1. Vertebrates of
Siwalik
Shishir Bhardwaj
M.Sc. Applied Geology

2.  Distribution of Siwalik rocks
 Formation of Siwalik basin
 General Stratigraphy of Siwalik Group
 Lithostratigraphy of Siwalik Group
 Sub- phylum Vertebrata
 Vertebrate fossil and its Application to Earth Science Research
 Vertebrate Fauna in Siwaliks
 Climate conditions and Life in Siwaliks
Topics of discussion:

3. Distribution of Siwalik
Rocks
How and when Siwalik basin was formed ???
Activation of MBT – 18.3 Ma
Span of sedimentation – 16 to 5 Ma
Remained repository for detritus until 0.22 Ma
Reactivation of MBT, involving riding of lesser
Himalayan rocks on the Sirmaur basin, which was
accompanied by the sagging of the crust
immediately to the south of rising mountain front

4. Geological
Time scale
Classification of the
Siwalik Group
Standard
European
Equivalent
Age
calculated
from reversal
stratigraphy
(in Ma)
Continental
equivalent
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
UpperSiwalik
Boulder
conglomerate
Pinjor
Tatrot
Dhok Pathan
Nagri
Chinji
Kamlial
Muree Group
Cromerian
Villafranchian
Astian
Pontian
Sarmatian
Tortonian
Helvetian
Burdigalian
0.5 to 1.5
2.47
5.5
8.5
10.8
14.3
18.3
?
Mid-late
Villafranchian
Early Villafranchian
–Ruscinian
Turolian
L. Vellesian
E. Turolian
Oeningian
Pre- Oeningian
MiddleSiwalikLowerSiwalik
Chronostratigraphic
division of Siwalik
Succession
(Source: Tandon et al. 1998)

5. Subgroup Lithology ~Thickness
Upper
Siwalik
 Predominantly massive conglomerate with red
and orange clay as matrix and minor sandstone
and earth buff and brown shale
 Sandstone, clay and conglomerate alteration.
2300m
Middle
Siwalik
 Massive sandstone with minor conglomerate
and local variegated shale
 Predominantly medium to coarse- grained
sandstone and red clays alteration, soft pebbly
with subordinate shale, locally thick prism of
conglomerate
1400m to
2000m
Lower
Siwalik
 Alteration of fine to medium- grained
sporadically pebbly sandstone, calcareous
cement and prominent chocolate and maroon
shale in middle part
 Red and mauve shale with intercalations of
medium to fine grained sandstone
1600m
Lithostratigraphy of Siwalik Group
(after Karunakaran and Ranga Rao, 1976)
• Fluvial sequence
deposited by some
contemporaneous
Himalayan river (Indo-
Brahm River by Pascoe)
Types of
depositional
environment
Piedmont Outwash Plains
Channel and
flood deposit
lacustrine
Immature

6. • The Chordates having flexible vertebrae are known as Vertebrates.
• The sense organs are mostly concentrated in anterior part, situated
with a bony case called Skull which is articulated with vertebrae
column.
Sub- Phylum Vertebrata

7. Vertebrate Fossil: Introduction
Fossils are disarticulated in nature.
Most durable parts are commonly preserved as fossils of vertebrates
are their bones, teeth and footprints.
• Evolution of different modern species.
• Useful for correlation purpose in CONTINENTAL regions.
• Paleoclimatology, Paleobiogeography, and Paleoecology
• History and Culture
Application in Earth Science Research

8. Vertebrate Fauna in Siwaliks
 Taphonomical features of Fossils in Siwalik region.
 Siwalik equivalent in NE part of India is comparatively
unfossiliferous.

9. Vertebrates
Pisces
Tetrapoda
Amphibians
Reptilians
Crocodiles
Tortoises
Squamates:
Lizard and Snake
Birds
Mammals
Insectivora
Primates
Carnivora
Rodentia
Lagomorpha
Ungulates

10. Ungulates
Perissodactyla
Suidae
Anthracoteriidae
Hippopotamidae
Camelidae
Tragulidae
Cervidae
Giraffidae
Bovoidea
Artiodactyla
Tapiridae
Rhinocerotidae
Equidae
Proboscidea

11.  warm and humid
 Tropical evergreen trees
 Pigs, elephant, carnivores and artiodactyles
 Flood and piedmont deposit
Baluchitherium
Lower Siwalik : 18.3 – 11.5 Ma
Climatic conditions and
Life in Siwaliks

12. Colossochelys atlas Gomphotherium
Oblique left lateral
view of the
cranium of modern
Pongo pygmaeus
and Late Miocene
Sivapithecus indicus
from Pakistan. Photo
by C.Tarka.(pg. 1198
encyclopedia of human
evolution)

13. Middle Siwalik : 11.5 – 5.1 Ma
Reactivation of MBT and MCT
Uplift of Himadri
Onset of Monsoon
Encroachment of Grass lands
Grass land attracted grazing
animals from neighbouring lands
Invasion of exotic fauna (mainly
four footed) in Potwar basin

14. Hipparion antelopinum
(3 toed horse)
Hexaprotodon sivalnesis (Hippopotamus)
Deinotherium Giganteum
Vishnutheriun

15. Upper Siwalik: 5.1- 1.6 Ma
 Tropical forest completely replaced by Savannah- type, grassy plains
dotted sparsely with trees
 Grazing and browsing animals became dominant
 Macacus monkeys, and the semia & Semnopithecus apes
 Carnivores tigers, hyenas, panthers and cats
 The elephants Mastodon sivelensis, Stegodon ganesa
 The giraffes Indratherium & Sivatherium
 The ungulates rhinos, horses, hippopotami, boars and camels
 The Artiodactyles deer, buffaloes, cows, bisons
 Stone artefacts show clue for the presence of human –like primate but
no body remains have so far been found anywhere in Siwalik.

16. Stegodon sivalensis Elephas ganesa
Mastodon sivalensis Skull of Sivatherium

17. • Key Faunal Events:
* Prior to 18 Ma- Establishment of Siwalik Fauna
* 18-14 Ma – Bovids and other ruminants, large hervivores, muroids,
cricetidae (deer) dominant
* 14- 9.5 Ma – appearance of Hominids, horses appeared, muroid
dominant
* 7.5- 6.5 Ma – Siwalik fauna becomes similar to Eurasia, Sivapitecus
become extinct, Deinotherium, Brachytherium, Hystrix
(porcupine), Giraffine, Cercopithecids (old world monkeys)
* 7.4 Ma onwards- larger homonids Gigantopithecus disappeard, change
environment & climate become arid

18. References:
 Basu, P.K., 2003, Siwalik mammals of the Jammu Sub-Himalaya, India: an appraisal of their diversity
and habitats, Quaternary International Journal 117. p.105-118
 Barry, J.C., and Flynn, L.J.1990. Key Biostratigraphic events in The Siwalik Sequence. European
Neogene Mammal Choronology, p.557-571.
 Behrensmeyer, A.K., 1982, Time resolution in Fluvial Vertebrate assemblages, Paleobiology Journal,
Paleontological Society, v.8, no.3, p. 211-227.
 Flynn, L.J. et al., 1994,Neogene Siwalik Mammalian lineages: Species longevities, rates of change
and modes of speciation. Journal of Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, palaeoecology. v.115(2),
p.249-264.
 Flynn, L.J. et al., 1990, The Siwaliks of Pakistan: Time and Faunas in Miocene Terrestrial Setting,
Journal of Geology vol.98, p.589-604, The University of Chicago.
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series, Banaras Hindu University, P.59-66.
 Kumar, R., 2006, Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of India. Edition- 1, p. 206-
210.
 Lindsay, E.H., Opdyke, N.D., and Johnson, N.M. 1980. Correlation of Siwalik faunas. In: L.L. Jacobs
(ed.), Aspects of Vertebrate History: Essay in Honor of Edwin Harris Colbert, Museum of Northern
Arizona Press, Flagstaff. p. 309- 319.
 Pascoe, E.H., 1962, A manual of the Geology of India and Burma, Volume-3, Geological Survey of
India. Edition-3, p.1811-1818.

19.  Patnaik, R. and Sahni,A., 1996, Siwalik rodent biostratigraphy: Implications for Intra-continental
Correlation. Contrs. XV Indian Colloq. Micropal. Strat., Dehradun. P.509-512.
 Pilbeam, D.R. et al., 1979, Miocene Sediments and Faunas of Pakistan. Postilla Number 179, Peabody
Museum of Natural History, Yale University.
 Rage, J.C. et al, 2001, Amphibians and Squamates from the Neogene Siwalik beds of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, v. 75(2),p.197-205.
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 Vaidhyanadhan, R., and Ramakrishnan, M., 2008, Geology of India, Volume: 2, Geological Society of India.
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 Wadia, D.N., 1966, Geology of India, Edition 3,p.357-387.