 5.16a
olar side chains; hydrophobic
Side chain
Glycine
(Gly or G)
Alanine
(Ala or A)
Valine
(Val or V)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Tryptophan
(Trp or W)
Proline
(Pro or P)
81. Figure 5.16b
Polar side chains; hydrophilic
Serine
(Ser or S)
Threonine
(Thr or T)
Cysteine
(Cys or C)
Tyrosine
(Tyr or Y)
Asparagine
(Asn or N)
Glutamine
(Gln or Q)
82. Figure 5.16c
Electrically charged side chains; hydrophilic
Acidic (negatively charged)
Basic (positively charged)
Aspartic acid
(Asp or D)
Glutamic acid
(Glu or E)
Lysine
(Lys or K)
Arginine
(Arg or R)
Histidine
(His or H)
96. Secondary structure
Hydrogen bond
α helix
β pleated sheet
β strand, shown as a flat
arrow pointing toward
the carboxyl end
Hydrogen bond
Figure 5.20c
113. Figure 5.23
The cap attaches, causing
the cylinder to change
shape in such a way that
it creates a hydrophilic
environment for the
folding of the polypeptide.
Cap
Polypeptide
Correctly
folded
protein
Chaperonin
(fully assembled)
Steps of Chaperonin
Action:
An unfolded poly-
peptide enters the
cylinder from
one end.
Hollow
cylinder
The cap comes
off, and the
properly folded
protein is
released.
1
2 3
115. Figure 5.23b
The cap attaches, causing
the cylinder to change
shape in such a way that
it creates a hydrophilic
environment for the
folding of the polypeptide.
Polypeptide
Correctly
folded
protein
Steps of Chaperonin
Action:
An unfolded poly-
peptide enters the
cylinder from
one end.
The cap comes
off, and the
properly folded
protein is
released.
32
1
Figure 5.1 Why do scientists study the structures of macromolecules?
Figure 5.2 The synthesis and breakdown of polymers.
Figure 5.2 The synthesis and breakdown of polymers.
Figure 5.2 The synthesis and breakdown of polymers.
Figure 5.3 The structure and classification of some monosaccharides.
Figure 5.3 The structure and classification of some monosaccharides.
Figure 5.3 The structure and classification of some monosaccharides.
Figure 5.3 The structure and classification of some monosaccharides.
Figure 5.4 Linear and ring forms of glucose.
Figure 5.5 Examples of disaccharide synthesis.
Figure 5.6 Storage polysaccharides of plants and animals.
Figure 5.6 Storage polysaccharides of plants and animals.
Figure 5.6 Storage polysaccharides of plants and animals.
Figure 5.7 Starch and cellulose structures.
Figure 5.7 Starch and cellulose structures.
Figure 5.7 Starch and cellulose structures.
Figure 5.8 The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls.
Figure 5.8 The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls.
Figure 5.8 The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls.
Figure 5.8 The arrangement of cellulose in plant cell walls.
Figure 5.9 Chitin, a structural polysaccharide.
Figure 5.9 Chitin, a structural polysaccharide.
Figure 5.9 Chitin, a structural polysaccharide.
Figure 5.10 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol.
Figure 5.10 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol.
Figure 5.10 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or triacylglycerol.
Figure 5.11 Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids.
Figure 5.11 Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids.
Figure 5.11 Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids.
Figure 5.11 Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids.
Figure 5.11 Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids.
Figure 5.12 The structure of a phospholipid.
Figure 5.12 The structure of a phospholipid.
Figure 5.13 Bilayer structure formed by self-assembly of phospholipids in an aqueous environment.
For the Cell Biology Video Space Filling Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Stick Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files.
Figure 5.14 Cholesterol, a steroid.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.15 An overview of protein functions.
Figure 5.UN01 In-text figure, p. 78
Figure 5.16 The 20 amino acids of proteins.
Figure 5.16 The 20 amino acids of proteins.
Figure 5.16 The 20 amino acids of proteins.
Figure 5.16 The 20 amino acids of proteins.
Figure 5.17 Making a polypeptide chain.
Figure 5.18 Structure of a protein, the enzyme lysozyme.
Figure 5.18 Structure of a protein, the enzyme lysozyme.
Figure 5.18 Structure of a protein, the enzyme lysozyme.
Figure 5.19 An antibody binding to a protein from a flu virus.
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
For the Cell Biology Video An Idealized Alpha Helix: No Sidechains, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video An Idealized Alpha Helix, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video An Idealized Beta Pleated Sheet Cartoon, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video An Idealized Beta Pleated Sheet, go to Animation and Video Files.
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.20 Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Figure 5.21 A single amino acid substitution in a protein causes sickle-cell disease.
Figure 5.21 A single amino acid substitution in a protein causes sickle-cell disease.
Figure 5.21 A single amino acid substitution in a protein causes sickle-cell disease.
Figure 5.22 Denaturation and renaturation of a protein.
Figure 5.23 A chaperonin in action.
Figure 5.23 A chaperonin in action.
Figure 5.23 A chaperonin in action.
Figure 5.24 Inquiry: What can the 3-D shape of the enzyme RNA polymerase II tell us about its function?
Figure 5.24 Inquiry: What can the 3-D shape of the enzyme RNA polymerase II tell us about its function?
Figure 5.24 Inquiry: What can the 3-D shape of the enzyme RNA polymerase II tell us about its function?
Figure 5.25 DNA → RNA → protein.
Figure 5.25 DNA → RNA → protein.
Figure 5.25 DNA → RNA → protein.
Figure 5.26 Components of nucleic acids.
Figure 5.26 Components of nucleic acids.
Figure 5.26 Components of nucleic acids.
Figure 5.27 The structures of DNA and tRNA molecules.
Figure 5.UN02 Summary table, Concepts 5.2–5.5
Figure 5.UN02a Summary table, Concepts 5.2–5.3
Figure 5.UN02b Summary table, Concepts 5.4–5.5
Figure 5.UN03 Appendix A: answer to Figure 5.4 legend question
Figure 5.UN04 Appendix A: answer to Figure 5.5 legend question
Figure 5.UN05 Appendix A: answer to Figure 5.12 legend question
Figure 5.UN06 Appendix A: answer to Figure 5.14 legend question
Figure 5.UN07 Appendix A: answer to Figure 5.17 legend question