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The Tools of Quality
When we introduce a particular method of doing a job, it is
natural to consider whether the method is appropriate or not.
The decision is usually based on past results and experience, or
perhaps on conventional methods. Procedures will be most
effective if a proper evaluation is made, and on-the-job data are
essential for making a proper evaluation.
KAORU ISHIKAWA, Quality Tools Inventor 1
1Ishikawa, K., “Guide to Quality Control,” Asia Productivity
Organization, Tokyo, Japan, 1985.
Quality improvement in manufacturing or services, to be
effective, should address the needs of the system as a whole. In
this book we have attempted to address quality management
from an integrative perspective. This perspective has
encompassed the many functional areas of business, including
supply chain management, marketing, accounting, human
resources, operations, engineering, and strategy. None of these
fields of endeavor operate in a vacuum. They are all interrelated
and interdependent.
Improving the System
To be successful, a business or organization must balance the
needs of these different functional areas around a coherent
business vision and strategy. The objective of the system is to
satisfy the customer. Customer satisfaction means higher

3. customer retention, which leads to improved profitability.
A quality system (Figure 10-1) uses the business model with a
focus on the customer and includes the dynamics of continual
improvement, change, planning, and renewal. Continual
improvement is necessary for a company to learn to grow.
Companies that are unable to adapt find themselves with
stagnant cultures and labor forces. Many managers, on
discovering that their organization has reached this point,
believe they must resort to draconian measures such as layoffs
and organizational reengineering to achieve change. If they had
pursued continual improvement and learning in the first place,
they might not have reached this juncture.
Figure 10-1 Quality System Model
This quality system is not just a series of variables and
relationships. It is an interconnected, interdisciplinary network
of people, technology, procedures, markets, customers,
facilities, legal requirements, reporting requirements, and assets
that interact to achieve an end. The most important aspect of the
system is the people. People are the engine of creativity and
innovation. Technology is very good at performing rote tasks;
however, technology in and of itself cannot innovate. Therefore,
how we manage people may be the most important key in this
system to unlock an organization’s potential. W. Edwards
Deming was always adamant that we should continually and
forever improve the system of production. The system includes
people. In this chapter we present the tools that are commonly
used to unlock this human potential for change and
improvement.
In this chapter we introduce the basic seven (B7) tools of
quality and the new seven (N7) tools (also referred to as
themanagerial tools). The seven basic tools are simple to use in
continuous improvement efforts. The tools often are used by
individuals and in teams, are useful at all levels of the
organization, and can be applied by people of different
educational levels. As you learn and apply the tools of quality,

4. you too will appreciate their wide application and usefulness.
Ishikawa’s Basic Seven Tools of Quality
The basic seven tools of quality may be used in a logical order.
Note that this is only a “typical” order of use for these tools.
They can be used in any order. Figure 10-2 shows this order.
The flowchart gives the team the big picture of the process to be
improved. Process data are collected using a checksheet. The
data are analyzed using either histograms, scatter plots, or
control charts. The root causes of the problems associated with
the process are identified using a cause-and-effect diagram.
Finally, causes are prioritized using Pareto analysis. These tools
are discussed in more depth on the following pages.
Figure 10-2 Logical Map of the Order for the Basic Seven (B7)
Tools
Adapted from The Memory Jogger II, published by GOAL/QPC,
2 Manor Parkway, Salem, New Hampshire, 2004.
Process Maps
A process map is a picture of a process. The first step in many
process improvement projects is to create a map of the process
as it exists. This useful step also determines the parameters for
process improvement. The concept is that we must know the
process before we can improve it.
The language of process maps can vary from the simple to the
complex. A simple set of symbols is provided in Figure 10-3.
The diamond indicates there is a decision to be made. Often
these identify different paths of sequences in the process map.
The parallelogram appears whenever materials, forms, or tools
enter or leave the process. The rectangle is the processing
symbol—the work that is actually performed. The start/stop
symbol and the page connector are used for the convenience of
the people using the process map. A few simple rules for
process maps follow:
· Use these simple symbols to chart the process from the
beginning, with all arcs in the process map leaving and entering

5. a symbol. The arcs represent the progression from one step to
the next. (See A Closer Look at Quality 10-1.)
· Develop a general process map and then fill it out by adding
more detail or subflowchart each of the elements.
· Step through the process by interviewing those who perform
it—as they do the work.
· Determine which steps add value and which don’t in an effort
to simplify the work.
· Before simplifying work, determine whether the work really
needs to be done in the first place.
Figure 10-3 Basic Mapping Symbols
The process map in Figure 10-4 shows a simple process used in
a city planning department to issue permits allowing applicants
to take possession of newly built homes. Figure 10-4 shows the
current process. In Figure 10-5 the process is simplified because
the front desk is given more authority and training to process
the forms without assigning them for analyst review. The
analyst review does not add value for the organization or the
customer. Therefore, it can be eliminated. Steps in process
mapping include
Figure 10-4 Process Mapping Home Occupation Process—
Current
Figure 10-5 Process Mapping: Home Occupation Process—
Proposed
1. Settle on a standard set of process mapping symbols to be
used.
2. Clearly communicate the purpose of the process map to all
the individuals involved in the exercise.
3. Observe the work being performed by shadowing the workers
performing the work.
4. Develop a map of the process.
5. Review the process map with the employees to make needed
changes and adjustments to the process map. (Note that it is

6. often helpful to chart processes from the customer’s point of
view in addition to the worker’s point of view.)
Example 10.1: Process Maps
Problem:The Well Construction Unit of a state Department of
Water Resources entered into a multiyear project to update its
database management system. As part of the process, the Well
Construction staff was asked to document its current process
flows.
Solution
:The resulting process map is shown in Figure 10-6. Through a
brainstorming process, the Well Construction team was asked to
rethink its processes to simplify the workflow and to take
advantage of new technology. The team worked together to
develop the new process. This resulted in a streamlined flow
that required less time for drillers to receive permits.
Figure 10-6 Process Map with Responsibility of Existing
Process
Check Sheets
Check sheets are data-gathering tools that can be used in
forming histograms; they can be either tabular, computer based,

7. or schematic. An example of a tabular check sheet for a Pareto
chart is shown in Figure 10-11. This provides a chart for copier
operators to mark each time a delay occurs in setting up new
jobs.
Figures 10-9 and 10-10 present two examples of schematic
check sheets from Ishikawa. The first is for operators to mark
bubbles where they occur in the finish of automobile windows.
The second is for marking defects in a radiator. From these
data, the types of defects are charted on a Pareto chart, cost
analysis is performed, and the data are used to prioritize design
improvements to the products. Setting up a check sheet involves
the following steps:
1. Identify common defects occurring in the process.
2. Draw a table with common defects in the left column and
time period across the tops of the columns (see Figure 10-8) to
track the defects.
3. The user of the check sheet then places checkmarks on the
sheet whenever the defect is encountered.
A Closer Look at Quality 10-1: Extended Process Mapping of
Supply Chains
Process maps are being used in the improvement of supply chain
processes. Customers and suppliers can collaborate to improve
supply chains. This type of mapping has been referred to as
extended supply chain mapping.Figure 10-7a shows a supply
chain map for Mare Technologies. This includes supplier

8. processes, receiving, internal processes, shipping, and customer
service processes.
Figure 10-7a Mare Technologies Current-State Extended Value
Stream Map
Figure 10-7b shows a map of the improved process. Some
comparisons of the existing and improved processes are as
follows:
Figure 10-7b Mare Technologies Future-State Extended Value
Stream Map
Results Metrics
Current State
Improved State
% Improvement
Lead time (days)
55
42
24
WIP (days)
11
1
91

9. Flexibility
Limited
6.25% increase per week
400/year
Unit price
$6,440
$5,860
9
Source: Horton, P., and D. DelMonico, “Charting A New
Course,” APICS: The Performance Advantage, Oct 2004, 43–46.
Figure 10-8 Check Sheet
Problem
M
Tu
W
T
F
Total

12. Totals
Figure 10-9 Check Sheet
SOURCE: K. Ishikawa, “Guide to Quality Control,” (Tokyo:
Asia Productivity Organization, 1985).
Figure 10-10 Radiator Check Sheet
SOURCE: K. Ishikawa, “Guide to Quality Control,” (Tokyo:
Asia Productivity Organization, 1985).
Example 10.2: Check sheets
Problem:A copying company desires to set up a check sheet so
that it can keep track of the sources of errors. Following are the
major error types with frequencies.