A Master student's interpretation of the state of political philosophy during the Renaissance: 14th-17th century European, Italian, Northern, and English Renaissance.
1. Political Philosophy during the
Renaissance
A Master Student’s Interpretation
by Amin Sadeghi
POL523 Philosophy and IR
Asst. Prof. Dr. İlksoy Aslım
MA International Relations
European University of Lefke
Cyprus, 2017
2. Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3
Etymology & origins ................................................................................................ 3
Eastern delicacies................................................................................................... 3
Hans Holbein’s “The Ambassadors” ....................................................................... 3
Eurocentrism........................................................................................................... 4
Historical background................................................................................................. 4
The fall of Constantinople ....................................................................................... 4
The end of “Global Warming”.................................................................................. 5
The end of feudalism .............................................................................................. 5
Philosophical background .......................................................................................... 5
Reactionaries.......................................................................................................... 5
Thomas Aquinas..................................................................................................... 6
Natural philosophy .................................................................................................. 6
Humanism.................................................................................................................. 6
Petrarch’s self-reflection.......................................................................................... 6
Petrarch’s Humanism.............................................................................................. 6
Significant features of Humanism ........................................................................... 7
Humanism’s success .............................................................................................. 7
Humanism’s utilisation of movable type .................................................................. 7
Humanism now ....................................................................................................... 7
East-West dichotomy of political philosophy ........................................................... 8
Political philosophy..................................................................................................... 8
Niccolò Machiavelli ................................................................................................. 8
Thomas More.......................................................................................................... 9
Marsilius of Padua .................................................................................................. 9
Giovanni Mirandola ................................................................................................. 9
Martin Luther and John Calvin .............................................................................. 10
Michel de Montaigne............................................................................................. 10
Jean Bodin............................................................................................................ 10
Richard Hooker..................................................................................................... 11
Giordano Bruno..................................................................................................... 11
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 11
References............................................................................................................... 13
3. Introduction
The Reinassance is an umbrella term for describing social and political changes
in various regions of Europe connecting the Middle Ages to Modern times. It started
from the beginning of 14th
century until the end of 17th
century covering three hundred
years. Among the more appreciated European regions to say to have had a
Renaissance are the Italian (in Florence), the Northern (in Bruges), and the English.
Etymology & origins
The Italian word rinascita (‘rebirth’) was used in the 16th
century by Art historians
Palmieri and Vasari to refer to a revival of culture. This was a poetic way of saying that
heights of civilisation of Greek and Roman times once lost to the barbarians had
returned to Italy. The word to enter the English lexicon, however, was the French word
“Renaissance” used by historian Jules Michelet in 1855. The use of these words is
comparable to the English word “modern,” which was first used in 1836 (McLaughlin,
1988).
Eastern delicacies
Ease of trade brought merchants willing to trade products of the East for money,
and the promise of a better life brought in immigrants of all kinds, again bringing
eastern objects and books. Tenth and Eleventh century Persian and Arab discoveries
of Ibn Haytham, Al-Biruni, and Ibn-Sina (Avicenna) were brought to Europe either
through trade or by smugglers who wanted to earn a quid. Amongst these items were
objects as well as books on Geometry, Optics, and Chemistry, which were obviously
used in Northern Renaissance paintings e.g. the paintings of Jan Van Eyck.
Navigational instruments also faced a similar fate as their Chinese and Islamic
countries versions found their way into shipping enhancements; notwithstanding
Columbus’s discovery of the new world.
Hans Holbein’s “The Ambassadors”
Hans Holbein was a Renaissance painter who immortalised his name with the
painting “The Ambassadors;” in which the social and the political elements of his era
are exquisitely depicted. In the painting, Dinteville and Selve are in London to broker
a new political alliance between King Henry VIII of England, King Francis of France,
and their counterpart, Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire, the
other great power in European politics of the time.
This 1533, oil on oak painting, now to be found at The National Gallery in
London, gives us a clear picture of the strands of thought during the Renaissance.
Right behind the two messengers, are two shelves, on the upper shelf of which lay: a
celestial globe: an astronomical instrument used to measure the stars and the nature
of the universe; Quadrants: to tell the time with the aid of the sun’s rays; Sundials and
a torquetum: both navigational instruments used to work out a ship’s position in both
time and space; as well as a rug of Ottoman design and manufacture. The lower shelf
holds two books (a hymn book and a merchant’s arithmetic book); a lute; a terrestrial
globe; a case of flutes; a set square; and a pair of dividers.
4. The upper shelf deals with abstract and philosophical issues, whereas the lower
shelf deals with “humanism, religion, printing, trade, exploration, politics and empire.”
Moreover, the terrestrial globe of the lower shelf indicates Europe as “Europa.” This is
in itself significant for the 15th and 16th centuries were the point at which Europe
began to be defined as possessing a common political and cultural identity (Brotton,
2006).
Eurocentrism
Nineteenth century Michelet and Burckhardt dismissed the contributions
coming in from the East, and failed to mention its global scale. This trend shaped
western thought up until recently when books such as Eurocentrism challenged the
way western history skipped some parts and dismissed the scope of Renaissance.
Samir Amin injects science/history/culture from what he collectively calls Islamic
countries (or Islamic world) (Amin, 1988); which more truthfully entails Persia and
Egypt only. The Renaissance period holds the key to understanding many shifts in
science, power, and ideologies.
Historical background
Renaissance is a period in European civilization immediately following the
decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce. The invention or application
of such potentially powerful innovations as paper, printing, the mariner's compass, and
gunpowder brought significant changes such that the social and political settings of
the Middle Ages fought back against. A surge of interest in classical learning and
values changed the standards of living, and changing the Ptolemaic for the Copernican
system of astronomy meant new and fresh ways of thinking. At the same time on the
other side, in the Far East, the Chinese were also surging in influence. The
accumulation of knowledge was jot down as the Yongle Encyclopedia, and had it not
been for putting a stop on the travels of Zhing He of the Ming Dynasty, we might have
seen a different world today, speaking Chinese probably. Nevertheless, history played
in the favour of Western Europeans. The discovery and exploration of new continents
was made by Columbus, partly for the events that played out between 1000 ADE and
the Back Death three centuries later, and partly because of the advances incurred
during the Renaissance.
The fall of Constantinople
The Fall of Constantinople had at least two implications: The Political (power)
and the Economic (trade). When the all glorious Roman Empire came to an end, a
great vacuum of power was created that gave men the aspiration of glory. When great
powers crumble down, political maps are redrawn.
On the other hand, though, the fall of Constantinople meant that safe trade with
India and China was hampered. With demand for spices and silk still high, the quest
for a sea route to India began. Christopher Columbus travelled to the West and Vasco
da Gama to the East. The latter was successful in getting to India through sea, but
although the former was not, his expedition became of even higher success. The
5. discovery of America not only expanded the possibilities of trade, but also meant the
expansion of mental possibilities for everyone including the laymen. If a mental image
of continents could widen overnight, then what other thought was there in the mind
staying stagnant?
The end of “Global Warming”
The year 1000 ADE marked the start of a global warming that would last for
more than three centuries. A warmer England meant better agriculture, resulting in
growth in population and wealth (Esolen, 2015). In 1348 when the Black Death had
arrived in Europe, the better conditions for life had also come to end. Famine and
sickness together shattered the ruling elite’s power over the people. It was only the
Medici family and their successful banking models that could now saw the people of
Florence from drought. In 1434 Cosimo came to power. His efforts as well as the
efforts of the two generations after him Renaissance culture flourished in the city of
Florence. The influence of the Medici family lasted for a good three centuries, but then
declined after 1720, the mark of the death of Cosimo II, son of Ferdinand (History.com
Staff, 2009).
The end of feudalism
Monarchs wanted to insure their power at the head of nation-states. The
introduction of gunpowder decreased the power of feudal lords, and coupled with the
decrease of power of the Roman Catholic Church, feudalism was brought down to its
knees. With money as the medium of exchange, higher productivity, as well as the
introduction of new technologies, societies started to change form and bloom in
economic and cultural aspects.
Philosophical background
Works of theology developed Philosophy at the end of the Middle Ages at the
Universities of: Bologna (1088); Oxford (1096), Paris (1150), and Padua (1222). 14th
century: Prague (1348), and Cologne (1388). Among the many was Aquinas who
travelled throughout Europe to study and to teach (Esolen, 2015). These were the
times when theology and philosophy were hard to separate from one another. In other
words one can say that the intellectual thought of the time was of Christian Philosophy.
In periods of time before the modern, “newness was not a recommendation, or
considered a merit.” In traditional societies, anything new was immediately suspected
just for that reason, for individuals had a “reverence for tradition.” Unlike current
modern societies where progress is seen in the “new,” “the cutting edge,” “the latest,”
the new of the past was “a revival of an earlier practice” (Liulevicius, 2013).
Accordingly, to scholars and thinkers of the day, it was a time of revival of classical
learning and wisdom; as opposed to cultural decline and stagnation of the past.
Reactionaries
Petrarch (1304–1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) looked back to the
literature and values of the ancient past held in Greece and Rome; and despised the
6. contemporary direction towards it had progressed. Their views of the past were of
admiration and their trials were of revival. Petrarch set the stage for Italian
Renaissance with his humanist philosophy (Biography.com Editors, 2014). He showed
his longing for Roman greatness by writing letters to Cicero (politician and lawyer) and
Livy (historian) (Duignan, 2011).
Thomas Aquinas
Medieval scholasticism tried to merge the wisdom of Aristotelian philosophy
with the Christianity of the Catholic Church. Aquinas (1224/5-1274) came up with the
best possible synthesis of these two. In this view, the universe is a closed system, with
earth the centre, with everything in it with a final cause, with God giving the final cause.
The centre of the universe is the lowest place; also known as “The Aristotelian-
Ptolemaic Universe” (Cahoone, 2010). Later attacks on this view were attacks on the
Aristotelian philosophy, consequently indirect ways of attacking religion, or the
Catholic Church.
Natural philosophy
As the rule and teachings of the church started to lose their absolutism, men of
curiosity and wisdom automatically looked at nature for understanding. The primary
distinction to consider after Aquinas was the Aristotelian dichotomy of speculative
science versus practical science. Attempted by Da Vinci, in the Notebooks, categories
of philosophy (science for example) made history happen: Empiricism (Bacon);
Mechanistic Science (Hobbes); and Mathematics (Descartes).
Humanism
Renaissance humanism had an innocent start, but was later mostly to attack
the Catholic Church philosophically. Since a direct attack on religion was impossible,
its Aristotelian dialectic was undermined by defending Platonic rhetoric. Hence, Greek
and Latin classic texts were translated and studied, in order to find ways to attack
Aristotelian dialectic, as well as for substitutes for religion.
Petrarch’s self-reflection
Petrarch, through the writing of poetry of desire, not only finds peace, but also
is “transformed into it, becoming virtuous and steadfast.” His definition of philosophy
“blurs the distinction between the realms of philosophy and rhetoric” (Zak, 2006).
“At this time in order to avoid slipping into a subject other than the
one that I set out to treat, I urge and admonish that we correct not
only our life and conduct, which is the primary concern of virtue, but
our language usage as well. This we will do by the cultivation of
eloquence.” – De studio eloquentie, Petrarch, 1345
Petrarch’s Humanism
To Petrarch, a civilised individual was trained in the studia humanitatis:
grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. Petrarch’s writings were
7. personal and self-reflecting; in no way pursuing a political purpose. As a cleric and an
envoy for the Church, he travelled extensively, allowing him to collect classical texts.
Petrarch was the founding father of Italian Humanism, and his writings and poems
“would later be used to help create the modern Italian language.” (biography.com)
“A short cut to riches is to subtract from our desires.” – Petrarch
Significant features of Humanism
Humanism (1) took human nature as its subject as opposed to teleological
ethics of Aristotle; (2) gave humans agency and a chance to improve their status in
society as opposed to a deterministic class system; (3) unity and compatibility of
philosophical and theological schools and systems saw a change such that Syncretism
caused religious pluralism; (4) Emphasis on human dignity meant attempts to exert
mastery over nature, which were contrary to the Catholic Church’s placement of
humans at the lowest of places – meaning earth – living a life of penance.
Humanism’s success
Regardless of its initiatives, Humanism of 15th
century Europe was a success
due to the following two reasons: First, it was conveyed to the people that mastery of
the classics made them more ‘humane.’ Second, similar to the ranking system of the
Ottomans, Italian Humanism provided ranks of social elite available to everyone to
climb and to obtain.
In a system devoid of nobility by inheritance, any boy could hope for top ranks.
Whether this method was later adapted, learnt, or was by design, its pragmatic nature
ensured a philosophy that would remain for a long time. Another notable reason for its
success was the printing press, disseminating ideas at a speed never seen before.
Humanism’s utilisation of movable type
Movable type was an invention of the Renaissance period (around 1450) that
had technological, as well as cultural repercussions. Humanists were lucky to have
this technology at their disposal for their ideas disseminated faster than usual. In the
mid-1460s, Alberti, in his appraisal of the movable type, writes that using the new
technology, three men were capable of producing 200 copies of a textbook in one
hundred days. One of the humanists to take full advantage of this new technology was
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam whose Praise of Folly (1511) is still praised up to
this day.
Humanism now
Most contemporary humanists give humans a higher value and agency in the
absence of theism and the supernatural. This is done by building ethics from the
ground up, and by encouraging people to lead responsible lives. Today Humanism is
recognised as a religion by the US Army as well as by the Federal Bureau of Prisons
(American Humanist Association, n.d.). AHA is actively defending the rights of
humanists.
8. East-West dichotomy of political philosophy
Aquinas got his natural philosophy, ethics, and political philosophy from
Aristotle. In the East, however, it was the works of Plato that had been translated into
Arabic.
Christianity of the West Weaved with Aristotelian political philosophy:
Aristotle’s “Politics.”
Islamic countries &
Jewish communities
Weaved with Platonic philosophy:
Plato’s “Republic” and “the Laws.”
Plato’s works in Arabic were amongst the smuggled goods that caught the
attention of humanists who attempted to attack the contributions of Aquinas to the
church, and alongside with it the church itself.
Political philosophy
Renaissance is the period that marks the transition of the rule of Church to
secular and individualistic ideas. Successors of this period make up the founding
fathers of modern western thought: Descartes (father of modern western philosophy),
Hobbes (one of the founding father of political philosophy), and Locke (father of
Liberalism). The turn of the 16th
century started with timeless classics of political
realism and political idealism: The Prince (1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli; and Utopia
(1516) by Thomas More respectively.
Niccolò Machiavelli
Machiavelli’s book, “The Prince,” took a rather different approach in
understanding phenomena, than the typical writings of the Renaissance period:
Machiavelli’s generation Machiavelli’s The Prince
The ideal society (Classicism, Idealism) Preserving power and the status quo
(Realism)
Normative Descriptive
Deontological Ethics Pragmatism, Instrumentalism,
Teleological Ethics
Eudemonism Utilitarianism
The doctrine of raison d’état was suggested by Machiavelli to be the only
saviour of Florence. Pursuit of state ends also raises the issue of necessity – “it is
necessary for a republic to expand or else it will be conquered” (Ardito, 2015). In his
lesser studied book, “Discourses on Livy,” Machiavelli suggests two prospective
princes how to make structural changes by first imitating the previous “modes and
orders” (Zuckert, 2017). The realist approach of the former describes men the way
they are, and not how they ought to be. In the latter, it is still a matter of debate whether
he really changes his position or just changes methodology to convey the same
stance.
9. Thomas More
He started a career in politics from the lower ranks of public servant to higher
rank of diplomatic, king’s adviser, and eventually became the Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster (northern England). In his book, “Utopia,” he describes social and political
settings of an imaginary island. The word, nowadays used infrequently, is a pun of two
Greek words: “no place” & “good place.” In his novel, everything is the exact opposite
of the man of law and rules that he was. Amongst the many include: the ownership of
private property, tolerance, euthanasia, ease of divorce, utility/pleasure-seeking, and
married/female priests.
“You have either no image [of a true commonwealth], or a false one.
But you should have been with me in Utopia.” – Thomas More, 1516
Marsilius of Padua
What contemporary political scientists interpret as Marsilius’s attempt at
separating the Church from the state, is in the faithful translations an act of
Caesaropapism (Hahn & Wiker, 2013), id est “the complete subordination of priests to
secular power” (Swedberg & Agevall, 2005). His contribution to Political Theology is
similar to Aquinas’s in the sense that they both purported to interweave the teachings
of Aristotle with Christianity. In Aquinas’s, a good politician is a defender of faith,
whereas in Marsilius’s, a good politician is a defender of peace. In the latter, priests
are an essential part of the commonwealth but clash with political ends when included
in the decision making process.
Marsilius’s contributions to Political Theology are often compared to and
contrasted with those of Aquinas’s. To Marsilius, “the only law properly so called is the
human law which is directed toward the well-being of the body” (Strauss & Cropsey,
1986). Similar to his counterpart, Marsilius combines the teachings of Aristotle, but
unlike Aquinas who gives the power of moving towards the collective goal of a “good
life” to religion, Marsilius utilises this goal to legitimise “The commonwealth.” In his
Defender of the Peace (1324), Marsilius compares and contrasts populism with
monarchic absolutism, with a style similar to that of Kierkegaard’s, showing different
ways of the rational towards its justification.
Giovanni Mirandola
Home-schooled Giovanni had the liberty of self-paced studying, which he took
advantage of masterfully, not limiting himself to one but studied all schools of
philosophy. His “Oration on the Dignity of Man” was the by-product of his pluralistic
ways of collecting pieces of truth from various sources – syncretistic method of
combining the teachings of different schools of thought. His primary source was an
allegorical interpretation of the Bible. Any other source of wisdom used by Mirandola,
including the Kabballah, was a syncretic addition that came on top of the primary
foundation (Miller, 1965).
10. In his aforementioned book, Mirandola used the Platonic Theology of Ficino –
another independent philosopher of the Renaissance era – to develop his own version
of human nature. He utilises a medieval cosmology that imagines three zones, in
which the corruptible earthly bodied man has the choice of living a life of senses or
choose to be more than that. The final objective of man is “partake of the life of God,”
(Miller, 1965) which makes man part of an order; and therefore every man is ‘a being’
who has the right to be valued and respected, and to be treated ethically. Today, we
know of the idea as “Human dignity.”
Martin Luther and John Calvin
In 1517, when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses on the Castle Church door in
Wittenberg, Saxony, he had a big goal in mind: to restore the Christian truth,
notwithstanding the repercussions it might have for centuries to come. Today, it is
argued that the works of Martin Luther (Lutheranism), and his counterpart John Calvin
(Calvinism), have effected “modern liberalism, capitalism, religious wars, tolerance,
democracy, individualism, subjectivism, nationalism, pluralism, freedom of
conscience, modern science, secularism, and so much else” (Howard, 2016).
The introduction of these two divergent thoughts was the main cause of French
Wars of Religion (1562–1598) and The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), killing three
million and eight million people respectively. In defence of freedom of speech and
freedom of thought one might argue that there was no other path to our peace-seeking,
tolerant world.
Michel de Montaigne
The Essays was the flower in the books of a relatively unknown writer, most
famous for being a good statesman, Montaigne. His style is self-reflective – similar to
most Renaissance literature – and self-judging. In his last decades, “he [was] trying to
make known the measure of his sight” (Frame, 1955). Through his writings he paints
a portrait envisaging change as he learns and moves forward in life. The French Wars
of Religion that killed three million people dead happened during the last decades of
his life.
In a 1580 essay, Montaigne restated “the gain of one man is the damage of
another; no man profits but by the loss of others,” from Lucretius. Ludwig von Mises
upon reflection named this phrase the Montaigne dogma: The belief that your “own
group cannot thrive but at the expense of other groups,” is a realist approach in
Warfare Sociology that traces the primal source of war, very much indebted to
Montaigne’s writings. (Sanchez, 2016)
“I have never seen a greater monster or miracle than myself.” –
Essays
Jean Bodin
Excess of raiders and pirates made Bodin yearn for a strong government that
could sustain peace by having supreme power. On the very road to solve this problem,
11. he became the first person to systematically have undertaken the notion of
sovereignty, in his The Six Books of a Commonweale (1576). Sovereignty marked a
perpetual state (timeless), regardless of policy, leader, or form.
In clarifying and delineating types of internal affairs, Bodin took Aristotle’s six
types of government, and reduced them to three; i.e. monarchy, aristocracy, and
democracy. The way he defines the necessity of sovereignty is by saying that “without
sovereignty … there could be no citizen and no république” (Lloyd, 2017).
Richard Hooker
Understanding the later Church of England (or Anglicanism) would be
impossible without a careful read of Hooker’s laws: eternal law, celestial law, natural
law, law of reason, human positive law, divine law, and ecclesiastical law. His work, a
continuation of scholasticism based on Aquinas’s model, makes use of Platonic ideas.
Kirby argues that his theology was a synthesis of Protestant orthodoxy and Tridentine
Catholicism (Kirby, 2005).
Hooker argued that in Christian Commonwealths, Church and State are
inseparable, as they are of the same essence. In this sense, it is acceptable to use
religion to achieve certain political ends. The morals and ethics of Hooker’s natural
law eventually ended up influencing John Locke.
Giordano Bruno
As a post-Copernican, Giordano believed that an infinite universe contained a
multiplicity of worlds – or otherwise known as infinite cosmology. This line of thought
not only applied to the spatial, but his fundamental anti-hierarchical thinking coupled
with relativisation of values contextualised social, political, historical, and religious
areas as well (Gatti, 2011). He challenged the dualistic Aristotelian conception of a
world (physics) of “form” and “matter,” and united them as “one.” He also rejected the
individuality of the human soul, and though of it as inseparable with the universal soul;
hence came forth humanity’s conquest of virtue and truth (Duignan, 2011).
Renaissance and the Reformation also saw a parallel line of thought develop
amongst the best and the brightest of its thinkers. Amongst the many ancient books
that were recovered and brought to the de Medici family was Corpus Hermeticum on
Hermetic philosophy. The writings of Hermes Trismegistus on magic fascinated even
the brightest, such as Ficino (natural magic), Mirandola (Cabalist magic), and Bruno
(Yates, 1964). Studying Bruno requires a basic understanding of Hermetism and
Lullism as well.
Conclusion
European Renaissance is often associated with the rise of mathematics and
natural science. The great thinkers of this era helped advance language, arts, politics,
and philosophy. Monarchs, who had managed to use religion, hierarchies, and caste,
were finally challenged; and breaking from the chains, free men took a new step
towards liberty. Nowadays, the word Renaissance is used by scholars of International
12. Relations to denote rebirth e.g. “renaissance of Marxian international theory,” or to
describe a period “between the church and science which challenged the dominance
of theology for social order” (Dunne, Kurki, & Smith, 2013). Sutch and Elias mention
raison d’état (or reason of state) as well as the realism of Machiavelli on the one hand
and the religious movements of the Reformation on the other as their political focus of
this era, and consider “the cultural and social developments we associate with the
Renaissance are far too intricate for us to deal with” (Sutch & Elias, 2007). But what
is the purpose of studying politics if we ignore the objectives of the field altogether? Is
politics still there to attain for us the “good life,” or have we lost our vision?
In 1469, Lorenzo de Medici took over the family business. His definition of
philanthropy was to promote beauty, truth, and wisdom. Amongst his many patrons,
Marsilio Ficino, Poliziano, and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola were on a mission to
recover the theories of an ancient past of Greek and Roman civilisation. Artists were
given the mission to create paintings that would portray “the importance of kindness
and compassion, [and] they promoted serenity.” In their Urbanism, they calculated the
optimal measurements for everything that would make a city suitable for all of its
citizens. For example, “a square should be small enough that a mother can call from
an upper window to her child playing on the other side” (de Botton, 2015). This is the
same Medici family that Machiavelli was imprisoned in one of their jails. What we, as
students of IR, perceive of this family is a rich family who incarcerated our hero,
seminal writer of Realism. But what if the Italian Renaissance was one the most
glorious political systems of the past millennium? Is it fair to separate the political from
the social and the arts?
In light of the abovementioned criticisms, in the study of Renaissance for IR,
students must bear in mind that philosophers and humanists were two distinct groups:
(1) Philosophers such as Mirandola were not followers of a movement paid by the rich,
but abstract thinkers of distinct reasoning skills; and (2) Literary humanists who were
being paid to fulfill the objectives in the expressive fields of Arts, Architecture, and
Literacy. Indeed neither was left untouched by the other given the synthetic nature of
discourse. When Machiavelli wrote his famous book for the Medici family, he was not
giving political advice to politicians, but he was giving political advice to businessmen.
In his thoughts, the Medici family had high ambitions that would eventually lead them
to lose their power. The only way to save what they had already achieved for Florence
was to use Realpolitik.
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