This is on Charles E. Lindblom's classical article The science of muddling through.

1. Charles E. Lindblom
Yale University
K. D. Shamila Krishanthi

2. (Option 01)
List all
related
values in
order of
importance
Inquire into
values held
by
members of
the society
Systematic
comparison
of
multitude
of
alternatives
Make
choice that
maximizes
values

3. (Option 02)
Set
principal
objectives
explicitly
Outline
relatively
few policy
alternatives
& Compare
limited
alternatives
Rely on a
body of past
record to
predict the
future
Consider
the risks
with each
policy
alternatives.
Make choice
that
maximizes
values

4. Root
Branch
By Root or By Branch
Successive
limited
comparison
method
Rational
comprehensive
method

5. Successive limited comparison method
(Branch)
- Emanating from current situation, step-by-
step and by small degrees.
Rational comprehensive method (Roots)
- Starting from the fundamentals anew each
time
- Building on the past only as experience is
embodied in a theory
- Always prepared to start completely from
the ground up.

6. Root
Clarification of
values/objectives
distinct, usually
a prerequisite
Means-ends
approach: Ends
are isolated
means identified
Goodness test :
most
appropriate
means to end
Analysis is
comprehensive
Heavy reliance
on theory

7. Branch
Selection of
values/goals
intertwined
Means & ends not
distinct so
means/ends
analysis limited
Goodness test =
consensus
Analysis ltd:
neglects important
outcomes/
alternatives/values
Comparison
reduces reliance on
theory

8. Participants disagree on weight of critical values
and even on sub-objectives.
Individuals may be unable to rank their own
values when the are conflicting.
Social objectives may have different value
weights in different circumstances.
One chooses among values and policies
simultaneously.
Administrators focus on incremental objectives.

9. Means end relationship is not possible
if values are agreed upon and
unchanging.
Where means and ends are
simultaneously chosen, means ends
analysis is not possible.

10. Root: goodness shown by achieving
some specified objective
Branch: agreement on policy is the only
test of goodness

11. Impossible to take all factors into consideration
in any non-simple decision.
Available information and human capacity are
limited.
Complex problems/decisions must be
simplified.
Simplification is achieved through limitation of
policy comparisons and alternatives to those
differing from the status quo.

12. “ Policy is not made once and for all; it is made and
remade endlessly.”
Successive approximation to a desired objectives
where the desired objective itself changes and
evolves.
“Making policy is at best a rough process.” Policies
will only achieve part of what you hope for while
creating unintended consequences you would
prefer to avoid.
By proceeding through a succession of changes a
policy maker avoids serious and lasting mistakes