Recommendation reports

Coherence, Sentences, Graphics, and
Recommendation Reports

ENG 3302 Business and Technical
Report Writing

© 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's

Table of Contents
Topic Slide Number/s
Writing Coherent Documents 3 to 15
Writing Effective Sentences 18 to 33
Creating Graphics 34 to 121
Recommendation Reports 71 to 88


Writing Coherent Documents


Consider seven questions when
revising your document for coherence:

• Have you left out anything in turning your
outline into a draft?
• Have you included all the elements your
readers expect to see?
• Have you organized the document logically?
• Is the document persuasive?

Chapter 9. Writing Coherent Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 4

Consider seven questions when revising
your document for coherence (cont.):

• Do you come across as reliable, honest, and
helpful?
• Have you presented all the elements
consistently?
• Is the emphasis appropriate throughout the
document?


Follow four guidelines
when revising headings:

• Avoid long noun strings.
• Be informative.
• Use a grammatical form appropriate to your
audience.
• Avoid back-to-back headings.


Turning paragraphs into lists
presents four advantages:

• It forces you to look at the big picture.
• It forces you to examine the sequence.
• It forces you to create a helpful lead-in.
• It forces you to tighten and clarify your prose.


Study documents from other
cultures to answer four questions:

• How does the writer make the information
accessible?
• How does the writer show the relationship
among types of information?
• How does the writer communicate the
organization of the document as a whole?
• How does the writer make transitions from one
subject to another?


There are two kinds of paragraphs:

• A body paragraph is a group of sentences (or
sometimes a single sentence) that is
complete and self-sufficient and that
contributes to a larger discussion.
• A transitional paragraph helps readers move
from one major point to another.


Most paragraphs contain two elements:

• The topic sentence summarizes or forecasts
the main point of the paragraph.
• The supporting information makes the topic
sentence clear and convincing.


Avoid burying bad news in paragraphs:

• The most emphatic location is the topic
sentence.
• The second most emphatic location is the end of
the paragraph.
• The least emphatic location is the middle of the
paragraph.


Supporting information
usually fulfills one of five roles:

• It defines a key term or idea included in the topic
sentence.
• It provides examples or illustrations of the
situation described in the topic sentence.
• It identifies causes: factors that led to the
situation.
• It defines effects: implications of the situation.
• It supports the claim made in the topic sentence.

Follow three guidelines
when dividing long paragraphs:

• Break the discussion at a logical place.
• Make the topic sentence a separate
paragraph and break up the supporting
information.
• Use a list.


Use three techniques
to emphasize coherence:

• Add transitional words and phrases.
• Repeat key words.
• Use demonstrative pronouns followed by
nouns.


Use transitional words and phrases:


Use two techniques
to create a coherent design:

• Use headers and footers to enhance
coherence.
• Use typefaces to enhance coherence.


Headers and footers are
coherence devices.

Source: U.S. Department of State, 2007
<www.usaid.gov/policy/coordination/strat
plan_fy07-12.pdf>.


Writing Effective Sentences


Use these seven techniques
for structuring effective sentences:

• Use lists.
• Emphasize new and important information.
• Choose an appropriate sentence length.
• Focus on the “real” subject.
• Focus on the “real” verb.
• Use parallel structure.
• Use modifiers effectively.

Chapter 10. Writing Effective Sentences © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 19

Use these five guidelines
for creating effective lists:

• Set off each listed item with a number, a
letter, or a symbol (usually a bullet).
• Break up long lists.
• Present the items in a parallel structure.
• Structure and punctuate the lead-in correctly.
• Punctuate the list correctly.


Use parallel structure:

• Use the same grammatical form for coordinate
elements in a sentence.
– all clauses either active or passive
– all verbs either indicative or imperative
– all nouns preceded by the same article
• Parallel structure creates a recognizable pattern
and makes a sentence easier to follow.


Use modifiers effectively:

• Distinguish between restrictive and
nonrestrictive modifiers.
• Avoid misplaced modifiers.
• Avoid dangling modifiers.


Choose the right words and phrases:

• Select an appropriate level of formality.
• Be clear and specific.
• Be concise.
• Use inoffensive language.


Select an appropriate level of formality:

There are three levels of formality:
• informal
• moderately formal
• highly formal

Use a level and tone appropriate for your
• audience
• subject
• purpose


Informal writing can cause two problems:

• It tends to be imprecise.
• It can be embarrassing.


for writing clearly and specifically:

• Use the active and passive voice appropriately.
• Be specific.
• Avoid unnecessary jargon.
• Use positive constructions.
• Avoid long noun strings.
• Avoid clichés.
• Avoid euphemisms.


Use the active and
passive voice appropriately:

Use the active voice unless
• the agent is clear from the context
• the agent is unknown
• the agent is less important than the action
• a reference to the agent is embarrassing,
dangerous, or in some other way
inappropriate

Use these three techniques
for writing specifically:

• Use precise words.
• Provide adequate detail.
• Avoid ambiguity.


Avoid unnecessary jargon for four reasons:

• It can be imprecise.
• It can be confusing.
• It is often seen as condescending.
• It is often intimidating.


Be concise:

• Avoid obvious statements.
• Avoid filler.
• Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases.
• Avoid wordy phrases.
• Avoid fancy words.


Follow these six guidelines
for avoiding sexist language:

• Replace the male-gender words with non-gender-
specific words.
• Switch to a different form of the verb.
• Switch to the plural.
• Switch to he or she, he/she, s/he, or his or her.
• Address the reader directly.
• Alternate he and she.


Follow these five guidelines
for using the people-first approach:

• Refer to the person first, the disability second.
• Don’t confuse handicap with disability.
• Don’t refer to victimization.
• Don’t refer to a person as “wheelchair bound” or
“confined to a wheelchair.”
• Don’t refer to people with disabilities as abnormal.


in preparing text for translation:
• Use short sentences.
• Use the active voice.
• Use simple words.
• Include a glossary.
• Use words that have only one meaning.
• Use pronouns carefully.
• Avoid jokes, puns, and culture-bound
references.


Creating Graphics

Chapter 8. Communicating Persuasively © 2012 by
Bedford/St. Martin's

Graphics serve five functions:
• They can catch readers’ attention and interest.
• They can help writers communicate information that is
difficult to communicate with words.
• They can help writers clarify and emphasize
information.
• They can help nonnative speakers of English
understand information.
• They can help writers communicate information to
multiple audiences with different interests, aptitudes,
and reading habits.

Chapter 12. Creating Graphics © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 35

Graphics offer benefits
that words alone cannot:
• Graphics are indispensable in demonstrating logical
and numerical relationships.
• Graphics can communicate spatial information more
effectively than words alone.
• Graphics can communicate steps in a process more
effectively than words alone.
• Graphics can save space.
• Graphics can reduce the cost of documents intended
for international readers.


An effective graphic has five characteristics:

• It serves a purpose.
• It is simple and uncluttered.
• It presents a manageable amount of
information.
• It meets readers’ format expectations.
• It is clearly labeled.


Follow these six suggestions
to create honest graphics:
• Cite your source and obtain permission.
• Include all relevant data.
• Begin the axes in your graphs at zero—or mark
them clearly.
• Do not use a table to hide a data point that
would be obvious in a graph.
• Show items as they really are.
• Do not use color or shading to misrepresent an
item’s importance.

for integrating graphics and text:

• Place the graphic in an appropriate location.
• Introduce the graphic in the text.
• Explain the graphic in the text.
• Make the graphic clearly visible.
• Make the graphic accessible.


The process of creating
graphics includes four steps:

• planning
• producing
• revising
• citing


As you plan graphics,
consider the following:

• audience
• purpose of the graphic and the document
• kind of information you want to communicate
• physical conditions in which readers will use the
document
• time
• money
• equipment
• expertise

When producing graphics, choose
one of the following four approaches:

• use existing graphics
• modify existing graphics
• create graphics on a computer
• have someone else create the graphics


Use color effectively:
• Don’t overdo it.
• Use color to emphasize particular items.
• Use color to create patterns.
• Use contrast effectively.
• Take advantage of any symbolic meanings
colors may already have.
• Be aware that color can obscure or
swallow up text.


Use color to establish patterns:

Source: Myers, 2010, p. 72.


Use color to create effective contrast:

The text is hard to read because of insufficient
contrast.

Effective contrast makes the text easier to read.


Choose the category of technical
information you want to communicate:

• numerical information
• logical relationships
• process descriptions and instructions
• visual and spatial characteristics


Five kinds of graphics help
illustrate numerical information:

• tables
• bar graphs
• pictographs
• line graphs
• pie charts


Two kinds of graphics help
illustrate logical relationships:

• diagrams
• organization charts


Three kinds of graphics help illustrate
process descriptions and instructions:

• checklists
• flowcharts
• logic trees


Four kinds of graphics help illustrate visual
and spatial characteristics:

• photographs
• screen shots
• line drawings
• maps


A typical table has these parts:
Table number
Table title

Column head
Column subheads
Stub

Row

Data cell

Source
statement

Footnotes


Follow these nine guidelines
for creating effective tables:
• Indicate the units of measure.
• In the stub (the left-hand column), list the
items being compared.
• In the columns, arrange the data clearly and
logically.
• Do the math.
• Use dot leaders if a column contains a “blank”
spot: a place where there are no appropriate
data.

Follow these nine guidelines
for creating effective tables (cont.):

• Don’t make the table wider than it needs to be.
• Minimize the use of rules.
• Provide footnotes where necessary.
• If you did not generate the information
yourself, indicate your source.


Horizontal and vertical
bar graphs look like this:


Follow these six guidelines
for creating effective bar graphs:
• Make the proportions fair.
• If possible, begin the quantity scale at zero.
• Use tick marks (marks along the axis) to
signal the amounts.
• Arrange the bars in a logical sequence.
• Place the title below the figure.
• Indicate the source of your information if you
did not generate it yourself.


This is an effective bar graph:


The basic bar graph has five variations:

• grouped bar graph
• subdivided bar graph
• 100-percent bar graph
• deviation bar graph
• stratum graph


This is an effective pictograph:


This pictograph is misleading:


Follow these three guidelines
for creating effective line graphs:

• If possible, begin the quantity scale at zero.
• Use reasonable proportions for the vertical
and horizontal axes.
• Use grid lines—horizontal, vertical, or both—
rather than tick marks when your readers
need to read the quantities precisely.


This is an effective line graph:


Follow these eight guidelines
for creating effective pie charts:

• Restrict the number of slices to six or seven.
• Begin with the largest slice at the top and work
clockwise in order of decreasing size.
• Include a miscellaneous slice for very small
quantities.
• Label the slices (horizontally, not radially)
inside the slice.


Follow these eight guidelines
for creating effective pie charts (cont.):

• To emphasize one slice, use a bright,
contrasting color or separate the slice from the
pie.
• Check to see that your software follows the
appropriate guidelines for pie charts.
• Don’t overdo fill patterns.
• Check that your percentages add up to 100.


How effective is this graphic?

Source: Defense Intelligence Agency,
2003 <www.dia.mil/thisisdia/
DIA_Workforce_of_the_Future.pdf>.


Use these four techniques to show motion:


for presenting photographs effectively:
• Eliminate extraneous background clutter that
can distract readers.
• Do not electronically manipulate the
photograph.
• Help readers understand the perspective.
• If appropriate, include a common object to
give readers a sense of scale.
• If appropriate, label components or important
features.

Line drawings offer three
advantages over photographs:

• Line drawings can focus readers’ attention on
desired information better than a photograph
can.
• Line drawings can highlight information that
might be obscured by bad lighting or a bad
angle in a photograph
• Line drawings are sometimes easier for
readers to understand than photographs are.


Line drawings offer a unique
advantage over other graphics:


The basic line drawing has three variations:


Follow these six guidelines for creating
effective graphics for multicultural readers:
• Be aware that reading patterns differ.
• Be aware of varying cultural attitudes toward
giving instruction.
• Deemphasize trivial details.
• Avoid culture-specific language, symbols, and
references.
• Portray people very carefully.
• Be particularly careful in portraying hand
gestures.

Writing Recommendation Reports


Recommendation reports
address four kinds of questions:

• What should we do about Problem X?
• Should we do Function X?
• Should we use Technology A or Technology B
to do Function X?
• We currently use Method A to do Function X.
Should we be using Method B?

Chapter 19. Writing Recommendation Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 72

Feasibility reports
answer three kinds of questions:

• questions of possibility
• questions of economic wisdom
• questions of perception


Use a problem-solving method
when preparing a recommendation report:

• Identify the problem or opportunity.
• Establish criteria for responding to the problem or
opportunity.
• Determine the options.
• Study each option according to the criteria.
• Draw conclusions about each option.
• Formulate recommendations based on the
conclusions.


Use logic boxes to plot a series of options:


Use a matrix to
compare and contrast options:
Criteria and Weight Options

Ricoh Xerox Sharp

Criterion Weight Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1) Rating Score(1)

Pages/min. 1 9 9 6 6 3 3

Duplex 3 1 3 3 9 10 30

Color 4 10 40 1 4 10 40

Total Score 52 19 73

(1)
Score = Weight x Rating


Explain your decision matrix:

• Explain why you chose each criterion—or didn’t
choose a criterion readers might have expected.
• Explain why you assigned a particular weight to
each criterion.
• Explain why you assigned a particular rating to
each option.


You can present your
conclusions in one of three ways:

• Rank all the options.
• Classify all the options in two categories:
acceptable and unacceptable.
• Present a compound conclusion.


Most recommendation reports
have three major sections:

• the body of the report
• the front matter
• the back matter


A typical recommendation report
has five body elements:

• introduction
• methods
• results
• conclusions
• recommendations


An introduction typically
answers nine questions:

• What is the subject of the report?
• What is the purpose of the report?
• What is the background of the report?
• What are your sources of information?
• What is the scope of the report?


An introduction typically
answers nine questions (cont.):

• What are the most significant findings?
• What are your recommendations?
• What is the organization of the report?
• What key terms are you using in the
report?


Address the following four questions
when writing the body of your report:

• Methods. What did you do?
• Results. What did you see?
• Conclusions. What does it mean?
• Recommendations. What should we do?


Consider these four factors
when writing your recommendations:

• content
• tone
• form
• location


contains seven elements in the front matter:

• letter of transmittal
• cover
• title page
• abstract
• table of contents
• list of illustrations
• executive summary


Understand the difference between
a descriptive and an informative abstract:

• A descriptive abstract describes the kinds of
information contained in the report.
• An informative abstract presents the major
findings.


when writing an executive summary:

• Use specific evidence in describing the
background.
• Be specific in describing the research.
• Describe the methods briefly.
• Describe the findings according to your
readers’ needs.
• Ask an outside reader to review your draft.


includes three elements in the back matter:

• glossary and list of symbols
• references
• appendixes


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