The dark energy paradox leads to a new structure of spacetime.pptx
Samary of molecular cloning .
1. • Molecular cloning is a set of experimental methods in molecular biology that are used to assemble
recombinant DNA molecules (genes ) and to multiply their number in an organism.
• Host organisms can be eukaryotic, bacterial or viral cells.
• The purpose is to produce a large quantity of selected gene and it translation products.
• Restriction enzyme are bacterial enzymes that cuts double-stranded DNA into smaller fragments.
producing DNA segments called restriction fragments. DNA sequence that is recognized by a restriction
enzyme is called a restriction site
• This hybrid combination of two fragments is called a recombinant DNA molecule.
• Recombinant DNA, with the plasmid containing the added DNA or gene has been formed. The
recombinant plasmids are inserted into bacterial cells during a process known as transformation.
• The introduced gene can begin producing its protein via transcription and translation. PROTEIN
(Insulin) IS PRODUCED IN LARGE QUANTITY
• POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
• In a PCR experiment, two DNA primers of 20 base pairs are designed and synthesized
chemically. We may want to detect if a person has a gene for diseases then the primer is
synthesised with a short DNA sequence from this gene. PCR help to detect if a patient
has this sequence in his genome
• 3 reaction steps are performed in a PCR reaction. About 30 cycles
• 1. Initial denaturation 2. annealing 3. extension
Storage of DNA at - 4°C … Heating separates the double stranded DNA –Denaturation- Slow cooling anneals
the two strands –Renaturation- Optimal temperature 72C
• DNA is a giant anion in solution.
2. • Basic steps in DNA extraction
• Break open cells and remove membrane lipids
• Remove cellular and histone proteins bound to the DNA, by adding a protease, by
precipitation with sodium or ammonium acetate, or by using a phenol/chloroform
extraction step.
• Precipitate DNA in cold ethanol or isopropanol, DNA is insoluble in alcohol and clings
together, this step also removes salts.
• Cutting DNA Fragments
•Cohesive ends: fragments with short, single-stranded
overhanging ends (Restriction enzymes make double-stranded
cuts in DNA, producing cohesive, or sticky, ends.)
•Blunt ends: even-length ends from both single strands
•Gel electrophoresis-separation of DNA fragments by size through a gel medium -Smaller fragments
migrate faster . Gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA molecules on the basis of their size and
electrical charge.
•Probe: DNA or RNA with a base sequence complementary to a sequence in the gene of interest .Is
usually labeled for easy detection .Radioactive P32 or Fluorescent tag .
•Microsatellites: variable number of copies of repeat
sequences possessed by many organisms, which can be
amplified by PCR . Combined with RFLP analysis to form more
thorough fingerprint.