psycholinguistics

1. Date
語⾔言議題

2. 導 論
✤ F.B. Skinner’s verbal behavior
✤ 50年代左右，⼼心理學界的主流觀點是探討外在刺激如何引發特定
⾏行為。︒
✤ conditioning, conditioning, and conditioning.....

3. 導 論
✤ Noam Chomsky: ⾏行為主義不適⽤用於研究⼈人類語⾔言
✤ A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior
✤ http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm
✤ ⼈人類語⾔言使⽤用的「創造性」(creativity):
✤ 普遍語法 (universal grammar, UG)
✤ 兒童語⾔言習得 (acquisition) 的特徵
✤ 刺激貧乏 (the poverty of stimulus)

4. 語⾔言的結構
✤ 詞 words
✤ 實詞/ 內容詞 (open-class/ contain words)
✤ 可以任意替換並且保留句法結構的完整性
✤ 動詞、︑名詞、︑副詞、︑形容詞
✤ 虛詞/ 功能詞 (close-class/ function words)
✤ 不能替換的詞
✤ e.g.: in, at, with, 在、︑與

5. 語⾔言的結構
✤ 語⾔言學的研究⽅方法主要在定義什麼規則可以區分「可接受」與「不
可接受」的句⼦子 (或者詞彙)
✤ Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
✤ *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.
✤ 不符合⼀一般語⾔言規則的狀況會加上星號

6. 語⾔言的結構
✤ 完美的句法結構，雖然在概念上可能很難理解
✤ Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

7. 語⾔言的結構
✤ William J. Rapaport (1992)
✤ buffalo(s): 名詞，⽔水⽜牛
✤ Buffalo: 名詞，⽔水⽜牛城
✤ buffalo(s/ed): 動詞，恐嚇
✤ "Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo"

8. 語⾔言的結構
✤ "Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo"
✤ "⽔水⽜牛城野⽜牛所恐嚇的⽔水⽜牛城野⽜牛，恐嚇(其他⼀一些)⽔水⽜牛城野⽜牛。︒"

9. 語⾔言的特性
✤ 溝通性 (communicative)*
✤ 任意的符號性 (arbitrary)：「象形」的美麗錯誤
✤ 規律的結構性 (e.g., argument structure, ditransitive verb)
✤ 多層次的結構性
✤ 衍⽣生性、︑創造性
✤ 動態性：普通話的清聲、︑兒化⾳音

10. 溝通性
✤ garden path sentences
✤ The horse raced past the barn. ⾺馬跑過穀倉
✤
The horse raced past the barn fell. >> The horse that raced past the barn fell
✤ 將軍將軍了
✤ [ ][將軍verb][將軍noun] [了particle]
✤ [將軍noun/Topic] [將軍verb] [了particle]
✤ 將軍將軍將軍了
✤ [將軍noun][將軍verb][將軍noun] [了particle]
✤ 將軍被將軍了

11. 中⽂文構詞單位：字 or 詞??
✤ 書
✤ /shu/
✤ noun: book/ script/ letter
✤ verb: to write
✤ 圖書
✤ /tu shu/
✤ noun: books
✤ 圖書館
✤ /tu shu guan/
✤ noun: library
word length type Rate (by type) token Rate (by token)
1 3852 2.8962% 2211391 46.1270%
2 66752 50.1895% 2259581 47.1322%
3 45610 34.2932% 257187 5.3646%
4 12715 9.5602% 56102 1.1702%
5 2379 1.7887% 7265 0.1515%
6 822 0.6180% 1612 0.0336%
7 457 0.3436% 552 0.0115%
8 210 0.1579% 224 0.0047%
9 105 0.0789% 119 0.0025%
10 53 0.0398% 56 0.0012%
11 16 0.0120% 16 0.0003%
12 14 0.0105% 15 0.0003%
13 7 0.0053% 9 0.0002%
14 7 0.0053% 7 0.0001%
15 1 0.0008% 1 0.0000%
Total 133000 4794137

12. 語⾳音紋理理論
Phonological Grain SizeTheory
✤ Ziegler and Goswami (2005)

13. 語⾔言理解 (⼜⼝口語)
Acoustic Sublexical Units
/b/
/la//a/
/l/ /p/
/ip/
Speech Perception
• Categorization of acoustic input into sublexical units.
Lexicon
Word Recognition
• Identification of target word from active sublexical units.

14. – Vocal cords: vibrations create a fundamental plus harmonics
– Articulation: Vocal track is a changing resonance cavity

15. /yi1/ /yi2/ /yi3/ /yi4/
3175 Hz

16. 多層次結構性
電磁爐 落伍 了

17. /yi1/ /u1/ /e1/ /a1/ /ai1/
spectra: vowels

20. Categorical perception of phonemes
✤ Liberman et al. (1957)
✤ Speech synthesizer creates continuum of artificial syllable
that differ in the place of articulation of one phoneme
✤ Subjects placed syllables into three categories (/b/, /d/, /
g/)
Ba Da Ga

21. Categorical Perception (類別知覺):
Liberman, Harris, Hoffman & Griffith (1957)
Very consistent
identification.

22. categorical perception and
language experience
✤ Zhang et al. (2005)
✤ Japanese listeners were less sensitive to the phonemic /r–l/ difference than American
listeners.
✤ For the /b–w/ continuum, there were no significant between group differences in
identification.

23. Categorical perception of lexical
tones
fundamental frequency contours of
Mandarin Chinese tonal stimuli (Xu, 1997).
F0 patterns of the tonal continuum
from Tone 2 to Tone 4 (Xi et al., 2010). Normal adults (Xi et al., 2010).
Children with or without
dyslexia (Zhang et al., 2012).

24. parsing/ segmentation
✤ If you set up the wrong cohort, how do you recover?
✤ e.g. dragedy for tragedy
✤ Misalignment problem
The sky is falling!
This guy is falling!
or
ThesKyisfalling!

25. Problems with recognition of speech
✤ segmentation problem

26. ⼼心理語⾔言學的研究範疇
✤ 研究範疇：
✤ 理解(comprehension/ recognition)
✤ 產出(production)
✤ 不同知覺通道的語⾔言加⼯工：聽覺、︑視覺
✤ 語⾔言單位：次詞彙單位、︑詞(words)、︑語句(utterance/ sentences)

27. 研究策略
✤ 發展/ 語⾔言習得
✤ ⾔言語相關的障礙：失讀症、︑失語症
✤ 認知模型
✤ 反應時間：按鍵反映、︑眼動軌跡
✤ 腦造影
✤ 動物實驗
✤ 跨⽂文化比較

28. Lexicon!
Semantic!
Analysis!
Syntactic!
Analysis!
Word!
Recognition!
Letter/phoneme!
Recognition!
Formulator!
Grammatical
Encoding!
Phonological
Encoding!
Articulator!
Conceptualizer!
Thought!

29. ✤ 如何提取詞彙表徵 (lexical access)︖？
✤ 單路徑/ 雙路徑
✤ 如何組織詞彙表徵︖？
✤ ⼀一個詞⼀一個記憶，或者是依照次結構(部件)、︑語法類型(詞性)分開
來儲存︖？
✤ 如何觀察上⾯面這兩種問題︖？
關於⼼心理詞彙

30. ✤ 詞優效果 word-superiority effect (Reicher, 1969)
✤ 受試者短暫的看⼀一串視覺刺激 (20ms)
✤ 螢幕上出現兩個上下排列的字母，強迫受試者選
擇剛才出現在中間位置的是哪⼀一個字母︖？

31. interactive activation model
(Rumelhart & McClelland, 1981)

32. interactive activation model
(Rumelhart & McClelland, 1981)

33. 常⽤用的研究⽅方法
✤ 詞彙判斷作業 lexical decision task
✤ 看到⼀一串⽂文字刺激，盡可能快、︑又正確的判斷哪些是真詞、︑哪些
是假詞
✤ e.g.: table, cofef, cofzth
✤ 中⽂文的例⼦子：
✤ 唸名作業 naming

34. 影響詞彙辨識的因素
✤ frequency 詞頻: e.g., 村 vs. 皴
✤ regularity (發⾳音)規則性: e.g., 楓 vs. 埋
✤ orthography-to-phonology consistency 表⾳音⼀一致性: e.g., 搖 vs. 梳
✤ Imageability, concreteness ⽂文字指稱的概念特性: e.g., 蜂 vs. 風
✤ Grammatical class 語法類型: e.g., 跑 vs. 紙
✤ semantic ambiguity (e.g: bank, ⿈黃⽜牛)

35. Double dissociation
Phonological
dyslexia
Surface
dyslexia
31

36. How many routes?
Coltheart et al. (1993, 2002)
26

37. ✤ Strain et al. (1995)
✤ 以正常成⼈人執⾏行唸名作業
✤ 獨變項：規則性 (regular vs. exception)/ ⼼心像
(imageability, high vs. low)
✤ 根據雙路徑假設 (Dual-rout model)，兩者不會產⽣生
較互作⽤用，⽽而且唸名反應不受⼼心像程度的影響
✤ 根據平⾏行分散假設(parallel distribute processing),
兩者會產⽣生交互作⽤用

38. ✤ Strain et al. (1995)

39. ✤ 雙路徑理論認為，詞彙辨識很少涉及到語意訊息
✤ Coltheart 報告失智症個案研究，該受試者可以進⾏行唸
名作業、︑詞彙判斷作業，效果不會比正常組差。︒
✤ Woollams, Ralph, Plaut and Patterson (2007):
✤ Coltheart 的樣本數太少了，我⽤用50個!!!
✤ 獨變項：詞頻 (high vs. low)/ 規則性 (regular vs.
exception)
✤ 失智症者閱讀低頻/不規則字的反應會比較差
✤ 重度失智症患者的表現更差

40. Woollams, Ralph, Plaut and Patterson (2007)

41. ✤ 雙路徑理論與 PDP 理論的爭議仍在持續中。︒
✤ 誰對誰錯似乎不太重要，因為兩個陣營都遇上⼤大麻煩
Word
Frequency
Contextual
Diversity
semantic
distinctive-
ness

42. • Adelman et al. (2006, Psychological Science)
– Contextual Diversity
• Counting the number of passages (documents) in a
corpus that contain that word.
– Sinica Corpus 4.0
– Sinica COSPRO
– ⼩小學課本

44. • Adelman et al. (2006)
– If neither time nor context changes substantially,
there may be no benefit of repetition at all
(Verkoeijen, Rikers, & Schmidt, 2004).
– If the memory for words that subserves word
recognition operates in the same fashion, then
the effect of repetitions (word frequency) will
be diminished or eliminated when these
repetitions occur in the same context.

47. Regression analyses
• Response times:
–character naming task (Chang et al., in press)
–character decision task (Lee et al., 2015)
–picture naming task (Bates et al., 2003)
• Corpus:
–Character frequency
• Sinica Corpus
• Liu et al. (1975)
–Contextual diversity (CD): Sinica Corpus

49. ✤ 不只理論基礎，傳統⼼心理語⾔言學的「典範」也正在翻轉
中...
✤ Conventional Approach: Factorial design
✤ Item variables are manipulated on a relatively small
set of items (typically 10 to 20 items per condition)
✤ Effects of these variables on the speed and accuracy
of lexical decision and/or naming performance are
measured.

50. Limitations of Factorial Design
✤ Balota et al. (2004)
• It is difficult to select a set of items that only vary on one
dimension, while controlling the myriad of variables that have been
identified in the literature (Cutler, 1981).
• Implicit knowledge by the researcher could bias the selection of
words for an experiment (Forster 2000).

51. ✤ Balota et al. (2004)
• Large-scale regression studies
• Speeded visual word naming and lexical decision performance are
reported for 2,428 words for 60 adults

52. Chinese Psycholinguistic
Database
✤ Normal adults’ response to 3000+ Chinese characters:
✤ Naming task
✤ Chang, Y.-N., Hsu, C.-H., Tsai, J.-L., Chen, C.-L., & Lee, C.-Y. (2016). The
Psycholinguistic Database for Chinese Character Naming. Behavior
Research Methods.
✤ Lexical decision task
✤ Lee, C.-Y., Hsu, C.-H., Chang, Y.-N., Chen, W.-F., & Chao, P.-C. (2015). The
feedback consistency effect in Chinese character recognition: Evidence
from a psycholinguistic norm. Language and Linguistics.

53. • Semantic Combinability of “梳”:
161
– 梳, 機, 權, 檢, 校, 標, 格, 村, 極, 槍,
根, 核, 樣, 材, 松, 柏, 檔……
• Semantic Combinability of
“疆”: 1
• Phonetic Combinability of “溝”:
6
– 溝, 構, 購, 搆, 媾, 講
• Phonetic Combinability of
“繃”: 2
– 繃, 蹦
t value p values
log frequency -5.4 < .001
phonetic combinability -4.2 < .001
semantic combinability -3 .002
number of strokes 3.8 < .001
Summary of fixed effects in lexical decision latencies in Lee et al. (2015)
Radical Combinability (Feldman & Siok 1997)

56. Semantic constrain and cloze probability
The amplitude of N400 is inversely correlate to the degree of
semantic congruency and cloze probability.

57. An application of N400 for
the Peabody picture
vocabulary test-Revised
(PPVT):
A tool for evaluation of
vocabulary knowledge
(Connolly et al., 1995)

58. • Approximately, 80% of characters
are phonograms (Zhou, 1978).
– These are made up of a phonetic
radical and a semantic radical.
semantic radical phonetic radical

59. The consistency effect in the reading of
Chinese characters
• Fang et al. (1986); Lee et al.(2004, 2005).
– High consistency characters: 謠
– Low consistency characters: 梳

60. Early components & consistency effect
• Lee et al., NeuroReport, 2007

61. ✤ 不只⼼心理語⾔言學遇到挑戰，神經語⾔言學研究也出現⼀一些
教科書還來不及收錄的變化...
Poeppel, Emmorey, Hickok, & Pylkkanen (2012)

62. ✤ 從 1880 年代到現在，⼼心理語⾔言學越來越複雜了
Cognitive
Psychology
Neuroscience
Linguistics
Machine
Learning
Core
Abilities