This document discusses the concept of academic freedom across different countries and contexts. It provides 3 key points: 1. Academic freedom gives teachers and students the right to pursue knowledge and research without unreasonable interference. However, there are some limitations to protect institutions and prevent harassment. 2. Many countries explicitly protect academic freedom in their constitutions, such as Germany, South Africa, and the Philippines. The US relies on the 1940 AAUP principles that balance faculty, institutional, and student rights and freedoms. 3. There can be conflicts between individual academic freedom and institutional authority over curriculum and standards. Controversial cases throughout history illustrate tensions around teaching controversial topics or opinions. Overall academic freedom aims to balance open inquiry with

1. Quest cannot be barricaded…

2. In The Words Of Masters…
“Logic will get you from A to B. Imagination will
take you everywhere.”
“It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy
in creative expression and knowledge.”
-ALBERT EINSTEIN
• “The mind, sharp but no broad, sticks at every
• point but does not move.”
“God’s silence ripens man’s thought into speech”
-RABINDRANATH TAGORE

3. Preview…
• Academic Freedom – A belief institutional Academic Freedom rights
• Conflict in Definition • Controversies of Academic Freedom
• Rationale • Academic Freedom in India
• Importance of Academic Freedom – The Kazhikode Case
• American Association of University – Academic Freedom – India v/s West
Professor – Affiliation and Academic Freedom
• Academic Freedom – What it does do and – The real scenario and threats of
doesn’t Academic Freedom in India
• Academics for Academic Freedom (AFAF) • Conclusion
• Academic Freedom rights for • References
Faculty, Institution and Students
• Academic Freedom – Around the World
– France, Germany, Philippines, South
Africa, United State
• 1940 Statement of Principle on Academic
Freedom and Tenure
• Is Tenure is necessary to protect Academic
Freedom
• Conflict with implementation and

4. Academic Freedom – A Belief
Academic Freedom, is the freedom of
teachers and students to
teach, study, and pursue knowledge
and research without unreasonable
interference or restriction from
law, institutional regulations, or
public pressure.

5. Conflict of Definition…
The term, “Academic Freedom” tends to be
difficult to define because its technical
definitions come from preferred educational
custom and practice (professional
norm), faculty contracts (professional
norm), and from legal findings related to
constitutional and contract law (legal norm).
In its everyday usage, its definition is more
likely to come from the folkways and
mythology that often define the educational
culture.

6. Rationale…
Proponents of academic freedom believe the freedom of inquiry by
students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the
academy. They argue that academic communities are repeatedly
targeted for repression due to their ability to shape and control the
flow of information. When scholars attempt to teach or communicate
ideas or facts that are inconvenient to external political groups or to
authorities, they may find themselves targeted for public
vilification, job loss, imprisonment, or even death.
In North Africa, a professor of public health discovered that his
country's infant mortality rate was higher than government figures
indicated. He lost his job and was imprisoned.

7. Importance of Academic Freedom…
• Essential to the mission of the academy
• Without protection, academic communities are
repressed for their ability to shape knowledge
– According to a reflection by Robert Quinn, historically, the
power to shape knowledge is a source of power. Authorities
have sought to control societies by controlling scholars
• We should care about increasing the quality and
flow of information and understanding in the
world (academic freedom and scholarship
promotes these goals)

8. American Association of University Professors (AAUP)
According to AAUP,
―…institutions of higher education
are conducted for the common good
and not to further the interest of
either the individual teacher or the
institution as a whole. The common
good depends upon the free search
for truth and its free exposition."

9. Academic Freedom – What it does do…
• Both faculty members and students can engage in intellectual debate without
fear of censorship or retaliation.
• Establishing a faculty member‘s right to remain true to his or her pedagogical
philosophy and intellectual commitments. It preserves the intellectual
integrity of our educational system and thus serves the public good.
• Both faculty members and students can make comparisons and contrasts
between subjects taught in a course and any field of human knowledge or
period of history.
• Academic freedom gives both students and faculty the right to express their
views — in speech, writing, and through electronic communication, both on
and off campus — without fear of sanction.
• Academic freedom gives both students and faculty the right to study and do
research on the topics they choose and to draw what conclusions they find
consistent with their research, though it does not prevent others from judging
whether their work is valuable and their conclusions sound.
• Political, religious, or philosophical beliefs of politicians, administrators, and
members of the public cannot be imposed on students or faculty.
cont….

10. Academic Freedom – What it does do…
…cont
• Academic freedom gives faculty members and students the right to seek
redress or request a hearing if they believe their rights have been violated.
• Academic freedom gives faculty members and students the right to challenge
one another‘s views, but not to penalize them for holding them.
• Academic freedom protects a faculty member‘s authority to assign grades to
students, so long as the grades are not capricious or unjustly punitive. More
broadly, academic freedom encompasses both the individual and institutional
right to maintain academic standards.
• Academic freedom gives faculty members substantial latitude in deciding
how to teach the courses for which they are responsible.
• Academic freedom guarantees that serious charges against a faculty member
will be heard before a committee of his or her peers. It provides faculty
members the right to due process, including the assumption that the burden
of proof lies with those who brought the charges, that faculty have the right to
present counter-evidence and confront their accusers, and be assisted by an
attorney in serious cases if they choose.

11. Academic Freedom – What it doesn’t do…
• Academic freedom does not mean a faculty member can
harass, threaten, intimidate, ridicule, or impose his or her views on students.
• Academic freedom does not deny faculty members the right to require students
to master course material and the fundamentals of the disciplines that faculty
teach.
• Academic freedom thus does not grant an unqualified guarantee of lifetime
employment.
• Academic freedom does not protect faculty members from colleague or student
challenges to or disagreement with their educational philosophy and practices.
• Academic freedom does not protect faculty members from non-university
penalties if they break the law.
• Academic freedom does not give students or faculty the right to ignore college
or university regulations, though it does give faculty and students the right to
criticize regulations they believe are unfair
cont…..

12. Academic Freedom – What it doesn’t do…
• Academic freedom does not protect students or faculty from disciplinary
action, but it does require that they receive fair treatment and due process.
• Academic freedom does not protect faculty members from sanctions for
professional misconduct, though sanctions require clear proof established
through due process.
• Academic freedom does not protect a faculty member from investigations
into allegations of scientific misconduct or violations of sound university
policies, nor from appropriate penalties should such charges be sustained in
a hearing of record before an elected faculty body.
Source: AAUP Policy Documents & Reports.

13. Academics For Academic Freedom - AFAF
According to AFAF,
Academic Freedom has two main principles:
• ―..that academics, both inside and outside the
classroom, have unrestricted liberty to question and
test received wisdom and to put forward controversial and
unpopular opinions, whether or not these are deemed
offensive.
• ..that academic institutions have no right to curb the
exercise of this freedom by members of their staff, or to use
it as grounds for disciplinary action or dismissal.‖

14. Faculty Academic Freedom Rights…
―Teachers are entitled to freedom in the
classroom in discussing their subject, but
they should be careful not to introduce
into their teaching controversial matter
that has no relation to their subject.
Limitations of academic freedom because
of religious or other aims of the institution
should be clearly stated in writing at the
time of the appointment,‖ (AAUP 1940).

15. Institutional Academic Freedom…
• The curriculum belongs to the
institution, not the faculty.
• The institution can demand certain
standards of teaching and evaluate
the faculty against those standards.
• The admission process belongs to the
institution, not the faculty.

16. Student Academic Freedom…
Professional Norm: AAUP Joint
Statement on Rights and Freedoms of
Students.
“The professor in the classroom should
encourage free discussion, inquiry and
expression. Student performance
should be evaluated solely on academic
basis, not on opinions or conduct in
matters unrelated to academic
standards.”

17. Student Academic Freedom…
In the classroom, student speech is protected if:
– Pertinent to classroom discussion and subject matter
– Not expressed in a disruptive manner
OR
– Silent
– Passive
– Non-disruptive

19. In France…
The academic freedom of university professors is a
fundamental principle recognized by the laws of the
Republic, as defined by the Constitutional Council;
furthermore, statute law declares about higher
education that:
―…teachers-researchers (university professors and
assistant professors), researchers and teachers are fully
independent and enjoy full freedom of speech in the
course of their research and teaching activities, provided
they respect, following university traditions and the
dispositions of this code, principles of tolerance and
objectivity."

20. In Germany…
The German Constitution
(Grundgesetz) specifically grants
academic freedom:
"Art and science, research and
teaching are free. Freedom of
teaching does not absolve from
loyalty to the constitution" (Art.
5, Para. 3).

21. In the Philippines…
The 1987 Philippine Constitution
states that,
"Academic Freedom shall be
enjoyed in all institutions of higher
learning."

22. In South Africa…
Section 16 of the 1996 Constitution
of South Africa offers specific protection
to academic freedom.
However there have been a large number
of scandals around the restriction of
academic freedom at a number of
universities with particular concern being
expressed at the situation at the University
of KwaZulu-Natal.

23. In the United States…
In the United States, academic freedom is generally taken as the
notion of academic freedom defined by the "1940 Statement of
Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure," jointly authored by
the American Association of University Professors ("AAUP") and
the Association of American Colleges (AAC) (now the Association
of American Colleges and Universities).
These principles state that-
"Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing
their subject.“
The statement also permits institutions to impose-
"limitations of academic freedom because of religious or other
aims," so long as they are "clearly stated in writing at the time of
the appointment.”
cont….

24. In the United States…
Academic freedom for colleges and universities
The Supreme Court of the United States said that academic freedom
means a university can "determine for itself on academic grounds:
• who may teach,
• what may be taught,
• how it should be taught, and
• who may be admitted to study.―
In a 2008 case, a Federal court in Virginia ruled that professors have
no academic freedom; all academic freedom resides with the
university or college. In that case, Stronach v. Virginia State
University, a district court judge held "that no constitutional right to
academic freedom exists that would prohibit senior (university)
officials from changing a grade given by (a professor) to one of his
students."

26. 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure
ACADEMIC FREEDOM
 Teachers are entitled to full freedom in research and in the publication of the
results, subject to the adequate performance of their other academic duties; but
research for pecuniary return should be based upon an understanding with the
authorities of the institution.
 Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing their subject, but
they should be careful not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter
which has no relation to their subject. Limitations of academic freedom because
of religious or other aims of the institution should be clearly stated in writing at
the time of the appointment.
 College and university teachers are citizens, members of a learned
profession, and officers of an educational institution. When they speak or write
as citizens, they should be free from institutional censorship or discipline, but
their special position in the community imposes special obligations.

27. 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure
ACADEMIC TENURE
After the expiration of a probationary
period, teachers or investigators should have
permanent or continuous tenure, and their service
should be terminated only for adequate
cause, except in the case of retirement for age, or
under extraordinary circumstances because of
financial exigencies.

28. Tenure
The American Association of University Professors, in a
famous 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom
and Tenure, declared:
"Tenure is a means to certain ends, specifically:
(1) Freedom of teaching and research and of extramural
activities, and
(2) A sufficient degree of economic security to make the
profession attractive to men and women of ability.
Freedom and economic security, hence tenure, are
indispensable to the success of an institution in fulfilling
its obligations to its students and to society."

29. Interpretation…
• Institutions can ‗limit‘ academic freedom for religious or
other beliefs as long as it was explicitly stated in writing at
the time of appointment
• Teachers need to avoid controversial issues that are not
related to the subject being taught
• In public, teachers and others of authority must indicate
that what is being said is their personal opinion and does
not represent the institution that they are affiliated with
The authority to define and enforce
academic freedom lies with the institution

30. Is Tenure Necessary to Protect Academic Freedom?
• From an intrinsic perspective, tenure safeguards the freedom of faculty
members to speak, write, and associate however they choose.
• Tenure is a key mechanism for protecting academic freedom. Once a faculty
member receives tenure, he or she cannot be subjected to adverse employment
action, such as firing, without proof of cause.
• By limiting the ability of the university to fire or otherwise take adverse actions
against faculty members, tenure provides protection for faculty members to
teach and write as they choose.
• tenure offers both procedural and substantive protections.
Procedurally, tenure means that a faculty member has continuing employment
unless the university initiates an action against the faculty member and
succeeds in proving "cause" for termination.
Substantively, tenure means that the only specific, narrowly defined
circumstances will constitute "cause" sufficient for termination or other adverse
employment actions. Although the definition of "cause" varies by university, in
general, there must be serious violations of the law or of principles of academic
honesty to meet the standard.

31. Conflict with Implementation…
There are three groups that SHARES academic freedom protections-
1. The faculty.
2. The institution.
3. The students.
Conflict often arises where these groups intersect.

33. Conflict with Institutional Academic Freedom
• Institutions reserve the right to determine
– Who may teach
– Who may be taught
– How it shall be taught
– Who many be admitted to study
(Regents of the Univ. of Californav. Bakker, 438 U.S. 265, 312 (1978)
• Piarowski (1985) shows a conflict between individual and institutional
academic freedom
– Faculty member was asked to move his sexually explicit art display from a
gallery in a heavily traveled area to a less traveled area
– Court ruled that a college can regulate the display of explicit material
• Johnson-Kurekv. Abu-Absi (2005) support the concept that the
institution has the right to designate how classes are taught and what
grades were issued. First amendment protects the individuals right to
their belief in pedagogy but not their right to actually do it.

34. Controversies…
“The Bassett Affair”:
In October 1903, Professor John Bassett publicly
praised Booker T. Washington and drew attention to the
racism and white supremacist behavior of the
Democratic, to the disgust of powerful white Southerners.
Many media reports castigated Bassett, and many major
newspapers published opinion pieces attacking him and
demanding his termination. On December 1, 1903, the entire
faculty of the college threatened to resign en masse if the
board gave into political pressures and asked Bassett to
resign.
President Teddy Roosevelt later praised Bassett for his
willingness to express the truth as he saw it.

35. Controversies…
“Living Together”:
In 1929, Experimental Psychology Professor Max Friedrich
Meyer and Sociology Assistant Professor Harmon O.
DeGraff were dismissed from their positions at
the University of Missouri for advising student Orval
Hobart Mowrer regarding distribution of a questionnaire
which inquired about attitudes towards divorce, "living
together", and sex. The university was subsequently
censured by the American Association of University
Professors (AAUP) in an early case regarding academic
freedom due a tenured professor.

36. Controversies…
“Little Eichmann”:
In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, some
public statements made by some university faculty were
criticized. Most prominent among these were these
comments made in January 2005 by University of
Colorado professor Ward Churchill. He published an essay
in which he asserted that the attack on the United
States, while unjustified, were provoked by American
foreign policy. On news and talk programs, he was
criticized for describing the World Trade Center victims as
"little Eichmann", a reference to Hannah Arendt‘s Eichmann
in Jerusalem. The university fired Churchill in 2007.
Churchill successfully filed a law suit for unlawful
termination of employment.

37. Controversies…
“Strike”:
In 2006 trade union leader and sociologist Fazel
Khan was fired from the University of KwaZulu-
Natal in Durban, South Africa after taking a
leadership role in a strike. In 2008 international
concern was also expressed at attempts to
discipline two other academics at the same
university - Nithiya Chetty and John van der Berg
- for expressing concern about academic freedom
at the university

38. Justice Speaks…
• "Teachers and students must always remain free to
inquire, to study and to evaluate, to gain new maturity
and understanding; otherwise our civilization stagnate
and die.”
• “To impose any strait jacket upon the intellectual
leaders in our colleges and universities would imperil
the future of our Nation.”
–Chief Justice Earl Warren (Sweezy, 1957)

39. Justice Speaks…
"The essentiality of freedom in the community of
American universities is almost self-evident. . . . To
impose any straitjacket upon the intellectual leaders in
our colleges and universities would imperil the future
of our nation. No field of education is so thoroughly
comprehended by man that new discoveries cannot yet
be made. . . . Scholarship cannot flourish in an
atmosphere of suspicion and distrust. Teachers and
students must always remain free to inquire, to study
and to evaluate, to gain new maturity and
understanding; otherwise our civilization will stagnate
and die.“
- Chief Justice Earl Warren

40. Academic Freedom In India
INDIA

41. Indian Perspective…
Part III - Fundamental Rights' is a charter
of rights contained in the Constitution of
India. It guarantees civil liberties such that
all Indians can lead their lives in peace and
harmony as citizens of India. These
include individual rights common to
most liberal democracies, such as equality
before law, freedom of
speech and expression, and peaceful
assembly, freedom to practice religion.

42. The Kozhikode Case…
KOZHIKODE:
M V Narayanan, professor and head, department of English has
moved the high court against the vice-chancellor alleging harassment
on four counts, including the issuing of a memo for conducting a
national seminar on translation organized in association with the
National Book Trust.
Another professor has also been served the memo last month for
speaking to the media. Teachers say that the authoritarian restrictions
on freedom of thought, speech and action have put academic freedom
in danger at the varsity.
"These memos are only a ploy to intimidate all those who have a
different opinion on the state of affairs at the varsity. Knowledge
creation and academic pursuits will not happen in an atmosphere
where academic freedom is stifled," said K P
Muraleedharan, professor, dept of commerce and management
studies.

43. The Kozhikode Case…
Employee unions claim that taking part in a protest march or even
speaking to the media is all that is needed to get a show-cause memo. "In a
varsity with around 1,400 administrative staff, already around 700 memos
have been issued with many getting more than one memo. It is strange
that the authorities have gone to the extent of constituting a separate
section at the administrative wing just to serve memos and make follow-
ups on disciplinary proceedings," said Calicut University Employees
Union general secretary S Sadanandan.
Narayanan, who filed the writ petition under article 226 of the
Constitution, said the varsity had served a memo alleging that the
national seminar on 'Politics of Translation' conducted by the department
didn't have proper permission.
The petition seeks a directive to the vice-chancellor not to obstruct
Narayanan from undertaking and discharging his bonafide academic
responsibilities and pursuits as envisaged in the CU Act and Statutes, and
as laid down by the policies of the UGC.

44. “The Hindu” speaks…
―There is need for evolution of policies that
recognize the changes in the landscape of higher
education in India. While the legal and
institutional framework for protecting the
freedom of speech and expression in India is
sound along with an independent judiciary that
can enforce the fundamental rights, there are
certain aspects of political culture, religious
intolerance and cultural dogmatism that pose
challenges to the protection of academic
freedom.‖

45. Academic freedom – India v/s West
It is difficult to draw parallels between academic freedom in the west and in
India as their educational processes and advancements vary widely.
West has a history of private education, impelled and conditioned by the
philosophy of educational service to society, and many educational institutions
are private and self-regulating. India does not have such history. Its education
system is mostly a bureaucratic appendage of the state.
Educational advancements in India are incomparably lower than in the west.
India‘s gross enrolment ratio (GER) for higher education (tertiary or degree-
level) is between 9 per cent and 11 per cent of the population in the relevant age
group. Going by UNESCO statistics, the GER in developed countries is between
44 per cent (Switzerland) and 86 per cent (Finland).
GER in developed countries and India, 2001
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, World Education Indicators.
Enrollment Developed Countries India
Level Total Male Family GPI Total Male Family GPI
Primary 100.6 100.7 100.6 1.00 98.1 106.0 89.7 0.85
Secondary 105.9 104.7 107.2 1.02 50.3 57.5 42.5 0.74
Tertiary 54.6 39.5 70.1 1.8 11.4 13.4 9.3 0.70

46. Affiliation and Academic Freedom
At the all-India level about 90 per cent of under-graduate and 66 per cent of post-
graduate students are in affiliated colleges and only the rest are in university
departments and constituent colleges. Of the research students 91 per cent are in
universities. As many of the colleges lack facilities, they do not have academic
freedom for teaching and research. As affiliation is seen as an affliction and a
systemic malaise, of late there has been increasing demand to do away with it.
As the majority of students and teachers are in affiliated colleges where the
foundations of higher education are laid, in order to place higher education on a fast
track, the most important need is to foster these institutions by ensuring equity and
fairness in intake, by strengthening basic and infrastructure needs including, and
especially of qualified teachers, and by grounding these institutions in disciplinary
diversity and excellence in quality. In the absence of these measures any discussion
of academic freedom in the context of most of these colleges is inane.
To provide academic freedom to potential colleges, the UGC has been granting
autonomous status. Granting autonomy is an important measure of fostering quality
education and academic freedom.

47. THE REAL SCENE
• c

48. Lack of Academic Freedom – The Real Scene
 India has hardly any academic freedom. This is because the
various choices which the stakeholders in education can normally
exercise in a developed democracy are lacking in India.
 The ongoing privatization and commercialization of
education, which affect the freedom and autonomy of
students, teachers, and parents in relation to education. Within the
state sector teachers and students are fairly well organized. This is
not so in private institutions.
 Recently, when the AICTE (All India Council for Technical
Education) derecognized a number of deemed
universities, students, parents, and teachers were all helpless. The
students, anxious about their future, went on strike. But they were
roughed up by police. Police also filed false cases against some of
them, apparently at the instance of the managements. The state
was a passive spectator.

49. The Real Scene…
Many of the state universities are in disarray.
Because of language and quota politics the quality
of students, teachers, and teaching leaves much to
be desired. There are cases of teachers migrating
to other universities under duress. The faculty
incentive scheme recently introduced in some
state universities works against academic ethos.
Those who can bring in money to the university
corpus are given incentive credits in cash. The
attempts to turn education into a money-spinner
are apparently at the cost of academic freedom.

50. The Real Scene…
The political and bureaucratic interference in state-run
universities is deplorable. Often Vice-Chancellors cannot
inspire the faculty and students; in their eagerness to please
politicians and bureaucrats they forget their academic and
leadership roles in universities. Corruption is rampant in state
universities. According to Transparency
International, education is the most corrupt sector in
India, next to health.
When some of the appointments of teachers and Vice-
Chancellors are by ingratiating politicians, their primary
concern is profit, and not teaching. Quality of the profession is
the casualty. In such situations academic freedom cannot
flourish. Between central and state universities, the former get
favored treatment. It is mainly the former which may be said to
have academic freedom, though even in their case only very
few academics are active as to claim their role as one of
freedom.

51. Threats to Academic Freedom in India
1. Academic freedom in India is, however, often
stymied by the state‘s inaction, particularly
failure to foster academic institutions, and lack of
well-being, ethos, and integrity in many
institutions.
2. Restriction on the use of archival material, by
treating the last 30 years records as ‗current‘, and
inaccessible to scholars;
3. Some universities not allowing dissertations on
living personalities without their written
permission; and
4. Political interference in university appointments
and affairs.

52. Threats to Academic Freedom in India
During the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) rule which preceded the
present Congress-led United Progress Alliance, State actions
went against established academic norms. These included the
introduction of astrology as an academic discipline, rewriting of
textbooks by the NCERT, rewriting of history books, and in
general, attempts to introduce into education the BJP‘s version
of Indian society, through what was generally termed as the
falsification of history.
As the persons who carried out the state‘s diktats were
academics, who could have resisted what are now considered
political aberrations, whether it is the academia or the state
which should be blamed is debatable.

53. It's time to conclude…
Academic Freedom, is not a term to define; is not a formula to apply. When the sun
rises to brighten the world, irrespective of any region, country or continent, it is
natural. When mind quests to brighten the wisdom, irrespective of any subject or
matter, it is also natural.
When we learn, we need a teacher whose ideas are free from any flexuous
psychological blockage. Who ignites the minds of a generation. Who never confines
his vision into the vial of syllabuses. And when we teach, we need a student who is
not proud of his eye-glasses, but of his eyesight. Who learn to be excellent. Who
learn to innovate, who learn to inspire. Who learn to implement the accumulated
knowledge for the betterment of civilization. When we born, we were casted to play
the dual role in our life..both as learner and as a teacher, sometimes simultaneously.
Success is a blind-follower of excellence. Institutions are contributed to teachers and
learners. Their researches should not be circumscribed by any dominating
narcissistic principle.
The history of human civilization talks of many evidences where academic freedom
were attacked many times. But in long run they failed repeatedly. And in future
history will repeat itself.
Because the thirst of truth is always unquenchable.
Since we don‘t know, what we don‘t know….
….LEARNING NEVER ENDS.

54. References…
1. WIKIPEDIA: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_freedom
2. BRITANNICA: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/2591/academic-
freedom
3. AAUP: www.aaup.org/issues/academic-freedom
4. www.afaf.org.uk/
5. HINDU: http://www.hindu.com/2007/11/13/stories/2007111352170800.htm
6. USC: http://www.usc.edu/dept/chepa/Papers/Chemerinsky.PDF
7. AAUP: http://www.aaup.org/our-work/protecting-academic-freedom
8. ACADEMIC FREEDOM AND TENURE - Michael J. Grubiak, Ed.D., Vice
President, Student Services, Centralia College.
9. ACADEMIC FREEDOM -Arlene Gardner, NJ Center for Civic and Law-Related
Education, Jim Daly, Seton Hall University
10. SWEEZY V. NEW HAMPSHIRE, 354 U.S. 234, 250 (1957) (plurality opinion).
11. PROCUNIER V. MARTINEZ, 416 U.S. 396, 427 (1974).
12. FREEDOM AND TENURE IN THE ACADEMY: The Fiftieth Anniversary of the
1940 Statement of Principles, 53 L. & Cont. Prob. 407, appendix B (1990)
13. ERWIN CHEMERINSKY, Legion Lex Professor of Law
14. RADHAKRISHNAN: Academic Freedom from a Human Rights‘ Perspective

55. anirban.bw@gmail.com

56. 