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Vol. 12, 485– 490, June 2003                                                                                    Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention        485




  The Natural History of Type-specific Human Papillomavirus Infections
                     in Female University Students1


Harriet Richardson, Gail Kelsall, Pierre Tellier,                                      HPV genotype or presumably experienced reactivation of
Helene Voyer, Michal Abrahamowicz, Alex Ferenczy,
  ´`                                                                                   their initial infection.
Francois Coutlee, and Eduardo L. Franco2
     ¸        ´
Departments of Oncology [H. R., G. K., A. F., E. L. F.], Epidemiology and              Introduction
Biostatistics [H. R., M. A., E. L. F.], Family Medicine [G. K., P. T.], and
Pathology [A. F.], McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H2W 1S6 Canada,                Whereas there is conclusive evidence that cervical HPV3 in-
and Laboratoire de Virologie Moleculaire, Centre de Recherche et                       fections are a necessary cause of cervical cancer (1, 2), the
Departement de Microbiologie et Infectiologie, Hopital Notre-Dame du Centre            discrepancy between the high frequency of HPV infections in
Hospitalier de l’Universite de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada [H. V.,
                          ´            ´
F. C.]
                                                                                       young, sexually active women and the relatively low occur-
                                                                                       rence of cervical lesions in the same population suggests that
                                                                                       HPV is not a sufficient cause for cervical neoplasia (3). There
Abstract                                                                               is evidence that most HPV infections are transient, and only
                                                                                       women who harbor a persistent HPV infection are likely to
Little is known about the average duration of type-                                    develop a cervical lesion (4, 5). However, there have been few
specific human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and their                               studies designed to investigate the dynamics of HPV clearance
patterns of persistence. The objectives of this study were                             or persistence. Describing the average duration of infection will
to evaluate the rate of acquisition and clearance of                                   be of great importance in establishing a clinically relevant
specific HPV types in young women. Female university                                   definition of a persistent HPV infection that could be used for
students (n 621) in Montreal were followed for 24                                      cervical screening and HPV vaccination studies (6).
months at 6-month intervals. At each visit, a cervical                                      In 1996, we began a prospective cohort study of the
specimen was collected. HPV DNA was detected using the                                 natural history of HPV infection and cervical neoplasia in a
MY09/MY11 PCR protocol followed by typing for 27                                       population of young university students in Montreal, Canada to
HPV genotypes by a line blot assay. The Kaplan-Meier                                   study the rate of acquisition and clearance of specific HPV
technique was used to estimate the cumulative probability                              types in this population and to investigate risk factors for
of acquiring or clearing a HPV infection considering                                   persistent HPV infections. This study presents the descriptive
types individually or in high-risk (HR) or low-risk (LR)                               epidemiological results on the dynamics of acquisition, loss,
groups defined by oncogenic potential. Incidence rates                                 and persistence of type-specific HPV infections.
were 14.0 cases/1000 women-months (95% confidence
interval, 11.4 –16.3) and 12.4 cases/1000 women-months
(95% confidence interval, 10.4 –14.8) for acquiring HR                                 Materials and Methods
and LR HPV infections, respectively. The 24-month                                      Subjects. Female students attending either the McGill or the
cumulative rates of acquisition were highest for HPV-16                                Concordia University Health Clinic were invited to participate
(12%), HPV-51, and HPV-84 (8%). Of the incident                                        if they intended to be in Montreal for the next 2 years and had
infections, HPV-16 was the most persistent (mean                                       not required treatment for cervical disease in the last 12 months.
duration, 18.3 months), followed by HPV-31 and HPV-53                                  Recruitment was initiated in November 1996, and accrual was
(14.6 and 14.8 months, respectively). HPV-6 and HPV-84                                 completed in January 1999. All eligible women were asked to
had the shortest mean duration time (<10 months) The                                   return to the clinic every 6 months over a period of 2 years, for
mean durations of incident, same-type LR or HR HPV                                     a total of five visits. The study protocol was approved by the
infections were 13.4 months and 16.3 months,                                           Research Ethics Boards of McGill University and Concordia
respectively. Whereas the majority of episodes with a                                  University. At each visit, a questionnaire was completed, and
type-specific HPV infection cleared within 2 years, there                              endo- and ectocervical cells from the uterine cervix were col-
were many women who were either reinfected with a new                                  lected with two Accelon cervical biosamplers (Medscand Inc.,
                                                                                       Hollywood, FL). A Pap smear was prepared with the first
                                                                                       sampler.
                                                                                       HPV DNA Detection. Preparation of the cell suspensions for
Received 7/29/02; revised 2/10/03; accepted 3/4/03.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of
                                                                                       HPV DNA testing has been described in detail elsewhere, with
page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in            the use of QIAamp columns (Qiagen) for DNA purification (7).
accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.                   Five l of DNA were first amplified for -globin DNA with
1
  Supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research Grant MT-13649. H. R. is         PC04 and GH20 primers to demonstrate the absence of inhib-
a recipient of a Predoctoral Scholarship, M. A. is a recipient of a Scientist Award,
and E. F. is a recipient of a Distinguished Scientist Award, all from the Canadian
                                                                                       itors and the integrity of processed DNA (8, 9). -Globin-
Institutes of Health Research. F. C. is a recipient of a Chercheur Boursier National
from the Fonds de la Recherche en Sante du Quebec.
                                            ´        ´
2
  To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Department of Oncology,
                                                                                       3
McGill University, 546 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H2W 1S6 Canada.               The abbreviations used are: HPV, human papillomavirus; LR, low-risk; HR,
Phone: (514) 398-6032; E-mail: eduardo.franco@mcgill.ca.                               high-risk; CI, confidence interval.
486   Natural Dynamics of HPV Infections




                       Table 1   Prevalence and incidencea of infection with the most frequently detected HPV types and for groups according to oncogenicity

                                              Baseline                     No. of incident                 Women-months                     Incidence rate (per 1000
                HPV type
                                           prevalence (%)                      cases                        of follow-up                   woman-months) (95% CI)

                HPV-6                             2.7                            29                            12709                             2.3 (1.5–3.3)
                HPV-16                            7.0                            62                            11928                             5.2 (4.0–6.7)
                HPV-18                            3.1                            24                            12735                             1.9 (1.2–2.8)
                HPV-31                            2.6                            21                            12854                             1.6 (1.0–2.5)
                HPV-39                            1.0                           247                            13476                             1.8 (1.1–2.5)
                HPV-51                            2.9                            43                            12588                             3.4 (2.5–4.6)
                HPV-53                            4.3                            31                            12468                             2.5 (1.7–3.5)
                HPV-54                            2.7                            32                            12783                             2.5 (1.7–3.5)
                HPV-56                            2.6                            19                            12842                             1.5 (0.9–2.3)
                HPV-84                            3.8                            46                            12475                             3.7 (2.7–4.9)

                Any HPV                         29.0                            155                             8151                            19.0 (16.1–22.3)
                HR HPV                          21.8                            131                             9344                            14.0 (11.4–16.3)
                LR HPV                          14.8                            128                            10299                            12.4 (10.4–14.8)
      a
          The 10 types with the highest incidence rates are shown. Not shown are HPV-11, -26, -33, -35, -40, -42, -45, -52, -55, -57, -58, -59, -66, -68, -82, -83, and MM9.




      positive specimens were further tested with the L1 consensus                             HPV infection. In this second strategy (which simulated an
      HPV primers MY09/MY11 and HMB01 and the line blot assay                                  analysis that would have been conducted with results from
      (Roche Molecular Systems) for the detection of 27 genital HPV                            using a Hybrid Capture system), a HR or LR HPV infection was
      genotypes (8, 10). HPV types were analyzed individually or in                            only considered to have cleared when a woman was no longer
      groups according to their oncogenic classification. HR HPV                               positive for any HR HPVs or any LR HPVs, respectively.
      types included those genotypes that are most frequently found
      in cervical tumors: HPV-16; -18; -31; -33; -35; -39; -45; -51;
      -52; -56; -58; -59; and -68. All other individual types that were                        Results
      identified with the line blot assay were classified as LR HPV                            A total of 635 women were initially recruited into the study.
      types (1): HPV-6; -11; -26; -40; -42; -53; -54; -55; -57; -66; -73;                      However, 13 subjects (2.0%) withdrew before completing their
      -82; -83; and 84 and 73 (10).                                                            first questionnaire, along with 1 woman who had a -globin-
      Statistical Methods. The estimates of the incidence rate for a                           negative sample at visit 1 and did not return for visit 2. There
      given genotype only included women at risk of acquiring that                             were a total of 2650 completed visits at the time of this analysis
      given genotype, so that women with a prevalent infection (at                             (mean of 4.3 visits/subject), and 2570 (97.6%) of the cervical
      enrollment) for a specific HPV type were excluded from that                              specimens were suitable for HPV DNA testing. Women with a
      specific risk set. Patterns of type-specific HPV positivity were                           -globin-negative result were not excluded from the analyses;
      described by comparing the overall number of visits positive for                         instead, the next visit with an informative HPV result was used.
      a specific HPV type, allowing for intermittent negative results,                         Loss to follow-up was approximately 10% per visit with ap-
      with the number of consecutive visits with the same HPV type.                            proximately 90% of the participants returning for visit 3 (12
            The Kaplan-Meier technique (11) was used to estimate the                           months) and 67.5% of the cohort returning for visit 5 (24
      cumulative probability of acquiring a specific HPV type or                               months), thus contributing a total of 13,353 woman-months of
      grouped-type infection (HR HPV or LR HPV) as a function of                               follow-up (mean, 21.5 months of follow-up/subject). The av-
      the length of follow-up for each HPV type or grouped-type                                erage time interval between visits was normally distributed,
      infection among women who were negative for the specific                                 with the majority of women returning within 5–7 months of
      genotype or HPV group at baseline. The Kaplan-Meier method                               their previous visit. The mean age was 23 years (median age, 21
      was also used to estimate the proportion of women who re-                                years; age range, 17– 42 years), and 45% of the women had 5
      mained positive for a specific (incident) HPV type or grouped-                           lifetime sexual partners. The majority of women (81%) de-
      type-specific infection by considering their index infection,                            scribed themselves as Caucasian, 60% of the participants had
      when first detected, as time 0. Type-specific prevalent infec-                           never smoked, and 24% were current smokers.
      tions were not included in the analysis for clearance. Thus, for                               Table 1 shows the prevalence at baseline and incidence for
      a woman with a prevalent infection, her index infection was the                          the most common HPV genotypes and grouped-type infections.
      longest enduring type-specific infection that was newly ac-                              The prevalence of HR HPV infections was 21.8%, and the
      quired after enrollment. Time to an event was defined as the                             prevalence for LR HPV infections was 14.8%. There were 327
      time until the first visit when a subject was no longer HPV                              women who had HPV detected at one or more visits during the
      positive (for a given type). Subjects with both HR and LR types                          study, and of those women, 124 (38%) had coinfections with a
      in the index visit were assigned to either the HR group or the                           HR and a LR HPV type at the same visit. The three most
      LR group, based on the type with the longest duration. If there                          common HPV types at enrollment were HPV-16 (7%), HPV-53
      was a tie, the index visit was assigned to the HR group. In case                         (4.3%), and HPV-84 (3.8%). HPV-16 (5.2/1000), HPV-84 (3.7/
      of a tie within the HR group or LR group, all longest persisting                         1000), and HPV-51 (3.4/1000) were the most frequent newly
      infections had to have cleared to be given “clearance” status.                           acquired infections, with all incidence rates expressed per
      Subjects were censored at their last visit. The median and mean                          month. The incidence rates for HR HPV and LR HPV infec-
      duration of infection were estimated directly with the actuarial                         tions were very similar (14.0/1000 and 12.4/1000, respective-
      (Kaplan-Meier) method. The Kaplan-Meier technique was also                               ly). The cumulative rate for new HPV infections was 18.0%
      used to evaluate clearance of an overall HR or an overall LR                             (95% CI, 14.1–21.9) at 1 year and 36.4% (95% CI, 31.3– 41.5)
Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention   487




                                                                                  13 or 16 months, respectively. The mean duration of an overall
                                                                                  LR or HR HPV episode (not necessarily type-specific persis-
                                                                                  tent) was between 16 and 17 months, respectively. After 1 year
                                                                                  of follow-up, among women with an incident HPV infection,
                                                                                  approximately 59% to 61% of the women remained positive for
                                                                                  an overall LR or HR HPV episode, respectively.


                                                                                  Discussion
                                                                                  We decided to present estimates of time to clearance for inci-
                                                                                  dent infections only, rather than pooling both prevalent and
                                                                                  incident cases. Calculating the average duration times for both
                                                                                  prevalent and incident infections could result in an overestima-
                                                                                  tion of duration of an infection because prevalent cases could
                                                                                  overrepresent persistent infections at any point in time. We
                                                                                  considered two definitions for HPV clearance when HPV types
                                                                                  were classified into HR or LR groups. There were many in-
                                                                                  stances when a participant had an infection with more than one
                                                                                  HR or LR HPV type at the same visit or at a later visit.
                                                                                  Therefore, the first definition was based on mutually exclusive
                                                                                  HR or LR groups, and only the most persistent HPV type was
                                                                                  included in the analysis. If a woman had an equally persistent
                                                                                  HR and LR HPV infection, then she was only included in the
                                                                                  HR group, and a woman had to have cleared the longest
                                                                                  persisting type before her HPV infection was considered
                                                                                  cleared. This approach had the advantage of not mixing a
                                                                                  preexisting type and a newly acquired type in the definition of
                                                                                  persistence (or in this case, clearance). However, this strategy
                                                                                  also has its limitations because we selectively chose the most
                                                                                  persistent HR or LR type-specific infection from each subject
Fig. 1. Cumulative risk of incident HPV infections. A, acquisition of any HPV     (with an incident HPV infection) and then estimated a global
type among women who were HPV negative at enrollment (n                420). B,
acquisition of a HR HPV infection among women who were HR HPV negative            average duration for any HR or any LR HPV infection. This
at enrollment (n 460). C, acquisition of a LR HPV infection among women who       method may lead to an overestimation or an underestimation of
were LR HPV negative at enrollment (n 498).                                       the average duration of specific HPV group infections. For
                                                                                  example, if our cohort happened to have an overrepresentation
                                                                                  of one specific HR HPV type that happened to persist, on
at 2 years. The equivalent rates for HR HPV were 12.7% (95%                       average, for a longer duration than other HR types, then this
CI, 9.6 –15.8) and 29.0% (95% CI, 24.4 –33.4), and for LR HPV                     analysis would tend to inflate the overall duration of HR HPV
they were 13.4% (95% CI, 10.4 –16.4) and 23.7% (95% CI,                           infections. Therefore, this approach will lead to altered esti-
19.7–27.7; Fig. 1).                                                               mates of duration based on the type distribution of HPV infec-
      Table 2 shows the pattern of persistence in the cohort. Of                  tions in a particular population. In our cohort, the median
those women with 2 or more positive visits with the same HPV                      duration of the most (type-specific) persistent (incident) HR
type, over 80% harbored these infections at consecutive visits,                   HPV infection (13.2 months) was slightly longer than the
regardless of the number of positive visits and infection type                    median duration of a LR HPV infection (12.3 months), but the
group. This suggests that persistence tended to be above the                      CIs of the two estimates overlapped considerably.
levels of viral load that can be effectively detected by standard-                      In our second definition of HR or LR HPV clearance, a
ized cervical sampling coupled with a validated PCR assay.                        woman had to have been negative for any HR type or any LR
      The most persistent infections, with median retention                       type subsequent to any incident HR infection or LR infection at
times of 1 year, included those with types HPV-31 (20.0                           the previous visit, respectively. Thus, the concept of persistence
months), HPV-16 (19.4 months), HPV-54 (16.8 months), and                          could include a preexisting (incident) HR (or LR) type infection
HPV-53 (13.9 months; Table 3). The median retention time for                      mixed with a newly acquired (different) HR (or LR) type
the types that cleared most rapidly (HPV-6 and HPV-84) was                        infection, provided there was not an intermittent visit that was
   6.5 months. The median time for clearance of an incident                       HR (or LR) HPV negative. Whereas this approach does not
(type-specific) HR HPV infection (13.2 months) was slightly                       directly capture HR or LR HPV persistence with the same type,
longer than the median time to loss of an incident (type-                         it does attempt to describe the dynamics of an infection that
specific) LR HPV infection (12.3 months). Approximately 53%                       may contain more than one HR (or LR) infection that is only
or 56% of the women with an incident LR or HR HPV infec-                          resolved when all HR (or LR) types are cleared. It also simu-
tion, respectively, still remained positive after 1 year of follow-               lates the strategy used by the majority of other researchers who
up. The mean durations of most incident infections were very                      have published data on the median duration of HPV infections
similar to the median estimates, although HPV-16 was the most                     (12–16).
persistent type (mean duration, 18.3 months), followed by                               Given the large number of participants with more than one
HPV-53 (mean duration, 14.8 months) and HPV-31 (mean                              HR or LR HPV infection throughout the study, it was not
duration, 14.6 months). HPV-6 and HPV-84 had the shortest                         surprising that the estimated median duration of an overall
mean duration times. The mean time for clearance of an inci-                      (incident) HR HPV (16.6 months) or an overall (incident) LR
dent (type-specific) LR HPV or HR HPV infection was close to                      HPV (14.7 months) episode was longer than the estimated
488   Natural Dynamics of HPV Infections




                           Table 2   Persistence versus intermittency of HPV infections according to number of visits with the same type-specific infection

                                                    No. of subjects with same type HR HPV infections                   No. of subjects with same type LR HPV infections
             No. of visits with the same
              type-specific infectiona             Any combination               Positivity in consecutive            Any combination            Positivity in consecutive
                                                   of positive visits                 visits only (%)                 of positive visits              visits only (%)

                          2                                73                           68 (93.2)                            43                         36 (83.7)
                          3                                33                           27 (81.8)                            21                         18 (85.7)
                          4                                24                           23 (95.8)                             7                          6 (85.7)
                          5                                16                           16 (100.0)                            5                          5 (100)
      a
          These are mutually exclusive groups and refer to the exact number of women with two, three, four, or five visits with a type-specific HR or LR HPV infection.



                      Table 3   Different measures of the time to loss of an incident infection with specific HPV types and for grouped-type specific infections

                                                No. of                  Median retention time                Mean retention time             Proportion (%) remaining
                   HPV type
                                               cases (n)                  (95% CI) (mo)a                      (95% CI) (mo)a                positive at 1 year (95% CI)a
               HPV-6                              26                       6.4 (4.9–7.8)                       8.7 (6.8–10.6)                       42 (19–65)
               HPV-16                             62                      19.4 (11.4–27.5)                    18.3 (12.9–23.7)                      62 (46–78)
               HPV-18                             25                       9.4 (4.8–14.0)                     11.6 (8.8–14.4)                       40 (15–65)
               HPV-31                             21                      20.0 (13.4–26.6)                    14.6 (11.0–18.1)                      62 (35–89)
               HPV-39                             24                       8.0 (5.8–10.1)                     11.0 (7.0–14.9)                       32 (3–61.9)
               HPV-51                             45                       9.0 (7.7–10.4)                     10.5 (8.4–12.7)                       35 (14–56)
               HPV-53                             31                      13.9 (11.1–16.8)                    14.8 (11.4–18.3)                      62 (41–83)
               HPV-54                             34                      16.8 (8.0–25.7)                     13.2 (10.2–16.1)                      58 (34–82)
               HPV-56                             19                       8.4 (3.2–13.6)                     10.6 (7.9–13.2)                       40 (13–67)
               HPV-84                             47                       6.6 (6.0–7.2)                       9.9 (7.0–12.8)                       23 (7–41)
               HR-HPVb                           124                      13.2 (10.2–16.2)                    16.3 (13.7–18.9)                      56 (44–68)
               LR-HPVc                            73                      12.3 (11.4–13.5)                    13.4 (11.4–15.4)                      53 (41–65)
               Any HPV episoded                  155                      17.3 (12.8–21.7)                    17.0 (15.1–18.8)                      62 (52–72)
               HR-HPV episodee                   131                      16.6 (14.5–18.7)                    17.4 (14.7–20.1)                      61 (51–71)
               LR-HPV episodef                   128                      14.7 (10.9–18.4)                    15.8 (13.3–18.3)                      59 (49–69)
      a
        Estimates from actuarial analysis using the Kaplan-Meier technique.
      b
        HR HPV infections were grouped according to the longest persisting (incident) HR type-specific infection.
      c
        LR HPV infections were grouped according to the longest persisting (incident) LR type-specific infection.
      d
        Episode refers to consecutive visits with any type.
      e
        Episode refers to consecutive visits with HR (not necessarily type-specific) infection.
      f
        Episode refers to consecutive visits with LR group infection (not necessarily type-specific).




      duration of the longest HR or LR HPV (type-specific) infection                            shown). Among the latter, HR HPV infections persisted for an
      (13.2 months and 12.3 months, respectively). Most other stud-                             average of 19.5 months (95% CI, 16.9 –22.1 months), whereas
      ies have observed that the median duration of LR infections is                            LR HPV infections were cleared, on average, within 16 months
         5 months, whereas the median duration of HR HPV infec-                                 (95% CI, 13.7–18.0 months).
      tions is usually twice as long (8 –10 months; Refs. 14 and 15).                                 Whereas some recent studies have shown the median
      Whereas our second definition of HPV clearance highlights the                             duration of new or prevalent HPV infections to be less than 10
      high frequency of infection and reinfection with the same or                              months in young and middle-aged women (14 –16), distinguish-
      different types (within the same oncogenic group), contrary to                            ing between an infection that has truly resolved and a false
      other reports (14, 15), our results suggest that the average                              negative test result due to poor sampling, low levels of virus, or
      duration of newly acquired HR or LR types does not differ                                 insensitive measurement tests is very difficult (12). As a result,
      substantially. However, most of the studies that have been able                           the clearance rate may be somewhat overestimated, whereas the
      to estimate the duration of HPV infections have generally                                 frequency of persistent infections may be underestimated. At
      evaluated clearance of prevalent or mixed prevalent and inci-                             least one study (12) observed that the median duration for a
      dent infections (12–15), and only a few had assays for detecting                          HPV infection (not necessarily type specific) was greater than
      a substantial number ( 10) of LR types (14, 16). These dif-                               1 year (13.8 months), and when Moscicki et al. (13) considered
      ferent design issues could affect the estimates of duration of                            various definitions of clearance by modeling different number
      grouped HR and LR HPV infections.                                                         of consecutive HPV negative tests since the last HPV positive
           Another explanation for our findings of a similar average                            test, the median duration of the infection increased as the
      duration for incident HR HPV and LR HPV infections is that                                definition of clearance became more conservative. The authors
      there may not have been enough follow-up time to reveal the                               concluded that it took approximately 15 months for 50% of the
      real average length of time to clearance. Only half of the                                women in their study to clear a prevalent HPV infection,
      women had a detected cleared incident HPV infection, versus                               conditional on three consecutive negative HPV tests (but not
      70% of those with LR HPV (data not shown). The remaining                                  necessarily a type-specific HPV infection). The median dura-
      women with an incident HPV infection were censored, i.e.,                                 tion for any incident HPV episode in our cohort was 17.3
      possibly persistent. When we looked at clearance of prevalent                             months (95% CI, 12.8 –21.7 months). Whereas misclassifica-
      HPV infections only, the majority of those prevalent HPV                                  tion of HPV status may have occurred in our study, our results
      episodes cleared before the last follow-up visit (data not                                suggest that there were few false negative results because very
Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention               489




few women with a persistent type-specific infection had an            The median duration of the longest persisting, newly acquired
intervening visit with a negative test result, and more than 80%      LR and HR HPV infections is a little over 12 months, with great
of same type persistent infections occurred during consecutive        variation in the average duration of type-specific infections
visits.                                                               (range, 6.3–20 months among the 10 most common types).
      The time interval between visits can also influence the         Whereas the majority of the incident type-specific HPV infec-
assessment of persistence. With a shorter interval between            tions cleared within 2 years, there were also many women who
visits, the clearance time for HPV episodes would appear ear-         were either reinfected with a different HPV type or presumably
lier, as would time of acquisition of a new HPV infection. The        experienced reactivation of their initial infection. Results from
shorter interval may lead to improved precision of clearance          ongoing variant analyses of HPV-16 and HPV-18 in our cohort
time but would not necessarily change the estimate of mean            will help us determine how many of those type-specific rein-
duration. For practical purposes, we opted for 6-month intervals      fections actually represent the same infection. Finally, whether
between testing opportunities because the interval between            coinfections influence the natural history of type-specific in-
HPV tests should be consistent with existing clinical guidelines      fections still needs to be further explored, although preliminary
for monitoring cervical cytological abnormalities and is cur-         investigations suggest that whereas risk of acquisition may be
rently defined by most practice standards at 6-month intervals.       higher among women with coinfections, persistence is not
In addition, between-test intervals of 6 months are more coher-       affected (21–23).
ent with the biological rationale for using persistent HPV in-
fection as an outcome in trials of HPV vaccine efficacy because
it allows for the onset of induced immunity in clearing imme-         Acknowledgments
diate postvaccination transient infections. With short testing        We are indebted to Suzanne Dumais and the staff at the McGill and Concordia
                                                                      Student Health Services who helped with subject accrual and follow-up. We also
intervals, such infections could mistakenly be interpreted as         thank Roche Molecular Systems for generously supplying us with all of the
persistent and be counted as vaccine failure events, a scenario       reagents necessary for HPV genotyping.
that would lead to a biased estimate of the vaccine efficacy.
      Prevalence of cervical HPV infections has been investi-
gated in numerous studies (17). Nonetheless, the geographical         References
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                                                                                                           ˜
                                                                      J., Schiffman, M. H., Moreno, V., Kurman, R., Shah, K. V., and the International
mented, except for HPV-16, which appears to be the most               Biological Study on Cervical Cancer (IBSCC) Study Group. Prevalence of human
frequently occurring type in most countries (4, 12, 14, 16, 18,       papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. J. Natl. Cancer Inst.
19). Our results are in agreement with these previous studies,        (Bethesda), 87: 796 – 802, 1995.
with a point prevalence of HPV-16 at enrollment of 7% in the          2. Walboomers, J. M. M., Jacobs, M. V., Manos, M. M., Bosch, F. X., Kummer,
whole population or 24% of all HPV-positive samples at base-          J. A., Shah, K. V., Snijders, P. J. F., Peto, J., Meijer, C. J. L. M., and Munoz, N.
                                                                                                                                                   ˜
line. HPV-53 appears to be very prevalent in different popula-        Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer world-
                                                                      wide. J. Pathol., 189: 12–19, 1999.
tions, including ours, but the high prevalence of HPV-84 (pre-
                                                                      3. Moscicki, A. B., Hills, N., Shiboski, S., Powell, K., Jay, N., Hanson, E., Miller,
viously MM8) in our group differs from other recent studies           S., Clayton, L., Farhat, S., Broering, J., Darragh, T. M., and Palefsky, J. Risks for
presenting type-specific prevalence from cohorts with a broader       incident human papillomavirus infection and low-grade squamous intraepithelial
age range, which show HPV-84 to be rare (14, 19, 20). Among           lesion development in young females. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 285: 2995–3002,
those women who were HPV negative at baseline in our cohort,          2001.
approximately 36% were infected with HPV at some time                 4. Hildesheim, A., Schiffman, M., Gravitt, P., Glass, A. G., Greer, C. E., Zhang,
during the 2-year period of the study. Recent longitudinal            T., Scott, D. R., Rush, B. B., Lawler, P., Sherman, M. E., Kurman, R. J., and
                                                                      Manes, M. M. Persistence of type-specific human papillomavirus infection among
cohort studies have shown the 36-month cumulative incidence           cytologically normal women. J. Infect. Dis., 169: 235–240, 1994.
rates for acquiring any new HPV infection to range from 43%           5. Moscicki, A. B., Palefsky, J., Smith, G., Siboshski, S., and Schoolnik, G.
to 51% (3, 12, 16) among women in their early 20s and                 Variability of human papillomavirus DNA testing in a longitudinal cohort of
younger. The high incidence rates of HPV-16, -51, and -84 that        young women. Obstet. Gynecol., 82: 578 –585, 1993.
were seen in our group have also been observed in a cohort of         6. Bosch, F. X., Lorincz, A., Munoz, N., Meijer, C. J. L. M., and Shah, K. V. The
university students in New York (16) and in young women               causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. J. Clin.
attending gynecology clinics for routine screening in Arizona         Pathol. (Lond.), 55: 244 –265, 2002.
(15). As an important caveat, we generally considered the             7. Coutlee, F., Gravitt, P., Richardson, H., Hankins, C., Franco, E. L., Lapointe,
                                                                               ´
                                                                      N., Voyer, H., and the Canadian Women’s HIV Study Group. Nonisotopic
natural history of LR or HR HPV infections independent of a           detection of typing of human papillomavirus DNA in genital samples by the line
coinfection with a different HPV group. Coinfections at the           blot assay. J. Clin. Microbiol., 37: 1852–1857, 1999.
same visit made up 38% of the overall infections in our cohort,       8. Bauer, H. M., Ting, Y., Greer, C. E., Chambers, J. C., Tashiro, C. J., Chimera,
of which the majority were a LR type accompanied by one or            J., Reingold, A., and Manos, M. M. Genital human papillomavirus infection in
more HR types (data not shown).                                       female university students as determined by a PCR-based method. J. Am. Med.
                                                                      Assoc., 265: 472– 477, 1991.
      Another limitation of the study was that only 27 HPV
types could be detected with our system. Although the most            9. Coutlee, F., Gravitt, P., Kornegay, J., Hankins, C., Richardson, H., Lapointe,
                                                                      N., Voyer, H., the Canadian Women’s HIV Study Group, and Franco, E. Use of
frequent and important (in terms of oncogenic potential) HPV          PGMY primers in L1 consensus PCR improves detection of human papilloma-
types have been included in our line blot PCR assay, our results      virus DNA in genital samples. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40: 902–907, 2002.
are not directly comparable with those of studies that could          10. Gravitt, P., Peyton, C. L., Apple, R. J., and Wheeler, C. Genotyping of 27
detect more than 35 types (14, 16). It is conceivable that one or     human papillomavirus types by using L1 consensus PCR products by single-
more LR HPV types not included in our probe set could have            hybridization, reverse line blot detection method. J. Clin. Microbiol., 36: 3020 –
                                                                      3027, 1998.
been present in our population and thus would have constituted
false negative results, although the extent of the bias is probably   11. Kaplan, E. L., and Meier, P. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete
                                                                      observations. J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 53: 457– 481, 1958.
small because of the rarity of such types.
                                                                      12. Woodman, C. B. J., Collins, S., Winter, H., Bailey, A., Ellis, J., Prior, P.,
      In conclusion, the natural history of cervical HPV infec-       Yates, M., Rollason, T. P., and Young, L. S. Natural history of cervical human
tions in this cohort of university students is anything but static.   papillomavirus infection in young women: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet,
There is frequent acquisition of both HR and LR HPV types.            357: 1831–1836, 2001.
490   Natural Dynamics of HPV Infections




      13. Moscicki, A. B., Shiboski, S., Broering, J., Powell, K., Clayton, L., Jay, N.,     19. Liaw, K. L., Glass, A. G., Manos, M. M., Greer, C. E., Scott, D. R., Sherman,
      Darragh, T. M., Brescia, R., Kanowitz, S., Miller, S. B., Stone, J., Hanson, E., and   M., Burk, R. D., Kurman, R. J., Wacholder, S., Rush, B. B., Cadell, D. M.,
      Palefsky, J. The natural history of human papillomavirus infection as measured by      Lawler, P., Tabor, D., and Sciffman, M. Detection of human papillomavirus DNA
      repeated DNA testing in adolescent and young women. J. Pediatr., 132: 277–284,         in cytologically normal women and subsequent cervical squamous intraepithelial
      1998.                                                                                  lesions. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (Bethesda), 91: 954 –960, 1999.
      14. Franco, E. L., Villa, L. L., Sobrinho, J. P., Prado, J. M., Rousseau, M. C.,       20. Lazcano-Ponce, E., Herrero, R., Munoz, N., Cruz, A., Shah, K. V., Alonso,
                                                                                                                                       ˜
      Desy, M., and Rohan, T. E. Epidemiology of acquisition and clearance of cervical       P., Hernandez, P., Salmeron, J., and Hernandez, M. Epidemiology of HPV
                                                                                                       ´                  ´                  ´
      human papillomavirus infection in women from a high-risk area for cervical             infection among Mexican women with normal cervical cytology. Int. J. Cancer,
      cancer. J. Infect. Dis., 180: 1415–1423, 1999.                                         91: 412– 420, 2001.
      15. Giuliano, A. R., Harris, R., Sedjo, R. L., Baldwin, S., Roe, D., Papenfuss,        21. Liaw, K. L., Hildesheim, A., Burk, R. D., Gravitt, P., Wacholder, S., Manos,
      M. R., Abrahamsen, M., Inserra, P., Olvera, S., and Hatch, K. Incidence, prev-         M. M., Scott, D. R., Sherman, M. E., Kurman, R. J., Glass, A. G., Anderson,
      alence, and clearance of type specific human papillomavirus infections: the young      S. M., and Schiffman, M. A prospective study of human papillomavirus type 16
      women’s health study. J. Infect. Dis., 186: 462– 469, 2002.                            DNA detection by polymerase chain reaction and its association with acquisition
      16. Ho, G. Y. F., Bierman, R., Beardsley, L., Chang, C. J., and Burk, R. Natural       and persistence of other HPV types. J. Infect. Dis., 183: 8 –15, 2001.
      history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N. Engl.            22. Rousseau, M. C., Pereira, J. S., Prado, J. C. M., Villa, L. L., Rohan, T. E., and
      J. Med., 338: 423– 428, 1998.                                                          Franco, E. L. Cervical coinfection with human papillomavirus (HPV) types as a
      17. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol.            predictor of acquisition and persistence of HPV infection. J. Infect. Dis., 184:
      64. Human Papillomaviruses. Lyon, France: IARC, 1995.                                  1508 –1517, 2001.
      18. Wheeler, C. M., Parmenter, C. A., Hunt, W. C., Becker, T. M., Greer, C. E.,        23. Thomas, K. K., Hughes, J. P., Kuypers, J. M., Kiviat, N. B., Lee, S. K.,
      Hildesheim, A., and Manos, M. M. Determinants of genital human papillomavirus          Adam, D. E., and Koutsky, L. A. Concurrent and sequential acquisition of
      infection among cytologically normal women attending the University-of-New-            different genital human papillomavirus types. J. Infect. Dis., 182: 1097–1102,
      Mexico student health center. Sex Transm. Dis., 20: 286 –289, 1993.                    2000.

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The Natural History of Type-specific Human Papillomavirus Infections in Female University Students

  • 1. Vol. 12, 485– 490, June 2003 Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 485 The Natural History of Type-specific Human Papillomavirus Infections in Female University Students1 Harriet Richardson, Gail Kelsall, Pierre Tellier, HPV genotype or presumably experienced reactivation of Helene Voyer, Michal Abrahamowicz, Alex Ferenczy, ´` their initial infection. Francois Coutlee, and Eduardo L. Franco2 ¸ ´ Departments of Oncology [H. R., G. K., A. F., E. L. F.], Epidemiology and Introduction Biostatistics [H. R., M. A., E. L. F.], Family Medicine [G. K., P. T.], and Pathology [A. F.], McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H2W 1S6 Canada, Whereas there is conclusive evidence that cervical HPV3 in- and Laboratoire de Virologie Moleculaire, Centre de Recherche et fections are a necessary cause of cervical cancer (1, 2), the Departement de Microbiologie et Infectiologie, Hopital Notre-Dame du Centre discrepancy between the high frequency of HPV infections in Hospitalier de l’Universite de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada [H. V., ´ ´ F. C.] young, sexually active women and the relatively low occur- rence of cervical lesions in the same population suggests that HPV is not a sufficient cause for cervical neoplasia (3). There Abstract is evidence that most HPV infections are transient, and only women who harbor a persistent HPV infection are likely to Little is known about the average duration of type- develop a cervical lesion (4, 5). However, there have been few specific human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and their studies designed to investigate the dynamics of HPV clearance patterns of persistence. The objectives of this study were or persistence. Describing the average duration of infection will to evaluate the rate of acquisition and clearance of be of great importance in establishing a clinically relevant specific HPV types in young women. Female university definition of a persistent HPV infection that could be used for students (n 621) in Montreal were followed for 24 cervical screening and HPV vaccination studies (6). months at 6-month intervals. At each visit, a cervical In 1996, we began a prospective cohort study of the specimen was collected. HPV DNA was detected using the natural history of HPV infection and cervical neoplasia in a MY09/MY11 PCR protocol followed by typing for 27 population of young university students in Montreal, Canada to HPV genotypes by a line blot assay. The Kaplan-Meier study the rate of acquisition and clearance of specific HPV technique was used to estimate the cumulative probability types in this population and to investigate risk factors for of acquiring or clearing a HPV infection considering persistent HPV infections. This study presents the descriptive types individually or in high-risk (HR) or low-risk (LR) epidemiological results on the dynamics of acquisition, loss, groups defined by oncogenic potential. Incidence rates and persistence of type-specific HPV infections. were 14.0 cases/1000 women-months (95% confidence interval, 11.4 –16.3) and 12.4 cases/1000 women-months (95% confidence interval, 10.4 –14.8) for acquiring HR Materials and Methods and LR HPV infections, respectively. The 24-month Subjects. Female students attending either the McGill or the cumulative rates of acquisition were highest for HPV-16 Concordia University Health Clinic were invited to participate (12%), HPV-51, and HPV-84 (8%). Of the incident if they intended to be in Montreal for the next 2 years and had infections, HPV-16 was the most persistent (mean not required treatment for cervical disease in the last 12 months. duration, 18.3 months), followed by HPV-31 and HPV-53 Recruitment was initiated in November 1996, and accrual was (14.6 and 14.8 months, respectively). HPV-6 and HPV-84 completed in January 1999. All eligible women were asked to had the shortest mean duration time (<10 months) The return to the clinic every 6 months over a period of 2 years, for mean durations of incident, same-type LR or HR HPV a total of five visits. The study protocol was approved by the infections were 13.4 months and 16.3 months, Research Ethics Boards of McGill University and Concordia respectively. Whereas the majority of episodes with a University. At each visit, a questionnaire was completed, and type-specific HPV infection cleared within 2 years, there endo- and ectocervical cells from the uterine cervix were col- were many women who were either reinfected with a new lected with two Accelon cervical biosamplers (Medscand Inc., Hollywood, FL). A Pap smear was prepared with the first sampler. HPV DNA Detection. Preparation of the cell suspensions for Received 7/29/02; revised 2/10/03; accepted 3/4/03. The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of HPV DNA testing has been described in detail elsewhere, with page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in the use of QIAamp columns (Qiagen) for DNA purification (7). accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact. Five l of DNA were first amplified for -globin DNA with 1 Supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research Grant MT-13649. H. R. is PC04 and GH20 primers to demonstrate the absence of inhib- a recipient of a Predoctoral Scholarship, M. A. is a recipient of a Scientist Award, and E. F. is a recipient of a Distinguished Scientist Award, all from the Canadian itors and the integrity of processed DNA (8, 9). -Globin- Institutes of Health Research. F. C. is a recipient of a Chercheur Boursier National from the Fonds de la Recherche en Sante du Quebec. ´ ´ 2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Department of Oncology, 3 McGill University, 546 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec, H2W 1S6 Canada. The abbreviations used are: HPV, human papillomavirus; LR, low-risk; HR, Phone: (514) 398-6032; E-mail: eduardo.franco@mcgill.ca. high-risk; CI, confidence interval.
  • 2. 486 Natural Dynamics of HPV Infections Table 1 Prevalence and incidencea of infection with the most frequently detected HPV types and for groups according to oncogenicity Baseline No. of incident Women-months Incidence rate (per 1000 HPV type prevalence (%) cases of follow-up woman-months) (95% CI) HPV-6 2.7 29 12709 2.3 (1.5–3.3) HPV-16 7.0 62 11928 5.2 (4.0–6.7) HPV-18 3.1 24 12735 1.9 (1.2–2.8) HPV-31 2.6 21 12854 1.6 (1.0–2.5) HPV-39 1.0 247 13476 1.8 (1.1–2.5) HPV-51 2.9 43 12588 3.4 (2.5–4.6) HPV-53 4.3 31 12468 2.5 (1.7–3.5) HPV-54 2.7 32 12783 2.5 (1.7–3.5) HPV-56 2.6 19 12842 1.5 (0.9–2.3) HPV-84 3.8 46 12475 3.7 (2.7–4.9) Any HPV 29.0 155 8151 19.0 (16.1–22.3) HR HPV 21.8 131 9344 14.0 (11.4–16.3) LR HPV 14.8 128 10299 12.4 (10.4–14.8) a The 10 types with the highest incidence rates are shown. Not shown are HPV-11, -26, -33, -35, -40, -42, -45, -52, -55, -57, -58, -59, -66, -68, -82, -83, and MM9. positive specimens were further tested with the L1 consensus HPV infection. In this second strategy (which simulated an HPV primers MY09/MY11 and HMB01 and the line blot assay analysis that would have been conducted with results from (Roche Molecular Systems) for the detection of 27 genital HPV using a Hybrid Capture system), a HR or LR HPV infection was genotypes (8, 10). HPV types were analyzed individually or in only considered to have cleared when a woman was no longer groups according to their oncogenic classification. HR HPV positive for any HR HPVs or any LR HPVs, respectively. types included those genotypes that are most frequently found in cervical tumors: HPV-16; -18; -31; -33; -35; -39; -45; -51; -52; -56; -58; -59; and -68. All other individual types that were Results identified with the line blot assay were classified as LR HPV A total of 635 women were initially recruited into the study. types (1): HPV-6; -11; -26; -40; -42; -53; -54; -55; -57; -66; -73; However, 13 subjects (2.0%) withdrew before completing their -82; -83; and 84 and 73 (10). first questionnaire, along with 1 woman who had a -globin- Statistical Methods. The estimates of the incidence rate for a negative sample at visit 1 and did not return for visit 2. There given genotype only included women at risk of acquiring that were a total of 2650 completed visits at the time of this analysis given genotype, so that women with a prevalent infection (at (mean of 4.3 visits/subject), and 2570 (97.6%) of the cervical enrollment) for a specific HPV type were excluded from that specimens were suitable for HPV DNA testing. Women with a specific risk set. Patterns of type-specific HPV positivity were -globin-negative result were not excluded from the analyses; described by comparing the overall number of visits positive for instead, the next visit with an informative HPV result was used. a specific HPV type, allowing for intermittent negative results, Loss to follow-up was approximately 10% per visit with ap- with the number of consecutive visits with the same HPV type. proximately 90% of the participants returning for visit 3 (12 The Kaplan-Meier technique (11) was used to estimate the months) and 67.5% of the cohort returning for visit 5 (24 cumulative probability of acquiring a specific HPV type or months), thus contributing a total of 13,353 woman-months of grouped-type infection (HR HPV or LR HPV) as a function of follow-up (mean, 21.5 months of follow-up/subject). The av- the length of follow-up for each HPV type or grouped-type erage time interval between visits was normally distributed, infection among women who were negative for the specific with the majority of women returning within 5–7 months of genotype or HPV group at baseline. The Kaplan-Meier method their previous visit. The mean age was 23 years (median age, 21 was also used to estimate the proportion of women who re- years; age range, 17– 42 years), and 45% of the women had 5 mained positive for a specific (incident) HPV type or grouped- lifetime sexual partners. The majority of women (81%) de- type-specific infection by considering their index infection, scribed themselves as Caucasian, 60% of the participants had when first detected, as time 0. Type-specific prevalent infec- never smoked, and 24% were current smokers. tions were not included in the analysis for clearance. Thus, for Table 1 shows the prevalence at baseline and incidence for a woman with a prevalent infection, her index infection was the the most common HPV genotypes and grouped-type infections. longest enduring type-specific infection that was newly ac- The prevalence of HR HPV infections was 21.8%, and the quired after enrollment. Time to an event was defined as the prevalence for LR HPV infections was 14.8%. There were 327 time until the first visit when a subject was no longer HPV women who had HPV detected at one or more visits during the positive (for a given type). Subjects with both HR and LR types study, and of those women, 124 (38%) had coinfections with a in the index visit were assigned to either the HR group or the HR and a LR HPV type at the same visit. The three most LR group, based on the type with the longest duration. If there common HPV types at enrollment were HPV-16 (7%), HPV-53 was a tie, the index visit was assigned to the HR group. In case (4.3%), and HPV-84 (3.8%). HPV-16 (5.2/1000), HPV-84 (3.7/ of a tie within the HR group or LR group, all longest persisting 1000), and HPV-51 (3.4/1000) were the most frequent newly infections had to have cleared to be given “clearance” status. acquired infections, with all incidence rates expressed per Subjects were censored at their last visit. The median and mean month. The incidence rates for HR HPV and LR HPV infec- duration of infection were estimated directly with the actuarial tions were very similar (14.0/1000 and 12.4/1000, respective- (Kaplan-Meier) method. The Kaplan-Meier technique was also ly). The cumulative rate for new HPV infections was 18.0% used to evaluate clearance of an overall HR or an overall LR (95% CI, 14.1–21.9) at 1 year and 36.4% (95% CI, 31.3– 41.5)
  • 3. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 487 13 or 16 months, respectively. The mean duration of an overall LR or HR HPV episode (not necessarily type-specific persis- tent) was between 16 and 17 months, respectively. After 1 year of follow-up, among women with an incident HPV infection, approximately 59% to 61% of the women remained positive for an overall LR or HR HPV episode, respectively. Discussion We decided to present estimates of time to clearance for inci- dent infections only, rather than pooling both prevalent and incident cases. Calculating the average duration times for both prevalent and incident infections could result in an overestima- tion of duration of an infection because prevalent cases could overrepresent persistent infections at any point in time. We considered two definitions for HPV clearance when HPV types were classified into HR or LR groups. There were many in- stances when a participant had an infection with more than one HR or LR HPV type at the same visit or at a later visit. Therefore, the first definition was based on mutually exclusive HR or LR groups, and only the most persistent HPV type was included in the analysis. If a woman had an equally persistent HR and LR HPV infection, then she was only included in the HR group, and a woman had to have cleared the longest persisting type before her HPV infection was considered cleared. This approach had the advantage of not mixing a preexisting type and a newly acquired type in the definition of persistence (or in this case, clearance). However, this strategy also has its limitations because we selectively chose the most persistent HR or LR type-specific infection from each subject Fig. 1. Cumulative risk of incident HPV infections. A, acquisition of any HPV (with an incident HPV infection) and then estimated a global type among women who were HPV negative at enrollment (n 420). B, acquisition of a HR HPV infection among women who were HR HPV negative average duration for any HR or any LR HPV infection. This at enrollment (n 460). C, acquisition of a LR HPV infection among women who method may lead to an overestimation or an underestimation of were LR HPV negative at enrollment (n 498). the average duration of specific HPV group infections. For example, if our cohort happened to have an overrepresentation of one specific HR HPV type that happened to persist, on at 2 years. The equivalent rates for HR HPV were 12.7% (95% average, for a longer duration than other HR types, then this CI, 9.6 –15.8) and 29.0% (95% CI, 24.4 –33.4), and for LR HPV analysis would tend to inflate the overall duration of HR HPV they were 13.4% (95% CI, 10.4 –16.4) and 23.7% (95% CI, infections. Therefore, this approach will lead to altered esti- 19.7–27.7; Fig. 1). mates of duration based on the type distribution of HPV infec- Table 2 shows the pattern of persistence in the cohort. Of tions in a particular population. In our cohort, the median those women with 2 or more positive visits with the same HPV duration of the most (type-specific) persistent (incident) HR type, over 80% harbored these infections at consecutive visits, HPV infection (13.2 months) was slightly longer than the regardless of the number of positive visits and infection type median duration of a LR HPV infection (12.3 months), but the group. This suggests that persistence tended to be above the CIs of the two estimates overlapped considerably. levels of viral load that can be effectively detected by standard- In our second definition of HR or LR HPV clearance, a ized cervical sampling coupled with a validated PCR assay. woman had to have been negative for any HR type or any LR The most persistent infections, with median retention type subsequent to any incident HR infection or LR infection at times of 1 year, included those with types HPV-31 (20.0 the previous visit, respectively. Thus, the concept of persistence months), HPV-16 (19.4 months), HPV-54 (16.8 months), and could include a preexisting (incident) HR (or LR) type infection HPV-53 (13.9 months; Table 3). The median retention time for mixed with a newly acquired (different) HR (or LR) type the types that cleared most rapidly (HPV-6 and HPV-84) was infection, provided there was not an intermittent visit that was 6.5 months. The median time for clearance of an incident HR (or LR) HPV negative. Whereas this approach does not (type-specific) HR HPV infection (13.2 months) was slightly directly capture HR or LR HPV persistence with the same type, longer than the median time to loss of an incident (type- it does attempt to describe the dynamics of an infection that specific) LR HPV infection (12.3 months). Approximately 53% may contain more than one HR (or LR) infection that is only or 56% of the women with an incident LR or HR HPV infec- resolved when all HR (or LR) types are cleared. It also simu- tion, respectively, still remained positive after 1 year of follow- lates the strategy used by the majority of other researchers who up. The mean durations of most incident infections were very have published data on the median duration of HPV infections similar to the median estimates, although HPV-16 was the most (12–16). persistent type (mean duration, 18.3 months), followed by Given the large number of participants with more than one HPV-53 (mean duration, 14.8 months) and HPV-31 (mean HR or LR HPV infection throughout the study, it was not duration, 14.6 months). HPV-6 and HPV-84 had the shortest surprising that the estimated median duration of an overall mean duration times. The mean time for clearance of an inci- (incident) HR HPV (16.6 months) or an overall (incident) LR dent (type-specific) LR HPV or HR HPV infection was close to HPV (14.7 months) episode was longer than the estimated
  • 4. 488 Natural Dynamics of HPV Infections Table 2 Persistence versus intermittency of HPV infections according to number of visits with the same type-specific infection No. of subjects with same type HR HPV infections No. of subjects with same type LR HPV infections No. of visits with the same type-specific infectiona Any combination Positivity in consecutive Any combination Positivity in consecutive of positive visits visits only (%) of positive visits visits only (%) 2 73 68 (93.2) 43 36 (83.7) 3 33 27 (81.8) 21 18 (85.7) 4 24 23 (95.8) 7 6 (85.7) 5 16 16 (100.0) 5 5 (100) a These are mutually exclusive groups and refer to the exact number of women with two, three, four, or five visits with a type-specific HR or LR HPV infection. Table 3 Different measures of the time to loss of an incident infection with specific HPV types and for grouped-type specific infections No. of Median retention time Mean retention time Proportion (%) remaining HPV type cases (n) (95% CI) (mo)a (95% CI) (mo)a positive at 1 year (95% CI)a HPV-6 26 6.4 (4.9–7.8) 8.7 (6.8–10.6) 42 (19–65) HPV-16 62 19.4 (11.4–27.5) 18.3 (12.9–23.7) 62 (46–78) HPV-18 25 9.4 (4.8–14.0) 11.6 (8.8–14.4) 40 (15–65) HPV-31 21 20.0 (13.4–26.6) 14.6 (11.0–18.1) 62 (35–89) HPV-39 24 8.0 (5.8–10.1) 11.0 (7.0–14.9) 32 (3–61.9) HPV-51 45 9.0 (7.7–10.4) 10.5 (8.4–12.7) 35 (14–56) HPV-53 31 13.9 (11.1–16.8) 14.8 (11.4–18.3) 62 (41–83) HPV-54 34 16.8 (8.0–25.7) 13.2 (10.2–16.1) 58 (34–82) HPV-56 19 8.4 (3.2–13.6) 10.6 (7.9–13.2) 40 (13–67) HPV-84 47 6.6 (6.0–7.2) 9.9 (7.0–12.8) 23 (7–41) HR-HPVb 124 13.2 (10.2–16.2) 16.3 (13.7–18.9) 56 (44–68) LR-HPVc 73 12.3 (11.4–13.5) 13.4 (11.4–15.4) 53 (41–65) Any HPV episoded 155 17.3 (12.8–21.7) 17.0 (15.1–18.8) 62 (52–72) HR-HPV episodee 131 16.6 (14.5–18.7) 17.4 (14.7–20.1) 61 (51–71) LR-HPV episodef 128 14.7 (10.9–18.4) 15.8 (13.3–18.3) 59 (49–69) a Estimates from actuarial analysis using the Kaplan-Meier technique. b HR HPV infections were grouped according to the longest persisting (incident) HR type-specific infection. c LR HPV infections were grouped according to the longest persisting (incident) LR type-specific infection. d Episode refers to consecutive visits with any type. e Episode refers to consecutive visits with HR (not necessarily type-specific) infection. f Episode refers to consecutive visits with LR group infection (not necessarily type-specific). duration of the longest HR or LR HPV (type-specific) infection shown). Among the latter, HR HPV infections persisted for an (13.2 months and 12.3 months, respectively). Most other stud- average of 19.5 months (95% CI, 16.9 –22.1 months), whereas ies have observed that the median duration of LR infections is LR HPV infections were cleared, on average, within 16 months 5 months, whereas the median duration of HR HPV infec- (95% CI, 13.7–18.0 months). tions is usually twice as long (8 –10 months; Refs. 14 and 15). Whereas some recent studies have shown the median Whereas our second definition of HPV clearance highlights the duration of new or prevalent HPV infections to be less than 10 high frequency of infection and reinfection with the same or months in young and middle-aged women (14 –16), distinguish- different types (within the same oncogenic group), contrary to ing between an infection that has truly resolved and a false other reports (14, 15), our results suggest that the average negative test result due to poor sampling, low levels of virus, or duration of newly acquired HR or LR types does not differ insensitive measurement tests is very difficult (12). As a result, substantially. However, most of the studies that have been able the clearance rate may be somewhat overestimated, whereas the to estimate the duration of HPV infections have generally frequency of persistent infections may be underestimated. At evaluated clearance of prevalent or mixed prevalent and inci- least one study (12) observed that the median duration for a dent infections (12–15), and only a few had assays for detecting HPV infection (not necessarily type specific) was greater than a substantial number ( 10) of LR types (14, 16). These dif- 1 year (13.8 months), and when Moscicki et al. (13) considered ferent design issues could affect the estimates of duration of various definitions of clearance by modeling different number grouped HR and LR HPV infections. of consecutive HPV negative tests since the last HPV positive Another explanation for our findings of a similar average test, the median duration of the infection increased as the duration for incident HR HPV and LR HPV infections is that definition of clearance became more conservative. The authors there may not have been enough follow-up time to reveal the concluded that it took approximately 15 months for 50% of the real average length of time to clearance. Only half of the women in their study to clear a prevalent HPV infection, women had a detected cleared incident HPV infection, versus conditional on three consecutive negative HPV tests (but not 70% of those with LR HPV (data not shown). The remaining necessarily a type-specific HPV infection). The median dura- women with an incident HPV infection were censored, i.e., tion for any incident HPV episode in our cohort was 17.3 possibly persistent. When we looked at clearance of prevalent months (95% CI, 12.8 –21.7 months). Whereas misclassifica- HPV infections only, the majority of those prevalent HPV tion of HPV status may have occurred in our study, our results episodes cleared before the last follow-up visit (data not suggest that there were few false negative results because very
  • 5. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 489 few women with a persistent type-specific infection had an The median duration of the longest persisting, newly acquired intervening visit with a negative test result, and more than 80% LR and HR HPV infections is a little over 12 months, with great of same type persistent infections occurred during consecutive variation in the average duration of type-specific infections visits. (range, 6.3–20 months among the 10 most common types). The time interval between visits can also influence the Whereas the majority of the incident type-specific HPV infec- assessment of persistence. With a shorter interval between tions cleared within 2 years, there were also many women who visits, the clearance time for HPV episodes would appear ear- were either reinfected with a different HPV type or presumably lier, as would time of acquisition of a new HPV infection. The experienced reactivation of their initial infection. Results from shorter interval may lead to improved precision of clearance ongoing variant analyses of HPV-16 and HPV-18 in our cohort time but would not necessarily change the estimate of mean will help us determine how many of those type-specific rein- duration. For practical purposes, we opted for 6-month intervals fections actually represent the same infection. Finally, whether between testing opportunities because the interval between coinfections influence the natural history of type-specific in- HPV tests should be consistent with existing clinical guidelines fections still needs to be further explored, although preliminary for monitoring cervical cytological abnormalities and is cur- investigations suggest that whereas risk of acquisition may be rently defined by most practice standards at 6-month intervals. higher among women with coinfections, persistence is not In addition, between-test intervals of 6 months are more coher- affected (21–23). ent with the biological rationale for using persistent HPV in- fection as an outcome in trials of HPV vaccine efficacy because it allows for the onset of induced immunity in clearing imme- Acknowledgments diate postvaccination transient infections. With short testing We are indebted to Suzanne Dumais and the staff at the McGill and Concordia Student Health Services who helped with subject accrual and follow-up. We also intervals, such infections could mistakenly be interpreted as thank Roche Molecular Systems for generously supplying us with all of the persistent and be counted as vaccine failure events, a scenario reagents necessary for HPV genotyping. that would lead to a biased estimate of the vaccine efficacy. Prevalence of cervical HPV infections has been investi- gated in numerous studies (17). Nonetheless, the geographical References variation in type distribution has not been extensively docu- 1. Bosch, F. X., Manos, M. M., Munoz, N., Sherman, M., Jansen, A. M., Peto, ˜ J., Schiffman, M. H., Moreno, V., Kurman, R., Shah, K. V., and the International mented, except for HPV-16, which appears to be the most Biological Study on Cervical Cancer (IBSCC) Study Group. Prevalence of human frequently occurring type in most countries (4, 12, 14, 16, 18, papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 19). Our results are in agreement with these previous studies, (Bethesda), 87: 796 – 802, 1995. with a point prevalence of HPV-16 at enrollment of 7% in the 2. Walboomers, J. M. M., Jacobs, M. V., Manos, M. M., Bosch, F. X., Kummer, whole population or 24% of all HPV-positive samples at base- J. A., Shah, K. V., Snijders, P. J. F., Peto, J., Meijer, C. J. L. M., and Munoz, N. ˜ line. HPV-53 appears to be very prevalent in different popula- Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer world- wide. J. Pathol., 189: 12–19, 1999. tions, including ours, but the high prevalence of HPV-84 (pre- 3. Moscicki, A. B., Hills, N., Shiboski, S., Powell, K., Jay, N., Hanson, E., Miller, viously MM8) in our group differs from other recent studies S., Clayton, L., Farhat, S., Broering, J., Darragh, T. M., and Palefsky, J. Risks for presenting type-specific prevalence from cohorts with a broader incident human papillomavirus infection and low-grade squamous intraepithelial age range, which show HPV-84 to be rare (14, 19, 20). Among lesion development in young females. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 285: 2995–3002, those women who were HPV negative at baseline in our cohort, 2001. approximately 36% were infected with HPV at some time 4. Hildesheim, A., Schiffman, M., Gravitt, P., Glass, A. G., Greer, C. E., Zhang, during the 2-year period of the study. Recent longitudinal T., Scott, D. R., Rush, B. B., Lawler, P., Sherman, M. E., Kurman, R. J., and Manes, M. M. Persistence of type-specific human papillomavirus infection among cohort studies have shown the 36-month cumulative incidence cytologically normal women. J. Infect. Dis., 169: 235–240, 1994. rates for acquiring any new HPV infection to range from 43% 5. Moscicki, A. B., Palefsky, J., Smith, G., Siboshski, S., and Schoolnik, G. to 51% (3, 12, 16) among women in their early 20s and Variability of human papillomavirus DNA testing in a longitudinal cohort of younger. The high incidence rates of HPV-16, -51, and -84 that young women. Obstet. Gynecol., 82: 578 –585, 1993. were seen in our group have also been observed in a cohort of 6. Bosch, F. X., Lorincz, A., Munoz, N., Meijer, C. J. L. M., and Shah, K. V. The university students in New York (16) and in young women causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. J. Clin. attending gynecology clinics for routine screening in Arizona Pathol. (Lond.), 55: 244 –265, 2002. (15). As an important caveat, we generally considered the 7. Coutlee, F., Gravitt, P., Richardson, H., Hankins, C., Franco, E. L., Lapointe, ´ N., Voyer, H., and the Canadian Women’s HIV Study Group. Nonisotopic natural history of LR or HR HPV infections independent of a detection of typing of human papillomavirus DNA in genital samples by the line coinfection with a different HPV group. Coinfections at the blot assay. J. Clin. Microbiol., 37: 1852–1857, 1999. same visit made up 38% of the overall infections in our cohort, 8. Bauer, H. M., Ting, Y., Greer, C. E., Chambers, J. C., Tashiro, C. J., Chimera, of which the majority were a LR type accompanied by one or J., Reingold, A., and Manos, M. M. Genital human papillomavirus infection in more HR types (data not shown). female university students as determined by a PCR-based method. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 265: 472– 477, 1991. Another limitation of the study was that only 27 HPV types could be detected with our system. Although the most 9. Coutlee, F., Gravitt, P., Kornegay, J., Hankins, C., Richardson, H., Lapointe, N., Voyer, H., the Canadian Women’s HIV Study Group, and Franco, E. Use of frequent and important (in terms of oncogenic potential) HPV PGMY primers in L1 consensus PCR improves detection of human papilloma- types have been included in our line blot PCR assay, our results virus DNA in genital samples. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40: 902–907, 2002. are not directly comparable with those of studies that could 10. Gravitt, P., Peyton, C. L., Apple, R. J., and Wheeler, C. Genotyping of 27 detect more than 35 types (14, 16). It is conceivable that one or human papillomavirus types by using L1 consensus PCR products by single- more LR HPV types not included in our probe set could have hybridization, reverse line blot detection method. J. Clin. Microbiol., 36: 3020 – 3027, 1998. been present in our population and thus would have constituted false negative results, although the extent of the bias is probably 11. Kaplan, E. L., and Meier, P. Nonparametric estimation from incomplete observations. J. Am. Stat. Assoc., 53: 457– 481, 1958. small because of the rarity of such types. 12. Woodman, C. B. J., Collins, S., Winter, H., Bailey, A., Ellis, J., Prior, P., In conclusion, the natural history of cervical HPV infec- Yates, M., Rollason, T. P., and Young, L. S. Natural history of cervical human tions in this cohort of university students is anything but static. papillomavirus infection in young women: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet, There is frequent acquisition of both HR and LR HPV types. 357: 1831–1836, 2001.
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