Foundations:
Defining Communication &
Communication Study
Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpt. 1
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
/Chapter_1_-
_Foundations:_Defining_Communication_and_Communication_
Study
Introductions
Discuss the course syllabus, assignments and online Textbook
Blackboard how-to
Communication Definitions
Communication Models
Linear Model
Transactional Model
Communication and You
Agenda

Introductions
Introduce yourself:
Name
Hometown
Year in School
Major
Dream Job
Go over syllabus and Blackboard
3
We will be using a combination of two FREE online textbooks,
known as an OER (Open Educational Resources)
These are free online textbooks written by communication
faculty who have allowed open use of the material.
“Survey of Communication Study” by Humboldt State
University professors Laura K. Hahn and Scott T. Paynton. Last
edited online 2016
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
“Communication in the Real World” 2012 Creative Common
License, publisher and author name removed per request
http://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/
Textbooks

If you are viewing the PPT slides on your computer or smart
phone, view in the slideshow function so you will be able to
interact with the various GIFs and video links that are included
Suggestion for viewing PPTs
What is involved in the process of communication?
Why is communication important?
Name people who use communication in creative ways?
Discussion:
What is Communication?
Instructor notes: These question prompts can be used as a pair
activity, group activity, class discussion or “thinking point”
depending on the class size and modality
6
Memes are an Example of Creative Communication

Without looking at the textbook, write down a one sentence
definition of communication
To Do
70 years ago communication scholars Bruce Smith, Harold
Lasswell and Ralph D. Casey stated
“Communication study is an academic field whose primary
focus is ‘who says what, through what channels (media) of
communication, to whom [and] what will be the results’”
(Emphasis and underline added)
Communication Definition
Smith, Lasswell and Casey
The National Communication Association states
“Communication study focuses on how people use messages to
generate meaning within and across various contexts, cultures,
channels and media.”
“The discipline promotes the effective and ethical practice of
human communication.”
Communication Definition
National Communication Association

For the purposes of our class, the definition we will use is
“Communication is the process of using symbols to exchange
meaning.”
Communication Definition
Our Textbook
A Model is a visual representation/depiction of how
something works.
Models allow us to understand a process by dividing it into
parts and looking at how they are related
Models of Communication
The earliest models of communication were linear models.
Linear models suggest that communication is simply the
transmission of a message from one source to another
Linear models suggests that communication moves only in one
direction
Linear models were based on Shannon and Weaver’s
explanations of how information was transmitted through
telephone cables or radio waves.
Linear Model of Communication

Sender Message Receiver
A basic linear
communication model
Communication is a complex process due to a variety of factors
that compose and influence it.
The process of human communication has these basic
components:
Sender
Receiver
Message
Channel
Noise
Components of the Linear Model
Linear Model of Communication

A sender is someone who encodes a message then uses a certain
channel to send it to a receiver who decodes (interprets) the
message
Discuss: When you trying to reach your friend to discuss plan
for tonight, what do you do? How do you encode your message?
You may choose to encode your message via text, social media
post, or face-to-face in class.
Components of the Linear Model: 1. Sender
The receiver is the recipient of the message
Receivers must decode (interpret) messages in ways that are
meaningful for them.
Watch the GIF on the next slide and discuss the how you, as a
receiver, would decode this message.
Components of the Linear Model: 2. Receiver
You are the receiver of this message. How would you decode
the message being conveyed in this GIF?

Messages are the building blocks of communication events
A message is the particular meaning or content the sender
wisher the receiver to understand
Message creation involves converting ideas into messages
(encoding) and deriving meaning from messages (decoding).
Components of the Linear Model: 3. Messages
Messages can be
intentional/unintentional
written/spoken
verbal/nonverbal
…or any combination
Messages are symbolic-they represent something else and
conveys meaning
Messages are arbitrary abstractions that have been agreed upon.
Messages
Channels are the method a sender uses to send a message to a
receiver
Channels can be verbal or nonverbal
Discussion: What are some examples of channels through which
we communicate?
Channels may be radio, e-mail, face-to-face, text message,
facebook, snapchat, skype, smoke signals, written note, sign
language….etc.
Components of the Linear Model: 4. Channels

Question: How can a channel influence the message?
Are there certain types of communication that are in/appropriate
for certain channels?
Should you break-up via text or facebook?
Channels
Channels-think about it
How do you choose which channel to use when you
communicate with others?
Do you consider who they are, the topic, the importance of the
message, or something else?
Overall, do you think you pick the best channel most of the
time?
If not, what do you need to do to select more appropriately?
Noise is anything that interferes with the sending or receiving
of a message.
What type of noise can get in the way of communication?
Components of the Linear Model: 5. Noise

Noise can be external or internal
External=a siren going by or loud music playing from the
neighbor next door
Internal= physical pain, psychological stress or even hunger
Noise occurs within every communication interaction, therefore
no message is received exactly as it is transmitted by the
sender.
Discuss examples of noise in your classroom or in your home.
Noise
Identify the components of linear model of communication in
this clip.
Discuss how each of these elements shape and influence the
communication encounter?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZOfrwF7wHU

Components of the Linear Model
Activity
What are some problems/criticisms with the linear model?
A major criticism is that the Linear Model suggests
communication only occurs in one direction.
This model works well if you are watching TV, but does it
accurately depict a real conversation with your friend?
It also doesn’t account for context, or how our personal
experiences impact communication
see next slide for more on context
Problems with the Linear model?
Where do we communicate?
Each communication event occurs in a specific social context.
Elements of this context include location, number of people
present, channel of communication, etc.
Consider the following contexts and how communication differs
depending on the context:
Attend first class
Talk to friends at lunch
Text with new romantic interest
Hear messages over the loudspeaker
Receive a letter in the mail
Contexts

Transactional models state that both parties in a communication
exchange act as both senders and receivers simultaneously,
encoding and decoding messages to and from each other at the
same time.
Most communication interactions are not discrete encounters,
but are part of an ongoing stream of interactions
Transactional Model of Communication
Transactional Model
Be it linear or transactional, communication models are
simplistic representations of communication
They illustrate some of the complexities of defining and
studying communication
Communication Models
Discuss all the different careers that you think require good

communication skills.
Is there a career path that does not require communication
skills?
Discussion:
Communication Careers
No matter your major or career interest, I guarantee this course
will be helpful for you personally and professionally.
A survey of National Association of Colleges and Employers
found “college students who wish to separate themselves from
the competition during their job search would be wise to
develop proficiencies most sought by employers, such as
communication, interpersonal and teamwork skills.”
We will be working on all of these skills this term
Communication and You
Communication
Theories and Methods
Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpts. 5
and 6
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
/Chapter_5_-_Communication_Theory
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
/Chapter_6_-_Communication_Research

Paradigm, Theory and Method Defined
Communication Theory
Functions and Development of theory
5 Major Theoretical Paradigms in Communication
Empirical Laws Paradigm
Human Rules Paradigm
Systems Theory Paradigm
Rhetorical Theory Paradigm
Critical Theory Paradigm
Communication Research Methods
Seven Basic Steps of Research
3 Broad Categories of Research Methods
Rhetorical
Quantitative
Qualitative
Agenda
Everyday we use information that we know to inform our
decisions—this information come from the paradigms, theories
and methods that we have learned.
We use paradigms, theories and methods in our life almost
every day…but we just don’t call them that.

Think about it:
What do you base your perspective on?
Have you ever assumed that the nurse will be a woman?
This is a paradigm
Do you base your route to school/work on the traffic patterns
you have experienced in the past?
This is a theory you have on traffic patterns
Do you have a specific way of getting ready in the bathroom in
the morning because you know it is efficient?
This is your method for getting ready
Paradigms, Theories and Methods
Based on the examples that I just gave you, write down your
definition or basic understanding of a …
Theory=
Paradigm=
Research Method=
Activity: Define Paradigms, Theories and Methods
Theories are a way of looking at events, organizing them, and

representing them.
They can take the form of a set of statements that explain a
particular phenomenon
Theories are used as tools for understanding, explaining and
making predictions about a given subject matter
Example: The Big Bang Theory attempts to explain how the
universe was created. This theory is based on scientific
evidence and observation. Not everyone agrees with this
theory.
Discussion: What are other theories that you can think of?
Theory
One way to simplify the understanding of complex theories is to
categorize multiple theories into broader categories, or
paradigms.
A paradigm is a collection of concepts, values, assumptions,
and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality for a
community that shares them, especially an intellectual
community.
Example: The role of women in the 1950s—the basic paradigm,
or common sense assumption is that women should be in the
home.
Discussion: What are other paradigms you can think of?
Paradigm
Methodology=the actual process of doing research
There are different types of research methods so scholars will
collect and analyze data in different ways to prove or disprove

theories
Rhetorical, Quantitative, and Qualitative methods are the
primary types of research methodologies in communication
EX: The Scientific Method is one of the most widely used
research practices that allows scholars to standardize their
research practices
Research Methods
Communication Theory
Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpts. 5
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
/Chapter_5_-_Communication_Theory
1. Theories help us organize and understand our communication
experiences
We use theories to organize a broad range of experiences into
smaller categories by paying attention to “common features” of
communication situations
2. Theories help us choose what communicative behaviors to
study

Theories guide where we choose to look, what we look at, and
how we look at communicative phenomenon
5 Functions of Communication Theory
3. Theories help us broaden our understanding of human
communication
Scholars who study communication share theories with one
another online, through books, journal articles, and at
conferences
The sharing of theories generates dialogue, which allows us to
further refine the theories developed in this field
4. Theories help us predict and control our communication.
When we communicate, we try to predict how our interactions
will develop so we can maintain a certain level of control.
5 Functions of Communication Theory
5. Theories help us challenge current social and cultural
realities by providing new ways of thinking and living.
People sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the ways
we communicate are innate rather than learned. This is not true.
In order to challenge the communicative norms we learn, people
use critical theories to ask questions about the status quo of
human communication
5 Functions of Communication Theory

5 Functions of Communication Theory: Summary
When developing “good” theories communication researchers
use the following criteria to ensure that their work in valuable:
Scope refers to how broad or narrow a theory is
If a theory is too broad it may not account for specific instances
that are important for understanding how we communicate.
If it is too narrow, we may not be able to understand
communication in general terms.
Developing Theories
Parsimony refers to the idea that, all things being equal, the
simplest solution takes precedence over a more complicated
one.
A theory is valuable when it is able to explain, in basic terms,
complex communicative situations.
If the theory cannot be explained in simple terms it is not
demonstrating parsimony.
Heuristic Value means that a theory prompts other theorists to
engage in further study and theorizing about a given problem.
The Greeks used the term heurisko, meaning “I find” to refer to
an idea, which stimulates additional thinking and discovery.
Developing Theories

Openness is the quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes,
multiple options and perspectives.
The openness of a theory should allow a person to examine its
multiple options and perspectives in order to personally
determine if the theory holds up or not.
Appropriateness refers to the fit between the underlying
theoretical assumptions and the research question.
Theories must be consistent with the assumptions, goals, and
data of the research in question.
Developing Theories
Validity refers to the worth and practical nature of a theory.
The question should be asked, “is a theory representative of
reality?”
There are three qualities of validity — value, fit, and
generalizability.
Is a theory valuable for the culture at large?
Does it fit with the relationship between the explanations
offered by the theory and the actual data?
Finally, is it generalizable to a population beyond the sample
size?
Developing Theories
Developing Theories: Summary

There are 5 general theoretical paradigms in communication.
Each paradigm contains various theories
Each paradigm may have several different names which will be
noted
Communication Paradigms:
Empirical Laws Paradigm
Human Rules Paradigm
Systems Theory Paradigm
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm
Critical Theories Paradigm
Theoretical Paradigms
Are there any “laws” that govern how we communicate?
For example, when you say to someone “Hi, how are you?
How do you expect them to respond?
Probably, “Fine, how are you?”
Does this always happen?
No, it does not, but your expectation is guided by your
assumption of communication laws
Discussion/Think about it
Empirical Laws Paradigm

The premise of Empicial Laws Paradigm can be stated as a
simple equation of causation: If X, then Y.
If X=“Hi, how are you?”
Y then = “Fine, how are you?”
Empirical Laws Paradigm
Theories in the Empirical Laws Paradigm approach
Communication from the perspective that there are universal
laws that govern how we communicate.
Other names for Empirical Laws include: hard science, the
positivist approach, and the classical approach.
Natural scientists look for universal laws to understand and
explain our world.
Ex: The laws of gravity
Communication scientists look for universal laws to understand
how we communicate.
Ex: When we say “how are you?” someone responds “Fine”
Empirical Laws Paradigm
One example of a Empirical Laws Paradigm is Trait Theory
Trait Theory posits that there are certain physical, personality,
and communicative characteristics that make one person more
likely to be a leader over another
Discussion: What do you think are traits that will make someone
a good leader?
Trait theory propose that people in western societies who are
physically tall, charismatic, intelligent, white, and male are
more likely to be leaders, be perceived as leaders, be placed in

more leadership positions, and make better leaders than those
who don’t exhibit these characteristics
Do you agree?
Empirical Laws Paradigm
Example Theory
Strengths:
This paradigm helps us determine cause and effect relationships
in our communication with others
It helps us predict the outcomes of our interactions with others
Useful for understanding simple interactions
Weaknesses:
It can oversimplify or fail to explain situations where a number
of variables exist
It does not account for the variety of human choices and
behaviors
It is impossible to predict, control, and generalize how
communication will unfold
“How are you?” --- “Horrible!”
It operates under the assumption that, given the same context,
people bring the same things to the context each time.
Empirical Laws Paradigm
Strengths and Weaknesses
What is the difference between a LAW and a RULE?
You are familiar with the phrase: “rules are meant to be broken”
This simple statement highlights the difference between
empirical laws and human rules approaches to communication

If you break a law in the physical world there is always a
consequence
However, if you break a rule, it may not have the same
consequences as breaking a law
Discussion/Think about it
Human Rules Paradigm
Some scholars believed empirical laws theories could not
explain communication effectively so they began developing
theories around the idea of rules rather than laws
Human Rules Paradigm approaches communication from the
perspective that we follow shared rules of communication, not
strict laws
Human Rules theories share similar assumptions with empirical
laws, but are more flexible
Believe we follow general rules of communication rather than
absolute laws that apply 100% of the time to our interactions.
Human rules theories believe that communication rules are
created by people, and are therefore always open to change
Human Rules Paradigm
Social Exchange Theory, which theorizes that people participate
in relationships when there is a fair exchange of costs and
rewards, is an example of the human rules paradigm
Social Exchange Theory claims that when the rules of exchange
are violated in a relationship, participants may choose to
terminate the relationship.
Example: Your friend began dating a new boyfriend or

girlfriend and they “did not have time for you anymore.”
You were upset because your friend violated the rules of social
exchange; in this case the exchange was time spent together.
What do you do? Stop being friends, accept it and be happy for
them or wait from them to inevitably break up? Social
Exchange Theory say you MAY choose to terminate the
friendship, but would you?
Human rules theories helps us to predict how people might
respond, much like empirical laws theories.
However, unlike empirical laws theories, rules are bound by
context and not universal to all situations.
Human Rules Paradigm
Example Theory
Strengths:
Human Rules Paradigm accounts for choice in communication
behaviors.
We are not merely controlled by laws but instead we develop
rules to help facilitate and understand our interactions,
Rules of communication help guide our interactions, but we
have flexibility to “play” with the rules because they are
dynamic and contextual.
Weaknesses
Human Rules Paradigm cannot fully predict behavior or
outcomes
Rules are culturally and contextually bound
For example, when we develop theories about something like
communication anxiety as it relates to public speaking, we do so
under the framework of our cultural perspective.
These same theories often do not apply to other cultures.
Human Rules Paradigm

Strengths and Weaknesses
How do you bake a cake?
When you get out your box of Duncan Hines cake mix, do you
have a cake?
NO, you must open the box, add the egg and water, beat the
mixture and then put it in a pan and put it in a pre-heated oven
for a certain amount of time
It is only when you follow the directions and combine the
ingredients in a particular way that you have a cake.
The sum of the ingredients is greater than the parts…this is
systems theory
Discussion/Think about it
Systems Theory Paradigm
Systems thinking began in the 19th century with George Hegel
and was more fully developed by biologist Ludwig von
Bertalanffy in the 20th century.
Von Bertalanffy argued that everything is interconnected and
therefore, we should study interconnectedness as a means of
understanding the world.
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Instead of looking at individual components, we must look at
something from the whole.

Systems Theory Paradigm
When applied to communication, the Systems Theory Paradigm
seeks to understand the interconnectedness of human
communication rather than looking at just one part
Organizational Communication is a field of communication
studies that uses Systems Theory thinking
Organization Communication looks at the interaction of people
to see how they create what we know as organizations
We will be looking more at Organizational Communication and
these connections later in the class
Systems Theory Paradigm
Example Theory
Strengths
seeks to understand a more complete picture by examining
multiple layers of communication as interconnected rather than
looking at isolated people or communication acts.
does not try to predict human behavior, but rather explain it in
ways that highlight the interconnectedness of people and their
communicative acts
Weaknesses
can be too broad in its focus--If everything is interconnected,
how do we know what to study?
because it is a relatively new approach it has yet to produce a
definitive body of research to help “prove” assumptions
Systems Theory Paradigm
Strengths and Weaknesses

If you are trying to persuade someone to do something, what
methods or tactics to you use to convince them?
How do you know what is truly effective or ineffective?
Maybe you have tried a tactic before, or because you know the
person so well, you know what will appeal to them the most.
You are using Rhetorical strategies when you do this—you just
probably didn’t call them that!
Rhetorical theories guide the way we craft messages everyday.
Discussion/Think about it
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm
The oldest tradition of the Communication field
Rhetoric= “any kind of human symbol use that functions in any
realm—public, private, and anything in between”
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm =“a way to understand and
account for the way any kind of human symbol use functions in
any realm.” Scholars have historically used rhetorical theories
as a way to produce and evaluate messages.
Rhetorical Theories scholars study ways to produce an effective
message
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm

Aristotle gave us his ideas of ethos (credibility), logos (logic),
and pathos (emotions) as fundamental components for
constructing persuasive messages
Cicero gave us the five canons of rhetoric, or the five necessary
steps for putting together an effective message
In recent years, Stephen Toulmin developed the Toulmin
model as a means for constructing persuasive arguments
Toulmin’s model of message production includes a claim,
grounds, warrant, backing, modal qualifier, and rebuttal.
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm
Producing Effective Messages
Claim =the conclusion or argument being made.
Grounds = the data and facts offered to support the claim
Warrant = logically connect the grounds to the claim, a
Backing = support the warrant
Qualifiers = make a statement about the strength of the claim
Words such as “possible,” “certainly,” and “definitely” are
examples of qualifiers.
Rebuttal = any exception to the claim is the rebuttal.
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm
Toulmin Model
Strengths
helps us produce and evaluate effective messages
highlights the importance of considering context as essential for
understanding messages
provides a way for us to foster multiple perspectives in the

evaluation and construction of messages.
Weaknesses
With such an intense focus on messages, it is possible to
overlook alternative interpretations of messages.
Some theories of message evaluation are not critical enough to
reveal power dynamics at work in message exchanges
often not generalizable across a variety of communication
contexts.
Rhetorical Theories Paradigm
Strengths and Weaknesses
Does everyone have the same amount of power in society?
Are certain groups afforded more power to speak than others?
How do power dynamics influence what is communicated?
Discussion/Think about it
Critical Theories Paradigm
Critical Theories Paradigm helps us understand how
communication is used to oppress, and provides ways to foster
positive social change
challenge the status quo of communication contexts
Critical Theories Paradigm puts the question of power at the
central point of discussion
By examining power dynamics in society, and in
communication, critical theory is an overtly political paradigm
that seeks to foster a more just and equal society
These theories differ from other theoretical approaches because

they seek praxis as the overarching goal.
Praxis is the combination of theory and action. Rather than
simply seeking to understand power structures, critical theories
actively seek to change them in positive ways.
Critical Theories Paradigm
Cultural Studies focus on understanding the real-life
experiences of people, examining communication contexts for
hidden power structures, and accomplishing positive social
change as a result
Political economy focuses on the macro level of
communication--the way media as text are situated in a given
cultural context, and the political and economic realities of the
cultural context.
In the U.S., we would note that the political economy is one
marked with gender, racial, and class inequities.
Critical Theories Paradigm
Cultural Studies and Political Economy Theories
“Mickey Mouse Monopoly”-a critical theory documentary that
investigates the role of Disney media in influencing children’s
perceptions.
This documentary is considered critical cultural studies
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byaMd_PNyIY
Discussion: What is your response to this clip from the film
“Mickey Mouse Monopoly”?
Do you agree with the arguments being made or do you

disagree?
Critical Theories Paradigm: An Example
Strengths
it combines theory and practice, seeking to create actual change
from theoretical development
The intent behind these theoretical perspectives is to help
empower those whose world-views and ideological perspectives
have not found equality in social contexts.
Weaknesses
dependence on social values that can be highly subjective
the question of, “whose values are better?” can be asked
Critical Theories Paradigm
Strengths and Weaknesses
Communication Research
Survey of Communication Study, Hahn and Paynton, chpt. 6
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
/Chapter_6_-_Communication_Research

Research can be messy.
And no, it does not mean an untidy lab
Instead, research is not an easy pursuit and doesn’t always
involve a pristine lab and white coats
Albert Einstein once said “If we knew what it was we were
doing, it would not be called research, would it?”
Think about it
Researching something as complex as human communication
can be an exercise in creativity, patience, and failure
Like experiments you may do in a science class, communication
research should be systematic, rational, self--correcting, self-
-reflexive, and creative to be of use
Unlike like your science experiments, no beakers or test tubes
are usually involved.
Instead, communication researcher study people—something a
lot harder to control for than elements on the periodic chart!
Communication Research
Identify a focus of research.
Develop a research question(s)
Define key terms

Select an appropriate research methodology
Establish a sample population or data set
Gather and analyze data
Interpret and share results
Seven Basic Steps of Research
Theoretical Preferences--Remember that theoretical paradigms
offer different ways to understand communication.
Methodological Preferences--While most researchers have
preferences for certain theoretical paradigms, most researchers
also have preferred methodologies for conducting research in
which they develop
There are a large number of methodologies available for
conducting research—our reading divides them into 3 catagories
1) rhetorical methodologies
2) quantitative methodologies
3) qualitative methodologies.
Connecting Theoretical Paradigms and Research Methods
Rhetorical Research Methods

Rhetorical methods of research are sophisticated and refined
ways to evaluate messages
Think about it: Have you ever told a friend about why you like a
show or film? What types of things did you comment on when
discussing your opinion of the show or film?
Did you talk about characters, plot, costumes perhaps?
Then you have used a form of rhetorical methods
There are many forms of rhetorical methods—our reading
focuses on the following: 1) Neo-Aristotelian, 2) Fantasy-
Theme, 3) Narrative, 4) Pentadic, 5) Feminist, and 6)
Ideological
Rhetorical Methods
The neo-Aristotelian method uses Aristotle’s ideas to evaluate
rhetorical acts
First, a researcher recreates the context for others by describing
the historical period of the message being studied
Messages are typically speeches or other forms of oral rhetoric
Second, the researcher evaluates the message using the canons
of rhetoric.
For example, the researcher may examine what types of logic
are offered in a speech or how its delivery enhances or detracts
from the ethos of the speaker.
Finally, the researcher assesses the effectiveness of the message
given its context and its use of the canons.
Rhetorical Methods
Neo-Aristotelian

In Fantasy Theme analysis the focus is on groups rather than
individuals
A fantasy is a playful way of interpreting an experience
well-suited for analyzing group messages that come from social
movements, political campaigns, or organizational
communication.
Fantasy theme research looks for words or phrases that
characterize the shared vision of a group in order to explain
how the group characterizes or understands events around them
Fantasy theme analysis offers names and meaning to a group’s
experience and presents outsiders with a frame for interpreting
the group’s rhetorical response
Ex: What do the various costumes of Cosplay member signify?
Rhetorical Methods
Fantasy Theme Criticism
Narrative criticism contends that people learn through the
sharing of stories.
A researcher using this method examines narratives and their
component parts—the plot, characters, and settings—to better
understand the people (culture, groups, etc.) telling these stories
This research approach also focuses on the effects of repeating
narratives
Rhetorical Methods
Narrative Criticism

Kenneth Burke developed the idea of the pentad using the
metaphor of drama.
As in a dramatic play, the pentad contains five elements—the
act, agent, agency, scene, and purpose.
act = what happened
agent =who performed the act
agency = the tools/means the agent used to perform the act
scene =the context for the act
purpose =why the act occurred
By using the elements of the pentad to answer questions of who,
what, when, where, and why, a rhetorical researcher may
uncover a communicator’s motives for her or his rhetorical
actions.
Ex: 2 min Video on Kenneth Burke’s Pentadic Criticsm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYjpjVDG6zs#t=15
Rhetorical Methods
Pentadic Criticism
Feminist rhetorical research, “is the analysis of rhetoric to
discover how the rhetorical construction of gender is used as a
means for oppression and how that process can be challenged
and resisted”
Although many think of “women” in reference to feminism, it is
important to note that many men consider themselves feminists
and that feminism is concerned with oppression of all forms—
race, class, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and gender.
Rhetorical Methods

Feminist Criticism
Ideology= is a collection of values, beliefs, or ethics that
influence modes of behavior for a group or culture
Rhetorical scholars interested in understanding a culture’s
values often use ideological methods
Ideologies are complex and multifaceted
Popular culture such as movies, television shows, etc. are often
the focus of this research as they are the sites at which struggles
about meanings occur in the popular culture
Ex: Mickey Mouse Monopoly Documentary is an example of
Ideological Criticism
Rhetorical Methods
Ideological Criticism
Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative refers to research in which we can quantify, or
count, communication phenomena.

Quantitative methodologies draw from research methods in the
physical sciences
The collection and analysis of numerical data
Researchers often count how often something appears or how
many times a words is said.
Discussion: What can we learn by counting acts of human
communication?
Quantitative Methods
Experimental Research uses the principles of research in the
physical sciences to conduct experiments that explore human
behavior.
Researchers choose whether they will conduct their experiments
in lab settings or real-world settings.
How can the location effect an experiment?
Experimental research generally includes a control group (the
group where variables are not altered) and the experimental
group(s) (the group in which variables are altered)
The groups are then carefully monitored to see if they enact
different reactions to different variables.
Types of Quantitative Methods
Experimental Research
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll study
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU
Experimental Research Example

Survey Research is used to ask people a number of questions
about particular topics
Surveys can be online, mailed, handed out, or conducted in
interview format.
After researchers have collected survey data, they represent
participants’ responses in numerical form using tables, graphs,
charts, and/or percentages.
Discuss: What are some problems or challenges with writing
and administering surveys?
Types of Quantitative Research
Survey Research
Content Analysis = count the number of occurrences of their
particular focus of inquiry.
For example, to count at the statistical repetition of things in
the media
Content analysis is extremely effective for demonstrating
patterns and trends in various communication contexts.
Types of Quantitative Research
Content Analysis
Watch from 5:00-8:00 to see an example of George Gerbner
performing a content analysis of violence in the media

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msfu8YCCc8Q&feature=resu
lts_video&playnext=1&list=PL29396EBCDC7BD0AF
Perform a simple content analysis yourself and count the
number of times different people are represented in photos in
your textbooks or a magazine you have around the house
Are there more men than women?
Are there more Caucasians or Blacks represented than other
groups?
What do the numbers tell you about how we represent different
people?
Content Analysis Example
Perform a content analysis this clip of the film “Resident Evil”
What do we need to do before we count the acts of violence?
Define violence
Violence=rough or injurious physical force, action, or treatment
Now let’s count….
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBAFeANc2QA
What did you get? Probably some very different numbers!
Maybe you even gave up and stopped counting!
Think about it: What are some potential issues or problems
with performing content analysis?
Content Analysis Activity
Can you see any problems with using content analysis as a
methodology to study the content of the media?
Problems with definition—can we all agree what = violence?

Problems with what to count—does one dead body equal an act
of violence or does each bullet = an act of violence?
Content analysis doesn’t connect to the “so what?” question—so
we have an extreme amount of violence in the media—so what?
Problems of Content Analysis
Meta-Analysis analyzes existing statistics found in a collection
of quantitative research to demonstrate patterns in a particular
line of research over time.
Meta-analysis is research that seeks to combine the results of a
series of past studies to see if their results are similar, or to
determine if they show us any new information when they are
looked at in totality
Types of Quantitative Research
Meta-Analysis
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research methodologies draw from the social

sciences, particularly the fields of Anthropology, Sociology,
and Social-Psychology
Rather than statistically analyzing data, or evaluating and
critiquing messages, qualitative researchers are interested in
understanding the subjective lived-experience of those they
study
Qualitative research is truly a “messy” process and often can’t
be generalized to larger phenomenon
Qualitative Research Methods
Ethnography places researchers in the midst of whatever it is
they study
Ethnographers try to understand the communicative acts of
people as they occur in their actual communicative
environments
Researcher immerse themselves in that culture
Types of Qualitative Research Methods
Ethnography
Researchers who use focus group interviewing meet with groups
of people to understand their communication characteristics.
These interviews foster an environment for participants to
discuss particular topics of interest to the group and/or
researcher
Types of Qualitative Research Methods
Focus Groups

Qualitative Researchers often combine methods in their work
Communication Professor Janice Radway used both ethnography
and focus group interviews to complete the research for her
book “Woman Reading the Romance” (1984)
She wanted to know why women read romance novels—as she
herself was also a fan
Methods:
She performed ethnographic interviews of a romance novel book
club in a central midwestern state.
Radway conducted sixty hours of interviews from June 1980-
Feb. 1981.
She talked extensively with the owner of a romance novel
bookstore and observed her interactions at the bookstore
Radway conducted both group and individual interviews with 16
regular customers
Discussion: What do you think she found? Why do women read
romance novels?
Findings: Relaxation; Escapism; Fantasy; Pleasure; Advice
(yikes!); and as a declaration of independence from the social
roles of wife and mother
Ethnography and Focus Group Interviewing
Example
Action Research seeks to create positive social change through
“a highly reflective, experiential, and participatory mode of

research in which all individuals involved in the study,
researcher and subject alike, are deliberate and contributing
actors in the research enterprise”
Unobtrusive Research=to examine and assess human traces. We
can learn a great deal about the behavior of others by examining
the traces humans leave behind as they live their lives.
Ex: what does the content of graffiti written in university
bathrooms say about that school?
Historiography= discovering, from records and accounts, what
happened during some past period.
Rather than simply putting together a series of facts, research
from this perspective seeks to gain an understanding of the
communication in a past social group or context.
Case Studies= gathering significant information about particular
people, contexts, or phenomena to understand a particular case
under investigation
This approach uses many methods for data collection but
focuses on a particular case to gain “holistic description and
explanation”
Other types of Qualitative Research Methods