Jatropha Curcas in Zimbabwe

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Warndorff, Titia Jan
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e-mail: gwarndorff@healthnet.zw
Maxwell Mapako
Private Bag 7768, Causeway
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Harare, Zimbabwe
supported by Rockefeller
1HWZRUN Tel: ++263 4 79 33 95, Fax: ++263 4 79
Foundation
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e-mail: bunzwe2k@yahoo.co.uk
Entrepreneur, Promoter P.O.Box BW 1140, Borrowdale
KDNUDV 'RQDOG of oil seed exploitation, Harare, Zimbabwe
buyer of Jatropha seeds Tel/Fax: ++263 9 42195
Producer of manual ram
'LFNVRQ *HRII presses
Harare, Zimbabwe
Environment Africa
Box CT502,
Plantation of Jatropha and
(QYLURQPHQW $IULFD use of the oil
Chinotimba
Victoria Falls,
Zimbabwe
Producer of Sundhara
expellers (together with P.O.Box GD 993
Plumb Engineering) Harare, Zimbabwe
2OLYHU *HRII Tel: +263 29 4144
e-mail: popa@mango.zw
Productiom of Jatropha see also the POPA newsletter Nr. 10
soap (Flora Joy)
James Murray
P.O. Box UA 561
Producer of Sundhara
3OXPE (QJLQHHULQJ expellers
Union Avenue
Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel: +263 4 611690
Attn. M. Geoff Oliver
P.O.Box GD 993
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2. Jatropha curcas in Zimbabwe pagina 2 van 2
Stueckler, Reinhard
7DEXGLULD 7UDLQLQJ Box 231, Mutoko, Zimbabwe
Jatropha promotion in
Tel: ++263-72-2455, Fax: ++263-
HQWUH Matoko district
91334543
e-mail: tabtc@pci.co.zw
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3. The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and Environment Protectio... pagina 1 van 7
The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and
Environment Protection – An Exploration
A workshop sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation and Scientific Industrial
Research Development Centre, Zimbabwe in Harare from 13-15 May 1998
CONCEPT PAPER: FINAL DRAFT
7R GRZQORDG WKH SDSHU
1. Introduction:
The oil plant Jatropha curcas (L) (Jatropha) or physic nut is a multipurpose and drought resistant
large shrub or small tree. Although a native of tropical America, it now thrives throughout Africa
and Asia. It grows in a number of climatic zones in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and
can be grown in areas of low rainfall and problematical sites. Jatropha is easy to establish, grows
relatively quickly and is hardy. Being drought tolerant, it can be used to reclaim eroded areas, be
grown as a boundary fence or live hedge in the arid/semi-arid areas.
The wood and fruit of Jatropha can be used for numerous purposes including fuel. The seeds of
Jatropha contains (. 50% by weight) viscous oil, which can be used for manufacture of candles and
soap, in the cosmetics industry, for cooking and lighting by itself or as a diesel/paraffin substitute or
extender. This latter use has important implications for meeting the demand for rural energy services
and also exploring practical substitutes for fossil fuels to counter greenhouse gas accumulation in the
atmosphere.
These characteristics along with its versatility make it of vital importance to developing countries
subjected to decreasing tree cover and soil fertility because of increasing population and
development pressures. Nearly half the world’s poorest people live on marginal lands with the
number expected to increase from 500 million to 800 million by 2020. These areas are by definition
isolated and fragile, with soils susceptible to erosion and subjected to environmental stresses of
deforestation, prolonged droughts, and decreasing soil and ground water. Although southern Africa
is rich in biodiversity and production potential, large areas are under semiarid and arid conditions
with a moderate-to-high risk of drought. Plants species like Jatropha that can grow on lands not
usually attractive for agriculture and supply raw material for industry, fuels for basic energy services
and improve environment are therefore an obvious choice that needs to be assessed carefully and
comprehensively.
Jatropha is not browsed, for its leaves and stems are toxic to animals, but after treatment, the seeds or
seed cake could be used as an animal feed. Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is an excellent
source of plant nutrients. Various parts of the plant are of medicinal value, its bark contains tannin,
the flowers attract bees and thus the plant has honey production potential. Like all trees, Jatropha
removes carbon from the atmosphere, stores it in the woody tissues and assists in the build up of soil
carbon.
Despite these characteristics, the full potential of Jatropha is far from being realized. There are
several reasons – technical, economic, cultural and institutional -- that need further discussion and
examination. The growing and management of Jatropha, either on private public or community lands
is poorly documented and there is little field experience that is being shared, especially in southern
Africa. Currently, growers are unable to achieve the optimum economic benefits from the plant,
especially for all its various uses. The markets for the different products have not been properly
explored or quantified, nor have the costs or returns (both tangible and intangible) to supply raw
materials or products to these markets. Consequently, the actual or potential growers including those
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in the subsistence sector do not have an adequate information base about the potential and economics
of this plant to make decisions relating to their livelihood, not to mention its commercial
exploitation.
It is therefore timely to examine the potential role that Jatropha can play in meeting some of the
needs for energy services for rural communities and also creating avenues for greater employment. It
is important that the discussion on the exploration of potential of Jatropha should include the
multiple stakeholders involved in research, utilization and exploration of this oil plant including
government officials, NGOs, private sector, etc. Most importantly representatives of local
communities must be included to examine any existing or latent demand for the plant to determine
the framework for any future initiative based on the outcome of the discussions on the potential of
Jatropha curcas. Hence this workshop.
2. Objectives of the Workshop:
The workshop will explore the potential of Jatropha curcas in rural development and influencing
livelihoods at the household level in an environmentally friendly manner. Some of the issues to be
examined therefore include:
z Use of Jatropha in meeting domestic needs of energy services including cooking and lighting;
z Potential of Jatropha as an additional source of household income and employment through
markets for fuel, fertilizer, animal feed medicine, and industrial raw material for soap,
cosmetics, etc.
z Potential of Jatropha in creating environmental benefits – protection of crops or pasture lands,
or as a hedge for erosion control, or as a windbreak.
3. Production of Jatropha curcas
Considerable plantation of Jatropha had been undertaken in Zimbabwe by a number of active
organizations involved in its promotion including the Agricultural Research Trust (ART), the
Biomass Users Network (BUN), the Forestry Commission (FC) and the Plant Oil Producers
Association (POPA). An estimated four million Jatropha plants have been planted in Zimbabwe by
the end of 1997 amounting to nearly 2,000 hectares of plantations.
Although it is known that Jatropha can be established from seed, seedlings and vegetatively from
cuttings, very little written information is available in Africa about the silviculture and management
of Jatropha. Plants from seeds develop a typical taproot and four lateral roots, and cuttings do not
develop a taproot (Heller J. 1996). Jatropha is a fast growing plant and can achieve a height of three
meters within three years under a variety of growing conditions. Seed production from plants
propagated from seeds can be expected within 3-4 years. Use of branch cutting for propagation is
easy and results in rapid growth; the bush can be expected to start bearing fruit within one year of
planting. (Jones Miller, 1992, p. 8)
Whilst Jatropha grows well in low rainfall conditions (requiring only about 200 mm of rain to
survive) it can also respond to higher rainfall (up to 1200 mm) particularly in hot climatic conditions.
In Nicaragua for example, Jatropha grows very well in the country’s hot climate with rainfall of 1
000mm or more. Experience in Zimbabwe has shown that high rainfall in the relatively cooler parts
of the country does not encourage the same vigorous growth. However, in the low-veld areas, such
as in the mid-Save region, Jatropha grows well, although comparative yields have not been
established. Jatropha does not thrive in wetland conditions. The plant is undemanding in soil type
and does not require tillage. In southern Africa, the best time for planting is in the warm season to
avoid the cold season since the plants are sensitive to ground frost that may occur in the cold season.
(BUN newsletter 1996).
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The recommended spacing for hedgerows or soil conservation is 15cm - 25cm x 15cm-25cm in one
or two rows respectively and 2m x 1.5m to 3m x 3mm for plantations (Jones N, Miller J.H. 1992,
p.7). Thus there will be between 4,000 to 6,700 plants per km. for a single hedgerow and double that
when two rows are planted. The number of trees per hectare at planting will range from 1,600 to
2,200. Wider spacing is reported to give larger yields of fruit, 794 kg/ha and 318 g/shrub (Heller J.
1996).
In equatorial regions where moisture is not a limiting factor (i.e. continuously wet tropics or under
irrigation), Jatropha can bloom and produce fruit all year. A drier climate has been found to improve
the oil yields of the seeds, though to withstand times of extreme drought, Jatropha plant will shed
leaves in an attempt to conserve moisture which results in somewhat decreased growth. (Jones and
Miller, 1992, p.7)
Seed production ranges from about 0.4 tons per hectare per year to over 12 t. /ha. /a., after five years
of growth (Jones N, Miller J.H. 1992). Although not clearly specified, this range in production may
be attributable to low and high rainfall areas. In Mali, where Jatropha is planted in hedges, the
reported productivity is from 0.8 kg. – 1.0 kg. of seed per meter of live fence (Henning R. 1996).
This is equivalent to between 2.5 t. /ha. /a. and 3.5 t. /ha. /a.. The practices being undertaken by the
Jatropha growers currently need to be scientifically documented along with growth and production
figures. The growth and yield of wood may be in proportion to nut yield and could be improved
through effective management practices.
Woody biomass growth, unlike seed production, is not recorded in any articles to hand. Although it
needs to be tested, it is possible that nearly one-third of net primary production (NPP) in Jatropha
curcas may be in the form of woody biomass. However, it needs to be tested if there is tradeoff
between growing Jatropha plants for optimizing woody biomass vs. seed production for oil.
Reportedly, Jatropha trees/bushes live up to 50 years or more. Like all perennial plants, Jatropha
displays vigorous growth in youth that tails off gradually towards maturity.
Existing literature indicates that the Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe (ART) has laid down
trials of different provenance of Jatropha curcas. Such research work is vital in determining the
most appropriate provenance and optimum management systems and must be pursued. The current
status of this work may give an important insight into the management and yield of Jatropha in
Zimbabwe. Although non-toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas were sent to Zimbabwe for planting,
(Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997, page 203), their current locations are unclear. It is however possible
that ART included these varieties in their provenance trials. Success of such varieties would make
the seed cake following oil extraction suitable as animal feed without a need for its detoxification.
Although Jatropha is adapted to low fertility sites and alkaline soils, better yields are obtained on
poor quality soils if fertilizers containing small amounts of calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are used.
Mycorrhizal associations have been observed with Jatropha and are known to aid the plant’s growth
under conditions where phosphate is limiting. (Jones Miller, 1992, p.7)
A perceived advantage of Jatropha is its capability to grow on marginal land and its ability to reclaim
problematic lands and restore eroded areas. As it is not a forage crop, it plays an important role in
keeping out the cattle and protects other valuable food crops or cash crops. Jatropha products from
the fruit - the flesh, seed coat and seed cake - are rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK)
and are fertilizers that improve soil. Jatropha hedges and shelterbelts by improving the microclimate
and providing humus and fertilizers to the soil can further enhance the productivity of other
agricultural crops.
However, the above uses can be constrained by the prevalence of pests and diseases that attack
Jatropha. Existing literature indicates that contrary to popular belief that toxicity and insecticidal
properties of J. curcas are a sufficient deterrent for insects that cause economic damage in
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plantations, several groups of insects have overcome this barrier. Particularly noteworthy is the
insect order of Heteroptera that has at least 15 species in Nicaragua that can extract nutrients from
physic nut. The stem borer from the coleopterous family of Cerambycidae that is known as a minor
pest in cassava can kill mature physic nut trees. The relatively few leaf-eating insects present are not
capable of doing much damage once the trees have passed the seedling stage. Biological control can
make use of beneficial arthropods – polyphagous predators and specialized parasitoids – either by
conservation or augmentative releases; the first alternative being the more cost efficient (Grimm
Maes, 1997). In some areas of Zimbabwe the golden flea beetle (Podagrica spp.) can cause harm –
eat young leaves and shoots, particularly on young plants. Jatropha is also host to the fungus
frogeye (Cercospera spp.) common in tobacco. The workshop will examine the issue of pests and
diseases that afflict Jatropha in further detail to ensure that it is safe to be used as a live fence and/or
boundary plantation for various agricultural and cash crops.
In summary, the workshop will examine issues relating to silvicultural production systems and
nutrient requirements of Jatropha curcas can be summarized as below:
z What are the best management techniques (planting practices, spacing, etc.) to promote the
optimum growth of Jatropha to optimize for instance nut production?
z What types of edaphic factors, climatic conditions provide best for Jatropha curcas, both from
the perspective of fruit and biomass? What is the ideal rotation age for nuts and the plant?
What varieties, including non-toxic varieties perform better in southern Africa?
z How can Jatropha curcas plantations by themselves or in agro-forestry combinations (climatic
conditions and management practices) alleviate problems of devegetation and soil erosion and
improve, the environment.
z Available biological control/IPM techniques to control of pests and diseases of Jatropha.
4. Jatropha curcas as an Energy Source
4.1 Oil from Jatropha curcas
Jatropha oil is an important product from the plant for meeting the cooking and lighting needs of the
rural population, boiler fuel for industrial purposes or as a viable substitute for diesel. Substitution of
firewood by plant oil for household cooking in rural areas will not only alleviate the problems of
deforestation but also improve the health of rural women who are subjected to the indoor smoke
pollution from cooking by inefficient fuel and stoves in poorly ventilated space. Jatropha oil
performs very satisfactorily when burnt using a conventional (paraffin) wick after some simple
design changes in the physical configuration of the lamp.
About one-third of the energy in the fruit of Jatropha can be extracted as an oil that has a similar
energy value to diesel fuel. Jatropha oil can be used directly in diesel engines added to diesel fuel as
an extender or trans-esterised to a bio-diesel fuel. In theory, a diesel substitute can be produced from
locally grown Jatropha plants, thus providing these areas with the possibility of becoming self
sufficient in fuel for motive power. There are technical problems to using straight Jatropha oil in
diesel engines that have yet to be completely overcome. Moreover, the cost of producing Jatropha oil
as a diesel substitute is currently higher than the cost of diesel itself that is either subsidized or not
priced at full cost because of misconceived and distorted national energy policies. Nevertheless the
environmental benefits of substituting plant oils for diesel provides for make highly desirable goals.
In 1995, the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) and the German Government’s Technical Assistance
Programme (GTZ) joined together to evaluate the use of plant oil as a renewable fuel source for rural
development in three of the countries -- Brazil, Nepal and Zimbabwe. Since species whose
cultivation would not displace other agricultural crops nor compete for land with greater opportunity
for other applications were being considered, Jatropha curcas emerged as a prime plant for
investigation. This workshop builds on the earlier work of this initiative and examines rural
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development and generation of employment in southern Africa to determine the issues, need and
prospects for further research and development. The workshop will therefore discuss various issues
including:
z Status of ongoing and potential research focusing on the applicability of Jatropha oil to meet
the cooking and lighting needs of rural households and its competitiveness in substituting
diesel in various stationary and mobile applications
z Economic feasibility of Jatropha oil in meeting the energy services needs;
z Available technology and products to meet the above mentioned needs and status of
technological research;
z Role of the private sector and government policies in commercialization of Jatropha curcas
products.
5. Other products of Jatropha curcas
Although ability to control land degradation and oil production are most important environmental
uses of Jatropha, its products provide numerous other benefits that would additionally improve the
living conditions of the rural people and offer greater income opportunities through enhanced rural
employment. For instance, the Jatropha oil can be used for soap production and cosmetics production
in rural areas and all parts of the plant have traditional medicinal uses (both human and veterinary
purposes) that are being scientifically investigated.
The oil is a strong purgative, widely used as an antiseptic for cough, skin diseases, and as a pain
reliever from rheumatism. Jatropha latex can heal wounds and also has anti-microbial properties.
Jatropha oil has been used commercially as a raw material for soap manufacture for decades, both by
large and small industrial producers. Soap from Jatropha oil is being made by small informal
industries in rural areas in both Zimbabwe and Mali. A large manufacturer is interested in using
Jatropha oil to substitute tallow in commercial soap making. The monthly requirement of this
industry alone is 2,000 liters of oil. To supply this demand would require between 18,000-22,000 ha
of Jatropha plantation or 30,000-40,000 km. Of Jatropha hedges or a combination of the two.
Currently tallow fetches higher price than diesel in Zimbabwe. What are the possibilities of using
commercial interest as above to create a capacity for Jatropha oil to address issues of rural energy
equity and employment generation?
The oil cake cannot be directly used as animal feed because of its toxicity, but it is valuable as a
fertilizer having a nitrogen content comparable to chicken manure and castorbean seed cake. The
toxicity of the seeds is because of curcin (a toxic protein) and diterpene esters. Apparently seeds of
Mexican origin have less toxic content and with proper processing they can be eaten. Although there
are laboratory studies indicating detoxification, its feasibility and profitability on a large scale is yet
to be investigated.
The workshop will therefore:
z Examining the potential market for various Jatropha products;
z Assessing the value of these products to the rural population;
z Determining the optimum combination for their use; and
z Proposing a strategy to maximize rural development, energy equity and employment.
6. Costs and Returns
6.1 Costs
An estimate of costs and returns from cultivation of Jatropha plantations/hedgerows’ scenarios is
crucial to analyzing its role in rural development. Costs, as well as returns are involved at different
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stages of the growing and harvesting of Jatropha curcas and the manufacture/use of different plant
products and include both tangible and intangible components of each. For instance an estimate of
the following cost heads would be required for any economic analysis:
6.1.1. Cultivation of Jatropha
a. Planting costs; c. Tending costs,
b. Establishment costs; d. Other costs (specify).
6.1.2. Wood
a. Pruning; f. Pole production;
b. Thinning; g. Other products, specify;
c. Felling; h. Storage costs of products;
d. Firewood production; i. Transport costs;
e. Charcoal production; j. Other costs, specify.
6.1.3. Fruit.
a. Collection; e. Charcoal production from shells;
b. Removal of flesh; f. Storage of products, (oil, cake, shells, flesh, etc.);
c. Removal of shell; g. Transport costs;
d. Extraction of oil, (state method); h. Other costs, (specify).
6.1.4. Capital Labor costs
a. Buildings
b. Machinery and equipment
c. Labor as per respective activity
6.2 Returns
Similarly several types of returns from the growing and use of the products from Jatropha curcas
need to be carefully estimated. The obvious returns pertain to sale or market prices of the different
products. These returns should be recorded and then compared to the cost of the growing plus
management of the plants and the manufacture of the products to arrive at profitability of various
products.
Some of the costs and returns have been indicated in the literature while others may have to be
extrapolated from estimates for similar crops. A discussion document that provides a perspective on
various economic costs and benefits is being prepared and will be ready prior to the meeting. The
discussion in the afternoon of the last day will focus mainly on the socio-economic analysis gleaned
from the workshop and the paper to generate insights for future investigation and research and
development
7. EXPECTED OUTPUT
The expected output will be
z A good understanding of the role of Jatropha curcas in rural development;
z Based on that understanding a broad commitment from the national participants to pursue
Jatropha curcas for rural development; and
z A strategy for field implementation.
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It is hoped that the deliberations will pave the way for a Plan of Action to galvanize the planting and
use of Jatropha curcas by rural communities to improve their well being and livelihood in
association with the private sector and assisted by appropriate government policies.
REFERENCES
Griffiths, G., Leith, A., Green, M. Proteins that play Jekyll and Hyde. New Scientist. 16 July 1987
(59-61)
Grimm, C. and J. M. Maes. 1997. Arthroipod Fauna Associated with Jatropha curcas L. in
Nicaragua: A Synopsis of Species, their Biology and Pest Status in Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997.
Biofuels and Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings from a symposium held in
Managua, Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz, Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz,
Austria.
Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997. Biofuels and Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings
from a symposium held in Managua, Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz,
Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
Heller J. 1996. Physic nut, Jatropha curcas. Promoting the Conservation and Use of Underutilized
and Neglected Crops. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Rome, Italy.
Henning R. 1996. The Jatropha Project in Mali. Rothkreuz 11, D-88138 Weissensberg, Germany.
Jones N, Miller J. H. 1992. Jatropha curcas: A multipurpose Species for Problematic Sites,. The
World Bank, Washington DC USA.
Mauwa B. 1995. Economic Feasibility Study: Plant Oil Fuel Project. 6 Msasa Avenue, Norton,
Zimbabwe.
M. Trabi, G.M Gubitz, W. Steiner, N Foidl, 1997. Toxicity of Jatropha curcas seeds. Biofuels and
Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings from a symposium held in Managua,
Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz, Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz, Austria
Nath, L.K. Dutta, S.K. 1992. Wound healing response of the proteolytic enzyme curcain. Indian
Journal of Pharmacology, 24/2.
Openshaw K. 1986. Concepts and Methods for Collecting and Compiling Statistics on Biomass Used
as Energy. UN Statistical Office, New York. USA.
Western D. J. et al. 1981. A Survey of Natural Wood Supplies in Kenya. Kenya Rangeland
Ecological Monitoring Unit, Box 47146, Nairobi, Kenya.
Zimbabwe Biomass News. 1996. Plant Oil: Zimbabwe’s Sustainable Fuel for the Future. Vol. 1 No.
2. BUN-Zimbabwe. P/Bag 7768, Causeway, Zimbabwe.
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10. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 1 van 11
Generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L. on Kalahari Sand
Jacob Kahl Jepsen1, Reinhard K. Henning 2 and Bongani Nyathi 3
1 Environment Africa, [1]
Victoria Falls Branch, P. O Box CT., 502. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
2 baganí, Rothkreuz 11, D – 88138 Weissensberg, Germany
3 Siphosami Project, P. O Box CT., 205. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
Abstract
In southern Africa, larger areas are under semiarid and arid conditions with a moderate-to-high risk of
drought. The drought resistant plant, Jatropha curcas L., Euphorbiaceae that can grow on lands not
suited for agriculture and both improve the environment and supply raw material for local
communities is attractive for resource-poor farmers. Although Jatropha is commonly planted in
southern Africa, research on cultivation and propagation of Jatropha is limited. This study provides
documentation of the germination of Jatropha seeds planted in nursery in containers composed of
Kalahari Sand. Sampling period was undertaken from late raining season to the beginning of dry
period (February to June 2003). The study shows high viability of the seeds with a mean germination
rate above 93 percent and a completed germination within 9 days. Manure during germination phase
appears to have a negative impact on the germination. However, the results indicate that manure has a
positive impact on the growth rate after germination has been initiated. Likewise, the intensity of
watering and temperature seems to have a fundamental impact on the germination rate. Pre-treatment
of the seeds did not effect the germination positively.
Keywords: Jatropha curcas L., generative propagation, germination, Kalahari Sand, Zimbabwe.
Introduction
Since the oil crisis of the 1970s and recognition of the limitations of world oil resources, vegetable
oils have received special attention (Grimm 1996; Heller 1996; Henning 2000a; Pratt et al. 2002).
Special interest has been shown in the cultivation of the tropical physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.,
Euphorbiaceae) for oil extraction, especially since it is drought resistant and can be cultivated on
marginal land, without competing with food production (Heller 1996; Grimm 1996; RF 1998).
Jatropha was introduced into Zimbabwe in the 1940s. Jatropha curcas L. is a multipurpose large
shrub or small tree of Latin American origin. It is local adjusted throughout arid and semiarid tropical
regions of the world with an average annual rainfall of between 300 and 1000 mm (Palgrave 1983;
Heller 1996; CATIE 2000; Henning 2002). In Zimbabwe, it is now found in many parts of the
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11. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 2 van 11
country, with known concentrations in the north-eastern districts of Mutoko, Wedza, Chiweshe,
Mudzi and Nyanga north. Jatropha grows on well-drained soils with good aeration and is well
adapted to marginal soils with low nutrient content. It occurs mainly at lower altitudes (0-500 m) in
areas with average annual temperatures well above 20ƕ C but can grow at higher altitudes and
tolerates slight frost. It is not sensitive to day length (ICRAF 2003). Locally, it is grown as a boundary
fence or live hedge and can be used to reclaim eroded areas (Heller 1996; Jøker Jepsen 2003).
Jatropha is not browsed. Its leaves and stems are toxic to animals, but after treatment, the seeds or
seed cake can be used as an animal feed (Makkar et al. 2001). Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is
also an excellent source of plant nutrient (RF 1998; Makkar et al. 2001). Traditionally the seeds have
been harvested by women and used for medical treatments and local soap production (Duke 1983;
Henning 2002). Jatropha is fast growing and produce seeds after approximately 1 – 3 years,
depending on rainfall conditions and how the plant is propagated (from cuttings or seeds,
respectively). Jatropha can reach a height up to 8 metre (Heller 1996). Jatropha seeds contain about
35 percent of non-edible oil. 6 kg of dry seeds gives about 1.2 litre of oil. Research made by Henning
2002 indicates that commercial exploitation of the plant is comparable with cotton farming. Examples
from Mali shows that villagers that plant 15 km of Jatropha hedges can harvest about 12 tons of seeds
which may generate 1800 US$ of cash income when the oil is extracted and the products sold (1998
figures). At least 2-3 tons of seeds per hectare can be achieved in semi arid areas (Heller 1996). It is
believed that the total land area in Zimbabwe under Jatropha is somewhat less than 2,000 hectares
(Makkar et al. 2002).
Research on cultivation and propagation of Jatropha curcas L. is limited, especially in southern
Africa (RF 1998). For the quick establishment of hedges and plantations for erosion control, directly
planted cuttings are recommended and for long –lived plantations for vegetable oil production, plants
propagated by seeds are better (Heller 1996). Research shows that plants propagated by cuttings show
a lower longevity and possesses a lower drought and disease resistance than plants propagated by
seeds (Heller 1996). Likewise, pre-cultivation of Jatropha seedlings in poly-ethylene bags has been
shown to accelerate the installation of a plantation by at least 3 months (Henning 2000c).
The main aim of the present study was to document the generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L.
planted on Kalahari Sand during germination phase and contribute to the knowledge of cultivation of
Jatropha curcas L. The following three hypotheses have been tested:
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12. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 3 van 11
Hypothesis 1: Manure has a positive impact on germination of Jatropha. Seeds from Jatropha curcas
L. germinate and grow faster in soil with manure than in soil without manure.
Hypothesis 2: The intensity of watering has a significant impact on the germination and growth of
Jatropha curcas L.
Hypothesis 3: Temperature has a significant impact on the germination and growth of Jatropha
curcas L.
Study area
The study was undertaken in Mkhosana, Victoria Falls situated in northern-western Zimbabwe. The
area is on Kalahari Sand (deep, well-drained, nutrient-poor sands). The area receives a low and erratic
mean rainfall of about 650 mm, falling from November to April. Mean summer and winter
temperatures are 30 o C and 10 o C respectively. Ground frost is sometimes experienced between May
and August. The altitude is 980 metres above sea level.
Methods
The field methodology involved two stages: (i) a general assessment of the viability of the seeds and
the germination rate for generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L.; (ii) a more detailed assessment
of the germination and growth rate of Jatropha curcas L. during the first eight weeks from seed
planting. Both assessments were undertaken in nursery with approximately 50 percent density shade.
Seeds used in both assessments were locally collected in June 2002. Seeds were stored in Hessian
bags and kept under uncontrolled room conditions until required for planting. The seed provenance is
unknown. The average temperature for each month is based on own data. Cow manure has been used
for trials in the detailed assessment.
General assessment
Pre-cultivation of Jatropha curcas L. seeds in containers (milk packets, tin and poly-ethylene bags)
composed of Kalahari Sand. The seeds were sown in the soil at a depth of 3 cm in each container
(method after Henning 2000b). The assessment was undertaken in the period February to April 2003.
Watering in February was made four times per week and two times per week in March and April.
Numbers of days to first and last germination for each trial were observed. Moreover, measurements
of the percentage of germinated seeds were made.
Assessment of the mean days of germination for seeds planted in May and June 2003 were made
afterwards. The total number of germinated seeds during this period was not measured. Watering was
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13. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 4 van 11
made 2 times per week.
Detailed assessment
Six experimental trials were made. Each trial consisted of ten seeds planted with one seed in each
plant container. The seeds were planted in a dept of 3 cm. In two trials (C and D), pre-treatment of the
seeds were carried out in order to enhance rapid and uniform germination by removing the testa by
cracking each seed in the hand, carefully.
The assessment was undertaken in eight weeks during the period May to June 2003. The heights of
the plant were measured once per week. The trails had the following design:
A: Seeds planted in Kalahari Sand without added manure
B: Seeds planted in a mixture (50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure
C: Pre-treated seeds planted in Kalahari Sand without added manure
D: Pre-treated seeds planted in a mixture (50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure
E: Seeds planted in Kalahari Sand without added manure
F: Seeds planted in a mixture (50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure.
Trails A, B, C, and D describe the impact of using manure and pre-treatment of seeds. Trails A to D
were watered three times per week.
Design of trails E and F were similar to trail A, B. Trails E and F describes the impact of lower
watering intensity on the germination rate in soil with and without manure. Trials E, F were watered
once a week.
Results
General assessment
In the period from February to April, out of 4771 planted seeds a total number of 4616 seeds
germinated (96.8 percent survival). The mean germination rate for each month varied from 93.2
percent to 97.6 percent. The highest germination rate among the trials was achieved in April (table 1).
The mean days of germination of Jatropha curcas L. seeds were 6.2 days in February, 7.6 days in
March, 7.8 days in April (table 1). The mean day of germination for the seeds during all three months
was 7.2 days. Shortest germination period occurred in February after four days and latest germination
occurred in April after 10 days.
Germinations trials made in February had a faster germination rate of 1.4-1.6 days compared to the
trials established in March and April. However, the mean germination for trials made in February was
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14. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 5 van 11
2.2 - 4.4 percent lower, compared to the trials made the two following months. The average monthly
temperature during the three months varied 1.7 ƕC from 22.8 ƕC in February and March to 21.1 ƕC in
April.
Table 1 Analysis of mean days of germination and mean germination rate across month and water intervals.
Month Mean days S.D*) Mean No. of No. of Treatment Average
of germination planted seeds Water temperature
germination rate (%) seeds germinated interval (ƕC)
(µ)
4 times a
February 6.2 1.8 93.2 441 411 week 22.8
2 times a
March 7.6 1.5 95.4 930 887 week 22.8
2 times a
April 7.8 1.6 97.6 3400 3318 week 21.1
Total 4771 4616
*)
S.D Standard Deviation
The mean days of germination for seeds planted in May and June were 7.9 days and 11.8 days,
respectively. The mean day of germination for the seeds during all five months was 8.3 days. The
average monthly temperature during the whole sampling period varied 7.8 ƕC from 22.8 ƕC in
February and March to 15 ƕC in June. Most significant difference in temperature was observed from
April to May (3.3 ƕC) (fig. 1). The most significant difference in mean day of germination was seen
from May to June (3.9 days).
Day /Celsious
25
20
15
10
5
0
February March April May June
Fig. 1 Mean monthly germination rate for Jatropha curcas L.
(Լ) and monthly average temperature (ɨ).
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15. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 6 van 11
Detailed assessment
A significant difference in germination rate was identified (fig. 2). Out of six experimental trails,
germination occurred in five trials. Highest percentage germination was obtained in trail A on sand
without added manure and watered three times a week (70 percent). Lowest percentage germination
was measured in trail D for pre-treated seeds planted in a mixture of sand and manure and watered
three times per week (20 percent). No germination was identified in trail E on sand without added
manure and watered once a week.
Percentage
germination
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A B C D E F
Trail
Fig. 2 The germination of Jatropha curcas L. in different trails
Figure 3 illustrate the mean shoot length of seedling during the first eight weeks. During the first three
weeks seeds in trial B and C had a significant faster mean growth rate compared to the three other
trials. Seeds in trial B and C had after three weeks achieved a high of app. 8 cm compared to 1.8 cm
for trial A, D and F. Seeds in trail A, D and F had started shooting after two weeks compared to one
week for seeds in trial B and C.
Between week three and four, the highest increase in growth was obtained by seeds in trail A, D and
F. During one week the seeds grew from 1.8 cm to 7-9.5 cm. The growth rate for seeds in trial B and
C were decreasing during this week.
From week four to eight, seeds in all the trials had a decreasing growth rate. During the period from
week four to five seeds from trial F changed its position from being the trial with the second lowest
length of seedling to be the trial with the longest length of seedling. After eight weeks highest mean
length of seedling was above 14 cm (trail F) and lowest length of seedling was about 8 cm (trial D).
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16. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 7 van 11
Grow th rate (cm)
16,0
14,0
12,0
10,0
8,0
A
6,0
B
4,0 C
D
2,0 E
F
0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weeks
Fig.3. Mean shooting length of seedlings. Seeds in trials A to D have been watered three times per week,
while seeds in trials E and F have been watered once per week. A): Seeds planted in Kalahari Sand
without added manure B): Seeds planted in a mixture (50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure C): Pre-
treated seeds planted in Kalahari Sand without added manure D): Pre-treated seeds planted in a mixture
(50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure E): Seeds planted in Kalahari Sand without added manure F): Seeds
planted in a mixture (50-50) of Kalahari Sand and manure.
Discussion
Comparative research on the influence of different propagation methods on viability and vegetative
development was conducted by Kobilke (1989) in Cape Verde and by Heller (1992) in Senegal. The
results achieved in Cape Verde and Senegal show that both vegetative cultivation methods and
methods of generative precultivation were more successful than direct seeding.
Factors responsible for the survival of direct seeding (seeding time, seeding depth) have been studied
by Heller (1992). The result shows low viability for direct seeding (19.8 %) whereas the same
provenance seeded in plastic bags showed a higher germination (68 %). The viability depended not
only on sowing time and depth of sowing, but also on the trial year.
In our general assessment, Short-term storage under uncontrolled room conditions did not appear to
affect the germination of Jatropha curcas L. as this showed high viability ( 93 percent).
The seed material used in both assessments was collected from the same area in June 2002. The
Jatropha seeds are oily and do not store for long. Research on viability of Jatropha seeds shows a
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17. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 8 van 11
decrease due to term of storage. Seeds older than 15 months show viability below 50 % (Kobilke
1989). In our general assessment the viability for seeds planted in May and June was not measured. It
can therefore not be excluded that more than ten months storage under uncontrolled room condition
could have had a negative affect on the germination of the seeds.
In our assessment no statement can be made on depth of sowing or the occurrence of water stress
shortly after seeding, since soil moisture was not determined. However, in the general assessment; it
seems that watering intensity and temperature have had an effect on the mean days of germination
and germination rate of the seeds planted in February. Compared to the two other months (March and
April) we achieved the fastest mean days of germination in February under highest mean temperature
and watering intensity. The higher moisture conditions have had a positive effect on the mean days of
germination but have also resulted in a lower germination rate due to mouldy seeds.
Assessments made in February to April are comparable with trials made in May and June. The
watering intensity was two times per week and the seeds were planted in Kalahari Sand only.
However, the germination period was longer in May and June, especially. It seems that the
temperature and the fact that the general assessment was made during the end of the raining season
have had an impact on the mean days of germination of the seeds. The watering intensity and
humidity have been higher during the raining season than in the dry period (May and June).
In the literature the germination is said to take 10 days under good moisture conditions (Heller 1996;
Henning 2000a; ICRAF 2003). In our research we have achieved germination after four days
depending on which month the seeds were planted. The best time for planting Jatropha curcas L. on
Kalahari Sand, in the period late raining season to start of dry season, will be during the raining
season. Experience in Zimbabwe has shown that high rainfall in relatively cooler parts of the country
does not encourage the same vigorous growth. However, in the low-weld areas, Jatropha grows well.
Jatropha does not thrive in wetland conditions (RF 1998).
In the detailed assessment the general germination rate was low (0 - 70 %), which is likely caused by
lower temperature during the period of assessment and dry season. From the trials, manure seems to
have an impact on the germination of Jatropha. Trials in figure 2 shows highest germination (70
percent) for seeds planted in soil without added manure when watered three times per week and no
germination at all when watered once per week. However, germination was identified in all trials
which included manure. Even in trial F which was watered once per week 40 percent germination was
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18. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 9 van 11
achieved. In comparison no germination was achieved in trial E for seeds planted on Kalahari sand
and watered once per week. From our research adding of manure seems to keep the soil moist and
have a positive impact on the germination rate of the specie. Henning 2000b recommends germination
of Jatropha in small plastic bags filled with soil with a high concentration of organic material
(compost). However, from our research the optimum germination condition for Jatropha planted on
Kalahari sand was achieved in pure sand under high temperature conditions 20 ƕC in combination
with high watering intensity (three times weekly).
Our observation of the growth rate indicate that Jatropha curcas L. is a fast starter and do not need
manure to germinate. When germination is initiated the shooting of the seedling is fast and will within
two weeks grow app. 10 cm. The impact of adding manure to the soil is not significant. From our
observation during the eight week assessment of the growth rate adding of manure seems to have a
positive impact on the growth rate. From our data the two trials with the highest growth after eight
weeks (app. 14 cm) has both been planted in a mixed soil with manure. Highest growth rate for all
trials was achieve in trial F with manure and watered once a week.
From our research adding of manure after germination in order to increase the growth rate seems to be
a possibility.
Freshly harvested seeds show dormancy and after-ripening is necessary before the seeds can
germinate (Jøker and Jepsen 2003). Kobilke (1989) tried to break induced dormancy. Removal of the
testa proved more successful than presoaking alone. However, Pre-treatment of the orthodox seeds
did in our research not seem to make an improved impact on the germination and growth rate. The
trials with pre-treated seeds appear to have the lowest growth rate.
Conclusion
This study has provided data on the germination of the specie Jatropha curcas L. planted on Kalahari
Sand. The study shows high viability of the seeds with a mean germination rate above 93 % and a
completed germination within 9 days.
Use of manure in generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L. on Kalahari Sand seems to reduce the
need for watering. Adding of manure has a negative impact on the germination but a positive impact
on the growth rate after germination has been initiated.
The intensity of watering and temperature seem to have a fundamental impact on the germination
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19. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 10 van 11
rate. An increase in the mean days of germination is observed due to temperatures below 15ƕ C.
Moderate watering intensity increases the germination rate.
Pre-treatment of the seeds before planting did not effect the germination positively.
References
CATIE (2000). Manejo de semillas de 100 especies forestales de América Latino. Vol 1. Centro
Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza. Costa Rica.
Duke, J. A. (1983). Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University. Center for New Crops and Plants
Products. Unpublished
Grimm, C. (1996). The Jatropha project in Nicaragua. Bagani Tulu (Mali) 1: 10-14.
Heller, J. (1992). Untersuchungen über genotypische Eigenschaften und Vermehrungs- und
Anbauverfahren bei der Purgiernuȕ (Jatropha curcas L.) [Studies on genotypiccharacteristics and
propagation and cultivation methods for physic nuts (Jatropha curcas L.)] Dr. Kovac, Hamburg.
Heller, J. (1996). Physic nut. Jatropha curcas L. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized
and neglected crops. 1. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, Gatersleben,
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.
Henning, R. (2000a). The Jatropha Booklet. A Guide to the Jatropha System and its Dissemination in
Zambia. GTZ-ASIP Support Project Southern Province. Bagani GbR.
Henning, R. (2000b). The Jatropha Manual.A guide to the Integrated Exploitation of the Jatropha
Plant in Zambia.
Henning, R. (2000c). Use of Jatropha curcas oil as raw material and fuel: an integrated approach to
create income and supply energy for rural development. Experiences of the Jatropha Project in Mali,
West Africa. Presentation at the International Meeting “Renewable Energy – A Vehicle for Local
Development - II”. Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Denmark, August 2000.
Henning, R. (2002). Using the Indigenous Knowledge of Jatropha – The use of Jatropha curcas oil as
raw material and fuel. IK Notes. No.47. August. World Bank
ICRAF, (2003). Jatropha curcas. Agroforestree Database.
Http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/SpeciesInfo.cfm?SpID=1013
Jøker, D and J. Jepsen (2003). Jatropha curcas L. Seed leaflet No. 83 August 2003. Danida Forest
Seed Centre. Denmark.
Kobilke, H. (1989). Untersuchungen zur Bestandesbegründung von Purgiernuß (Jatropha curcas L.).
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20. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 11 van 11
Diploma thesis. University Hohenheim, Stuttgart
Makkar, H.P.S, Becker, K and B. Schmook (2001). Edible provenances of Jatropha curcas from
Quintna Roo state of Mexico and effect of roasting on antinutrient and toxic factors in seeds. Institute
for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics (480), University of Hohenheim, D-70593
Stuttgart, Germany.
Palgrave, K.C (1983). Trees of Southern Africa. Capetown: Struik publishers (Pty) Ltd.
Pratt, J.H.; Henry, E.M.T.; Mbeza, H.F.; Mlaka, E. and L.B. Satali (2002). Malawi Agroforestry
Extension Project Marketing Enterprise Program Main Report. Publication No. 47. Malawi
Agroforestry. 2002
RF (1998). The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and Environment Protection – An
Exploration. Concept paper. Rockerfeller Foundation and Scientific Industrial Research
Development Centre, Harare, Zimbabwe 1998.
[1]
Correspondence to: Jacob Kahl Jepsen, Environment Africa. P O Box CT 502. Victoria Falls. Zimbabwe
E-mail: eafrica.vicfalls@utande.co.zw
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21. Jatropha curcas in Zimbabwe pagina 1 van 2
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Entrepreneur, Promoter P.O.Box BW 1140, Borrowdale
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buyer of Jatropha seeds Tel/Fax: ++263 9 42195
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Harare, Zimbabwe
Environment Africa
Box CT502,
Plantation of Jatropha and
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e-mail: popa@mango.zw
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soap (Flora Joy)
James Murray
P.O. Box UA 561
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Harare, Zimbabwe
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22. Jatropha curcas in Zimbabwe pagina 2 van 2
Stueckler, Reinhard
7DEXGLULD 7UDLQLQJ Box 231, Mutoko, Zimbabwe
Jatropha promotion in
Tel: ++263-72-2455, Fax: ++263-
HQWUH Matoko district
91334543
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23. The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and Environment Protectio... pagina 1 van 7
The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and
Environment Protection – An Exploration
A workshop sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation and Scientific Industrial
Research Development Centre, Zimbabwe in Harare from 13-15 May 1998
CONCEPT PAPER: FINAL DRAFT
7R GRZQORDG WKH SDSHU
1. Introduction:
The oil plant Jatropha curcas (L) (Jatropha) or physic nut is a multipurpose and drought resistant
large shrub or small tree. Although a native of tropical America, it now thrives throughout Africa
and Asia. It grows in a number of climatic zones in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world and
can be grown in areas of low rainfall and problematical sites. Jatropha is easy to establish, grows
relatively quickly and is hardy. Being drought tolerant, it can be used to reclaim eroded areas, be
grown as a boundary fence or live hedge in the arid/semi-arid areas.
The wood and fruit of Jatropha can be used for numerous purposes including fuel. The seeds of
Jatropha contains (. 50% by weight) viscous oil, which can be used for manufacture of candles and
soap, in the cosmetics industry, for cooking and lighting by itself or as a diesel/paraffin substitute or
extender. This latter use has important implications for meeting the demand for rural energy services
and also exploring practical substitutes for fossil fuels to counter greenhouse gas accumulation in the
atmosphere.
These characteristics along with its versatility make it of vital importance to developing countries
subjected to decreasing tree cover and soil fertility because of increasing population and
development pressures. Nearly half the world’s poorest people live on marginal lands with the
number expected to increase from 500 million to 800 million by 2020. These areas are by definition
isolated and fragile, with soils susceptible to erosion and subjected to environmental stresses of
deforestation, prolonged droughts, and decreasing soil and ground water. Although southern Africa
is rich in biodiversity and production potential, large areas are under semiarid and arid conditions
with a moderate-to-high risk of drought. Plants species like Jatropha that can grow on lands not
usually attractive for agriculture and supply raw material for industry, fuels for basic energy services
and improve environment are therefore an obvious choice that needs to be assessed carefully and
comprehensively.
Jatropha is not browsed, for its leaves and stems are toxic to animals, but after treatment, the seeds or
seed cake could be used as an animal feed. Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is an excellent
source of plant nutrients. Various parts of the plant are of medicinal value, its bark contains tannin,
the flowers attract bees and thus the plant has honey production potential. Like all trees, Jatropha
removes carbon from the atmosphere, stores it in the woody tissues and assists in the build up of soil
carbon.
Despite these characteristics, the full potential of Jatropha is far from being realized. There are
several reasons – technical, economic, cultural and institutional -- that need further discussion and
examination. The growing and management of Jatropha, either on private public or community lands
is poorly documented and there is little field experience that is being shared, especially in southern
Africa. Currently, growers are unable to achieve the optimum economic benefits from the plant,
especially for all its various uses. The markets for the different products have not been properly
explored or quantified, nor have the costs or returns (both tangible and intangible) to supply raw
materials or products to these markets. Consequently, the actual or potential growers including those
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24. The Potential of Jatropha curcas in Rural Development and Environment Protectio... pagina 2 van 7
in the subsistence sector do not have an adequate information base about the potential and economics
of this plant to make decisions relating to their livelihood, not to mention its commercial
exploitation.
It is therefore timely to examine the potential role that Jatropha can play in meeting some of the
needs for energy services for rural communities and also creating avenues for greater employment. It
is important that the discussion on the exploration of potential of Jatropha should include the
multiple stakeholders involved in research, utilization and exploration of this oil plant including
government officials, NGOs, private sector, etc. Most importantly representatives of local
communities must be included to examine any existing or latent demand for the plant to determine
the framework for any future initiative based on the outcome of the discussions on the potential of
Jatropha curcas. Hence this workshop.
2. Objectives of the Workshop:
The workshop will explore the potential of Jatropha curcas in rural development and influencing
livelihoods at the household level in an environmentally friendly manner. Some of the issues to be
examined therefore include:
z Use of Jatropha in meeting domestic needs of energy services including cooking and lighting;
z Potential of Jatropha as an additional source of household income and employment through
markets for fuel, fertilizer, animal feed medicine, and industrial raw material for soap,
cosmetics, etc.
z Potential of Jatropha in creating environmental benefits – protection of crops or pasture lands,
or as a hedge for erosion control, or as a windbreak.
3. Production of Jatropha curcas
Considerable plantation of Jatropha had been undertaken in Zimbabwe by a number of active
organizations involved in its promotion including the Agricultural Research Trust (ART), the
Biomass Users Network (BUN), the Forestry Commission (FC) and the Plant Oil Producers
Association (POPA). An estimated four million Jatropha plants have been planted in Zimbabwe by
the end of 1997 amounting to nearly 2,000 hectares of plantations.
Although it is known that Jatropha can be established from seed, seedlings and vegetatively from
cuttings, very little written information is available in Africa about the silviculture and management
of Jatropha. Plants from seeds develop a typical taproot and four lateral roots, and cuttings do not
develop a taproot (Heller J. 1996). Jatropha is a fast growing plant and can achieve a height of three
meters within three years under a variety of growing conditions. Seed production from plants
propagated from seeds can be expected within 3-4 years. Use of branch cutting for propagation is
easy and results in rapid growth; the bush can be expected to start bearing fruit within one year of
planting. (Jones Miller, 1992, p. 8)
Whilst Jatropha grows well in low rainfall conditions (requiring only about 200 mm of rain to
survive) it can also respond to higher rainfall (up to 1200 mm) particularly in hot climatic conditions.
In Nicaragua for example, Jatropha grows very well in the country’s hot climate with rainfall of 1
000mm or more. Experience in Zimbabwe has shown that high rainfall in the relatively cooler parts
of the country does not encourage the same vigorous growth. However, in the low-veld areas, such
as in the mid-Save region, Jatropha grows well, although comparative yields have not been
established. Jatropha does not thrive in wetland conditions. The plant is undemanding in soil type
and does not require tillage. In southern Africa, the best time for planting is in the warm season to
avoid the cold season since the plants are sensitive to ground frost that may occur in the cold season.
(BUN newsletter 1996).
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The recommended spacing for hedgerows or soil conservation is 15cm - 25cm x 15cm-25cm in one
or two rows respectively and 2m x 1.5m to 3m x 3mm for plantations (Jones N, Miller J.H. 1992,
p.7). Thus there will be between 4,000 to 6,700 plants per km. for a single hedgerow and double that
when two rows are planted. The number of trees per hectare at planting will range from 1,600 to
2,200. Wider spacing is reported to give larger yields of fruit, 794 kg/ha and 318 g/shrub (Heller J.
1996).
In equatorial regions where moisture is not a limiting factor (i.e. continuously wet tropics or under
irrigation), Jatropha can bloom and produce fruit all year. A drier climate has been found to improve
the oil yields of the seeds, though to withstand times of extreme drought, Jatropha plant will shed
leaves in an attempt to conserve moisture which results in somewhat decreased growth. (Jones and
Miller, 1992, p.7)
Seed production ranges from about 0.4 tons per hectare per year to over 12 t. /ha. /a., after five years
of growth (Jones N, Miller J.H. 1992). Although not clearly specified, this range in production may
be attributable to low and high rainfall areas. In Mali, where Jatropha is planted in hedges, the
reported productivity is from 0.8 kg. – 1.0 kg. of seed per meter of live fence (Henning R. 1996).
This is equivalent to between 2.5 t. /ha. /a. and 3.5 t. /ha. /a.. The practices being undertaken by the
Jatropha growers currently need to be scientifically documented along with growth and production
figures. The growth and yield of wood may be in proportion to nut yield and could be improved
through effective management practices.
Woody biomass growth, unlike seed production, is not recorded in any articles to hand. Although it
needs to be tested, it is possible that nearly one-third of net primary production (NPP) in Jatropha
curcas may be in the form of woody biomass. However, it needs to be tested if there is tradeoff
between growing Jatropha plants for optimizing woody biomass vs. seed production for oil.
Reportedly, Jatropha trees/bushes live up to 50 years or more. Like all perennial plants, Jatropha
displays vigorous growth in youth that tails off gradually towards maturity.
Existing literature indicates that the Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe (ART) has laid down
trials of different provenance of Jatropha curcas. Such research work is vital in determining the
most appropriate provenance and optimum management systems and must be pursued. The current
status of this work may give an important insight into the management and yield of Jatropha in
Zimbabwe. Although non-toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas were sent to Zimbabwe for planting,
(Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997, page 203), their current locations are unclear. It is however possible
that ART included these varieties in their provenance trials. Success of such varieties would make
the seed cake following oil extraction suitable as animal feed without a need for its detoxification.
Although Jatropha is adapted to low fertility sites and alkaline soils, better yields are obtained on
poor quality soils if fertilizers containing small amounts of calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are used.
Mycorrhizal associations have been observed with Jatropha and are known to aid the plant’s growth
under conditions where phosphate is limiting. (Jones Miller, 1992, p.7)
A perceived advantage of Jatropha is its capability to grow on marginal land and its ability to reclaim
problematic lands and restore eroded areas. As it is not a forage crop, it plays an important role in
keeping out the cattle and protects other valuable food crops or cash crops. Jatropha products from
the fruit - the flesh, seed coat and seed cake - are rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK)
and are fertilizers that improve soil. Jatropha hedges and shelterbelts by improving the microclimate
and providing humus and fertilizers to the soil can further enhance the productivity of other
agricultural crops.
However, the above uses can be constrained by the prevalence of pests and diseases that attack
Jatropha. Existing literature indicates that contrary to popular belief that toxicity and insecticidal
properties of J. curcas are a sufficient deterrent for insects that cause economic damage in
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plantations, several groups of insects have overcome this barrier. Particularly noteworthy is the
insect order of Heteroptera that has at least 15 species in Nicaragua that can extract nutrients from
physic nut. The stem borer from the coleopterous family of Cerambycidae that is known as a minor
pest in cassava can kill mature physic nut trees. The relatively few leaf-eating insects present are not
capable of doing much damage once the trees have passed the seedling stage. Biological control can
make use of beneficial arthropods – polyphagous predators and specialized parasitoids – either by
conservation or augmentative releases; the first alternative being the more cost efficient (Grimm
Maes, 1997). In some areas of Zimbabwe the golden flea beetle (Podagrica spp.) can cause harm –
eat young leaves and shoots, particularly on young plants. Jatropha is also host to the fungus
frogeye (Cercospera spp.) common in tobacco. The workshop will examine the issue of pests and
diseases that afflict Jatropha in further detail to ensure that it is safe to be used as a live fence and/or
boundary plantation for various agricultural and cash crops.
In summary, the workshop will examine issues relating to silvicultural production systems and
nutrient requirements of Jatropha curcas can be summarized as below:
z What are the best management techniques (planting practices, spacing, etc.) to promote the
optimum growth of Jatropha to optimize for instance nut production?
z What types of edaphic factors, climatic conditions provide best for Jatropha curcas, both from
the perspective of fruit and biomass? What is the ideal rotation age for nuts and the plant?
What varieties, including non-toxic varieties perform better in southern Africa?
z How can Jatropha curcas plantations by themselves or in agro-forestry combinations (climatic
conditions and management practices) alleviate problems of devegetation and soil erosion and
improve, the environment.
z Available biological control/IPM techniques to control of pests and diseases of Jatropha.
4. Jatropha curcas as an Energy Source
4.1 Oil from Jatropha curcas
Jatropha oil is an important product from the plant for meeting the cooking and lighting needs of the
rural population, boiler fuel for industrial purposes or as a viable substitute for diesel. Substitution of
firewood by plant oil for household cooking in rural areas will not only alleviate the problems of
deforestation but also improve the health of rural women who are subjected to the indoor smoke
pollution from cooking by inefficient fuel and stoves in poorly ventilated space. Jatropha oil
performs very satisfactorily when burnt using a conventional (paraffin) wick after some simple
design changes in the physical configuration of the lamp.
About one-third of the energy in the fruit of Jatropha can be extracted as an oil that has a similar
energy value to diesel fuel. Jatropha oil can be used directly in diesel engines added to diesel fuel as
an extender or trans-esterised to a bio-diesel fuel. In theory, a diesel substitute can be produced from
locally grown Jatropha plants, thus providing these areas with the possibility of becoming self
sufficient in fuel for motive power. There are technical problems to using straight Jatropha oil in
diesel engines that have yet to be completely overcome. Moreover, the cost of producing Jatropha oil
as a diesel substitute is currently higher than the cost of diesel itself that is either subsidized or not
priced at full cost because of misconceived and distorted national energy policies. Nevertheless the
environmental benefits of substituting plant oils for diesel provides for make highly desirable goals.
In 1995, the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) and the German Government’s Technical Assistance
Programme (GTZ) joined together to evaluate the use of plant oil as a renewable fuel source for rural
development in three of the countries -- Brazil, Nepal and Zimbabwe. Since species whose
cultivation would not displace other agricultural crops nor compete for land with greater opportunity
for other applications were being considered, Jatropha curcas emerged as a prime plant for
investigation. This workshop builds on the earlier work of this initiative and examines rural
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development and generation of employment in southern Africa to determine the issues, need and
prospects for further research and development. The workshop will therefore discuss various issues
including:
z Status of ongoing and potential research focusing on the applicability of Jatropha oil to meet
the cooking and lighting needs of rural households and its competitiveness in substituting
diesel in various stationary and mobile applications
z Economic feasibility of Jatropha oil in meeting the energy services needs;
z Available technology and products to meet the above mentioned needs and status of
technological research;
z Role of the private sector and government policies in commercialization of Jatropha curcas
products.
5. Other products of Jatropha curcas
Although ability to control land degradation and oil production are most important environmental
uses of Jatropha, its products provide numerous other benefits that would additionally improve the
living conditions of the rural people and offer greater income opportunities through enhanced rural
employment. For instance, the Jatropha oil can be used for soap production and cosmetics production
in rural areas and all parts of the plant have traditional medicinal uses (both human and veterinary
purposes) that are being scientifically investigated.
The oil is a strong purgative, widely used as an antiseptic for cough, skin diseases, and as a pain
reliever from rheumatism. Jatropha latex can heal wounds and also has anti-microbial properties.
Jatropha oil has been used commercially as a raw material for soap manufacture for decades, both by
large and small industrial producers. Soap from Jatropha oil is being made by small informal
industries in rural areas in both Zimbabwe and Mali. A large manufacturer is interested in using
Jatropha oil to substitute tallow in commercial soap making. The monthly requirement of this
industry alone is 2,000 liters of oil. To supply this demand would require between 18,000-22,000 ha
of Jatropha plantation or 30,000-40,000 km. Of Jatropha hedges or a combination of the two.
Currently tallow fetches higher price than diesel in Zimbabwe. What are the possibilities of using
commercial interest as above to create a capacity for Jatropha oil to address issues of rural energy
equity and employment generation?
The oil cake cannot be directly used as animal feed because of its toxicity, but it is valuable as a
fertilizer having a nitrogen content comparable to chicken manure and castorbean seed cake. The
toxicity of the seeds is because of curcin (a toxic protein) and diterpene esters. Apparently seeds of
Mexican origin have less toxic content and with proper processing they can be eaten. Although there
are laboratory studies indicating detoxification, its feasibility and profitability on a large scale is yet
to be investigated.
The workshop will therefore:
z Examining the potential market for various Jatropha products;
z Assessing the value of these products to the rural population;
z Determining the optimum combination for their use; and
z Proposing a strategy to maximize rural development, energy equity and employment.
6. Costs and Returns
6.1 Costs
An estimate of costs and returns from cultivation of Jatropha plantations/hedgerows’ scenarios is
crucial to analyzing its role in rural development. Costs, as well as returns are involved at different
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stages of the growing and harvesting of Jatropha curcas and the manufacture/use of different plant
products and include both tangible and intangible components of each. For instance an estimate of
the following cost heads would be required for any economic analysis:
6.1.1. Cultivation of Jatropha
a. Planting costs; c. Tending costs,
b. Establishment costs; d. Other costs (specify).
6.1.2. Wood
a. Pruning; f. Pole production;
b. Thinning; g. Other products, specify;
c. Felling; h. Storage costs of products;
d. Firewood production; i. Transport costs;
e. Charcoal production; j. Other costs, specify.
6.1.3. Fruit.
a. Collection; e. Charcoal production from shells;
b. Removal of flesh; f. Storage of products, (oil, cake, shells, flesh, etc.);
c. Removal of shell; g. Transport costs;
d. Extraction of oil, (state method); h. Other costs, (specify).
6.1.4. Capital Labor costs
a. Buildings
b. Machinery and equipment
c. Labor as per respective activity
6.2 Returns
Similarly several types of returns from the growing and use of the products from Jatropha curcas
need to be carefully estimated. The obvious returns pertain to sale or market prices of the different
products. These returns should be recorded and then compared to the cost of the growing plus
management of the plants and the manufacture of the products to arrive at profitability of various
products.
Some of the costs and returns have been indicated in the literature while others may have to be
extrapolated from estimates for similar crops. A discussion document that provides a perspective on
various economic costs and benefits is being prepared and will be ready prior to the meeting. The
discussion in the afternoon of the last day will focus mainly on the socio-economic analysis gleaned
from the workshop and the paper to generate insights for future investigation and research and
development
7. EXPECTED OUTPUT
The expected output will be
z A good understanding of the role of Jatropha curcas in rural development;
z Based on that understanding a broad commitment from the national participants to pursue
Jatropha curcas for rural development; and
z A strategy for field implementation.
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It is hoped that the deliberations will pave the way for a Plan of Action to galvanize the planting and
use of Jatropha curcas by rural communities to improve their well being and livelihood in
association with the private sector and assisted by appropriate government policies.
REFERENCES
Griffiths, G., Leith, A., Green, M. Proteins that play Jekyll and Hyde. New Scientist. 16 July 1987
(59-61)
Grimm, C. and J. M. Maes. 1997. Arthroipod Fauna Associated with Jatropha curcas L. in
Nicaragua: A Synopsis of Species, their Biology and Pest Status in Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997.
Biofuels and Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings from a symposium held in
Managua, Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz, Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz,
Austria.
Gubitz G. M. et al eds. 1997. Biofuels and Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings
from a symposium held in Managua, Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz,
Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
Heller J. 1996. Physic nut, Jatropha curcas. Promoting the Conservation and Use of Underutilized
and Neglected Crops. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Rome, Italy.
Henning R. 1996. The Jatropha Project in Mali. Rothkreuz 11, D-88138 Weissensberg, Germany.
Jones N, Miller J. H. 1992. Jatropha curcas: A multipurpose Species for Problematic Sites,. The
World Bank, Washington DC USA.
Mauwa B. 1995. Economic Feasibility Study: Plant Oil Fuel Project. 6 Msasa Avenue, Norton,
Zimbabwe.
M. Trabi, G.M Gubitz, W. Steiner, N Foidl, 1997. Toxicity of Jatropha curcas seeds. Biofuels and
Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Proceedings from a symposium held in Managua,
Nicaragua, February 1997. Technical University of Graz, Uhlandgasse 8, A-8010 Graz, Austria
Nath, L.K. Dutta, S.K. 1992. Wound healing response of the proteolytic enzyme curcain. Indian
Journal of Pharmacology, 24/2.
Openshaw K. 1986. Concepts and Methods for Collecting and Compiling Statistics on Biomass Used
as Energy. UN Statistical Office, New York. USA.
Western D. J. et al. 1981. A Survey of Natural Wood Supplies in Kenya. Kenya Rangeland
Ecological Monitoring Unit, Box 47146, Nairobi, Kenya.
Zimbabwe Biomass News. 1996. Plant Oil: Zimbabwe’s Sustainable Fuel for the Future. Vol. 1 No.
2. BUN-Zimbabwe. P/Bag 7768, Causeway, Zimbabwe.
This website is maintained by
last modification 24.10.01
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30. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 1 van 11
Generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L. on Kalahari Sand
Jacob Kahl Jepsen1, Reinhard K. Henning 2 and Bongani Nyathi 3
1 Environment Africa, [1]
Victoria Falls Branch, P. O Box CT., 502. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
2 baganí, Rothkreuz 11, D – 88138 Weissensberg, Germany
3 Siphosami Project, P. O Box CT., 205. Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
Abstract
In southern Africa, larger areas are under semiarid and arid conditions with a moderate-to-high risk of
drought. The drought resistant plant, Jatropha curcas L., Euphorbiaceae that can grow on lands not
suited for agriculture and both improve the environment and supply raw material for local
communities is attractive for resource-poor farmers. Although Jatropha is commonly planted in
southern Africa, research on cultivation and propagation of Jatropha is limited. This study provides
documentation of the germination of Jatropha seeds planted in nursery in containers composed of
Kalahari Sand. Sampling period was undertaken from late raining season to the beginning of dry
period (February to June 2003). The study shows high viability of the seeds with a mean germination
rate above 93 percent and a completed germination within 9 days. Manure during germination phase
appears to have a negative impact on the germination. However, the results indicate that manure has a
positive impact on the growth rate after germination has been initiated. Likewise, the intensity of
watering and temperature seems to have a fundamental impact on the germination rate. Pre-treatment
of the seeds did not effect the germination positively.
Keywords: Jatropha curcas L., generative propagation, germination, Kalahari Sand, Zimbabwe.
Introduction
Since the oil crisis of the 1970s and recognition of the limitations of world oil resources, vegetable
oils have received special attention (Grimm 1996; Heller 1996; Henning 2000a; Pratt et al. 2002).
Special interest has been shown in the cultivation of the tropical physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.,
Euphorbiaceae) for oil extraction, especially since it is drought resistant and can be cultivated on
marginal land, without competing with food production (Heller 1996; Grimm 1996; RF 1998).
Jatropha was introduced into Zimbabwe in the 1940s. Jatropha curcas L. is a multipurpose large
shrub or small tree of Latin American origin. It is local adjusted throughout arid and semiarid tropical
regions of the world with an average annual rainfall of between 300 and 1000 mm (Palgrave 1983;
Heller 1996; CATIE 2000; Henning 2002). In Zimbabwe, it is now found in many parts of the
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31. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 2 van 11
country, with known concentrations in the north-eastern districts of Mutoko, Wedza, Chiweshe,
Mudzi and Nyanga north. Jatropha grows on well-drained soils with good aeration and is well
adapted to marginal soils with low nutrient content. It occurs mainly at lower altitudes (0-500 m) in
areas with average annual temperatures well above 20ƕ C but can grow at higher altitudes and
tolerates slight frost. It is not sensitive to day length (ICRAF 2003). Locally, it is grown as a boundary
fence or live hedge and can be used to reclaim eroded areas (Heller 1996; Jøker Jepsen 2003).
Jatropha is not browsed. Its leaves and stems are toxic to animals, but after treatment, the seeds or
seed cake can be used as an animal feed (Makkar et al. 2001). Being rich in nitrogen, the seed cake is
also an excellent source of plant nutrient (RF 1998; Makkar et al. 2001). Traditionally the seeds have
been harvested by women and used for medical treatments and local soap production (Duke 1983;
Henning 2002). Jatropha is fast growing and produce seeds after approximately 1 – 3 years,
depending on rainfall conditions and how the plant is propagated (from cuttings or seeds,
respectively). Jatropha can reach a height up to 8 metre (Heller 1996). Jatropha seeds contain about
35 percent of non-edible oil. 6 kg of dry seeds gives about 1.2 litre of oil. Research made by Henning
2002 indicates that commercial exploitation of the plant is comparable with cotton farming. Examples
from Mali shows that villagers that plant 15 km of Jatropha hedges can harvest about 12 tons of seeds
which may generate 1800 US$ of cash income when the oil is extracted and the products sold (1998
figures). At least 2-3 tons of seeds per hectare can be achieved in semi arid areas (Heller 1996). It is
believed that the total land area in Zimbabwe under Jatropha is somewhat less than 2,000 hectares
(Makkar et al. 2002).
Research on cultivation and propagation of Jatropha curcas L. is limited, especially in southern
Africa (RF 1998). For the quick establishment of hedges and plantations for erosion control, directly
planted cuttings are recommended and for long –lived plantations for vegetable oil production, plants
propagated by seeds are better (Heller 1996). Research shows that plants propagated by cuttings show
a lower longevity and possesses a lower drought and disease resistance than plants propagated by
seeds (Heller 1996). Likewise, pre-cultivation of Jatropha seedlings in poly-ethylene bags has been
shown to accelerate the installation of a plantation by at least 3 months (Henning 2000c).
The main aim of the present study was to document the generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L.
planted on Kalahari Sand during germination phase and contribute to the knowledge of cultivation of
Jatropha curcas L. The following three hypotheses have been tested:
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32. The generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L pagina 3 van 11
Hypothesis 1: Manure has a positive impact on germination of Jatropha. Seeds from Jatropha curcas
L. germinate and grow faster in soil with manure than in soil without manure.
Hypothesis 2: The intensity of watering has a significant impact on the germination and growth of
Jatropha curcas L.
Hypothesis 3: Temperature has a significant impact on the germination and growth of Jatropha
curcas L.
Study area
The study was undertaken in Mkhosana, Victoria Falls situated in northern-western Zimbabwe. The
area is on Kalahari Sand (deep, well-drained, nutrient-poor sands). The area receives a low and erratic
mean rainfall of about 650 mm, falling from November to April. Mean summer and winter
temperatures are 30 o C and 10 o C respectively. Ground frost is sometimes experienced between May
and August. The altitude is 980 metres above sea level.
Methods
The field methodology involved two stages: (i) a general assessment of the viability of the seeds and
the germination rate for generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L.; (ii) a more detailed assessment
of the germination and growth rate of Jatropha curcas L. during the first eight weeks from seed
planting. Both assessments were undertaken in nursery with approximately 50 percent density shade.
Seeds used in both assessments were locally collected in June 2002. Seeds were stored in Hessian
bags and kept under uncontrolled room conditions until required for planting. The seed provenance is
unknown. The average temperature for each month is based on own data. Cow manure has been used
for trials in the detailed assessment.
General assessment
Pre-cultivation of Jatropha curcas L. seeds in containers (milk packets, tin and poly-ethylene bags)
composed of Kalahari Sand. The seeds were sown in the soil at a depth of 3 cm in each container
(method after Henning 2000b). The assessment was undertaken in the period February to April 2003.
Watering in February was made four times per week and two times per week in March and April.
Numbers of days to first and last germination for each trial were observed. Moreover, measurements
of the percentage of germinated seeds were made.
Assessment of the mean days of germination for seeds planted in May and June 2003 were made
afterwards. The total number of germinated seeds during this period was not measured. Watering was
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