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Economic growth, poverty reduction and
      managing climate change
                     Nicholas Stern

    IG Patel Professor of Economics & Government and,
         Chair of the Grantham Research Institute


    London School of Economics and Political Science
                      For IMF/WRI
                      2 April 2013
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         2
Six years since the Stern Review
•   Stern Review underestimated the risks.

•   Emissions are at the top end or above projections (e.g. IPCC AR4, SRES A1)
    (Peters, et al. 2012).

•   Some effects coming through more quickly or severely than anticipated: extent of
    Arctic Sea ice decline; ocean acidification and functioning of ocean systems.

•   Interactions of climate, ecosystems, planetary boundaries (Rockström, et al. 2009)
    mostly omitted from models and look more worrying.

•   Some feedbacks and tipping points such as thawing permafrost omitted from models
    look more serious.

•   All this underlines further the potential for radical transformation in how and where
    people can live: migration and conflict omitted from models.

•   And see further below on problems with modelling.

•   Technical progress faster than anticipated then; political will more problematic.


                                                                                            3
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         4
Where we are going (I)
•   Greenhouse gas concentrations or stocks have increased from around 285ppm
    CO2e in the 1800s to around 445ppm today. BAU likely to take us over 750ppm by
    the end of the century or thereabouts (adding at a rate of over 2.5ppm per year).

•   Could result in an eventual temperature increase (around 50-50 chance) of more
    than 5ºC compared with the pre-industrial era. The planet has not seen such
    temperatures for around 30 million years. Have not seen 3°C for 3 million years:
    450ppm gives around a 20% chance of greater than 3°C.

•   High probability of extreme weather events.

•   Global sea-level peak 22m higher than present for the Pliocene interval (2.5-5.5
    million years ago), which was 2-3°C warmer than today (Miller, et al. 2012).

•   Deserts, coastlines, rivers, rainfall patterns, the reasons we live where we do, would
    be redrawn.

•   Potential cause of migration of hundreds of millions, perhaps billions, of people
    around the world: likelihood of severe and sustained conflict (note that those such as
    CIA who worry about security also worry about climate change).


                                                                                             5
Where we are going (II)
                                           Prospects for world emissions 2020 and 2030
                                           based on current ambitions, targets and plans
                            70


                            60
Emissions (billion tCO2e)




                            50
                                                                                                       39-40
                            40
                                                                                 34-35
                                                             30
                            30


                            20

                                                             18                  16-19
                            10
                                                                                                       11-14

                            0
                             2005                           2010                  2020                  2030

                                       Annex-I (inlc. US)          Non Annex-I           World    2ºC path

                                 Source: UNEP, 2012, The Emissions Gap Report, Appendix; own calculations.



                                                                                                               6
Why action is so slow
•   Main obstacle to action is lack of political will. Due to:

    – A failure to understand the magnitude of the risks and the dangers of delay
      (ratchet effect of emission flows to concentrations, physical capital/infrastructure
      lock-in);
    – A failure to understand the attractiveness of the alternative paths and that these
      can combine growth, poverty reduction and climate responsibility; and
    – A failure to understand what others are doing and a presumption it is very little.


•   Global economic challenges/crises have diverted attention:

    – Major macroeconomic structural imbalances; debts and deficits in rich countries;
        unfinished financial sector reform; fragile growth in many countries; radical
        changes in international division of labour and skills.

•   We can do better on all these challenges, including climate change, if we tackle
    them together in a coherent and integrated way. But creation of political will
    requires deeper understanding of above issues.


                                                                                             7
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         8
Describing the risks: the scientific models (I)
•   Structure and calibration of scientific and economic models have broadly
    underestimated risks.

•   Disconnect between planetary history of change at high temperatures and
    what modelling predicts.

•   The scientific models mostly leave out dangerous feedbacks/tipping points.
    At 4-5-6°C (or below) the probability of passing some tipping points, such as
    melting of permafrost, may be high. If modellers cannot capture or model
    effects “sufficiently clearly” they are omitted. But best guess surely not zero.

•   The models do not generally represent the lasting/dynamic impacts of
    extreme weather events.

    –   Pakistan flooding 2007, “Development in large areas set back 20 years”.
        If extreme events of similar magnitude happen more frequently, say
        every 10 years, development will go backwards.



                                                                                       9
Describing the risks: the scientific models (II)

•   The models are not built in a way that help us describe the impacts on
    people:

     –   At sea level (SL) 2m higher a few hundred million might have to
         move (Nicholls, et al., 2011);

     –   At 3-4-5°C may see radical monsoon changes in India and
         substantial changes in flows of major rivers off the Himalayas (a
         billion plus people depend on them). Desertification of southern
         Europe?

•   Models should focus on understanding probabilities of events with
    severe consequences for people rather than on those bits which (on
    narrow assumptions) seem more tractable, such as change in
    agricultural output, relative to those effects that can be modelled more
    easily. Need new generation of models.


                                                                               10
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         11
Economic modelling and discounting (I)

•   Severe limitations in the economic modelling structures.

•   Output generally modelled assuming underlying exogenous exponential
    growth and minor percentage GDP damages (around 5-20%) as
    multiplicative factors on production functions from temperature
    increases of 4-5-6°C and higher.

•   “Current economic modelling of climate damages is not remotely
    consistent with the recent research on impacts” (Ackerman and
    Stanton, 2011).

•   DICE, a generic economic model, has 50% GDP loss for temperature
    increase of 19°C (Ackerman, et al. 2009). Population would likely have
    vanished long before that.

•   Using models of this kind, the US Interagency Working Group in 2009
    estimated social cost of carbon at around a modest $20/tCO2.


                                                                             12
Economic modelling and discounting (II)
•   An exogenous growth rate (say around 1-2%) overwhelms the damages
    in these models (e.g. over 100 years gives a factor of 2.5 to 7); even
    50% damage would claim that we are still substantially better off.
    Possible scale of climate change could deeply damage growth
    possibilities and rates.

•   In standard models the damage function impacts output only in the
    current period (other than through reducing saving). This is a key
    modelling error. Impacts such as loss of capital, labour and land will
    impact future periods.

•   Absence in the models of migration, conflict, loss of life.

•   Models flawed in both calibration and structure. (1) Some problems not
    too hard to fix within models. (2) But also a new generation of economic
    models is needed. (3) And broader perspectives for more profound
    effects such as conflict.

                                                                               13
Economic modelling and discounting (III)
•   Modelling failures compounded by ignoring key principles of discounting.

•   Discount factor (discount rate is its rate of fall) depends on future development of the
    economy and on good chosen for accounting.

•   Failure to recognise that future generations may be poorer than us; magnitude of
    possible effects could put growth into reverse and lead to large-scale loss of life. Thus
    discount rates could become negative.

•   Pure-time discounting is discrimination by date of birth; a key asymmetry. Many or
    most structured ethical positions would indicate symmetry.

•   Failure to understand that cannot ‘read-off’ the relevant discount rates from market
    interest rates or rates of return (different decision-makers and decisions, market
    failures….).

•   In most models discount rates should be riskless because risk/uncertainty handled
    directly.

•   Overall failure to understand discounting and modern public economics. (See Stern
    2009, Ely Lecture, AER 2008).


                                                                                               14
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         15
The new energy-industrial revolution (I)
•   Transition to low-carbon growth / new industrial revolution gives more than a
    fundamental reduction in climate risks.

•   Likely to be a dynamic period full of innovation, investment, creativity,
    opportunity and growth, with large and growing markets for the pioneers
    (see, for example, Perez 2002 and 2010).

•   With strong technical progress and breakthroughs, the growth effects may be
    similar, or larger, to the railways, or electricity in earlier eras, inter alia,
    because more widely spread, more rapid, and complementary with other
    technical changes and urbanisation.

•   When achieved, low-carbon growth will be more energy-efficient, more
    energy secure, more community based and inclusive, safer, quieter, cleaner
    and more bio-diverse.

•   Potential to achieve growth, overcome poverty and be climate responsible.

•   An attempt at high-carbon growth likely to self-destruct.


                                                                                 16
Waves of innovation
                                                                                                                      Cleantech
                                                                                                                      & Biotech (2009-)



                                                                                                                       6TH WAVE
                                                                                                        Information
                                                                                                        & Telecom
                                                                                                        (1971-)


                                                                                  Oil, Automobiles
                                                                                  & Mass Production
INNOVATION




                                                                                  (1910-1975)
                                                                                                          5TH WAVE
                                                                Steel, Electricity
                                                                & Heavy Engineering
                                                                (1875-1920)                  4TH WAVE


                                       Steam & Railways
                                       (1830-1870)                     3RD WAVE




              Industrial                    2ND WAVE
              (1770-1830)


               1ST WAVE




                    1800                   1850                 1900                  1950                 2000



             Source: DONG Energy (2009); diagram based on Perez (2002) drawing on
             report by Merrill Lynch (2008) (schematic not precise quantitative vertical axis).                                     17
Technical progress - solar
•   Solar PV module prices were $3-3.5/watt in 2005 and around $2/watt in 2010
    (EIA, 2012). They have fallen around 50% since 2010: currently well below $1/watt
    (BNEF, 2012). Prices have come down by a factor of 4 over the last 7-8 years.

                             Price for immediate delivery of silicon modules,
                                 November 2010 – September 2012 ($/W)

               2.5


               2.0
    $US/watt




               1.5


               1.0


               0.5


               0.0




                            Monocrystalline Silicon Module    Multicrystalline Silicon Module




                 Source: BNEF (2012)
                                                                                                18
Investment for the transition
• Expenditure involved in making the transition to a low-carbon economy should be analysed as
  an investment, rather than only a net cost (many co-benefits outside climate change). Most is
  not a direct cost to the public purse, largely private (Romani, et al., 2011).

• This is about both the dynamics of innovation and learning and the creation of benefits beyond
  narrow GDP; not simply static shift to higher input-output/coefficients and lower growth.

• Stern Review (2007) - incremental global investment for transition in the range of 1-2% of GDP
  per year. Lower figure was for target of stabilising below 550ppm CO2e. Other estimates in
  similar range, e.g.: den Elzen et al. (2007); Knopf, et al. (2009); Edenhofer et al. (2009); WB
  (2010).

• IEA (2011) - 450ppm requires incremental world investments in energy sector around US$ 1
  trillion p.a. to 2030, around 2% of current world GDP.

• Uncertainty around these estimates, but could be lower than 2% of GDP with energy and
  resource efficiency gains (see work on efficiency by McKinsey 2011 and also WEF 2012), and
  technological change. Other co-benefits are also potentially substantial and could deliver
  material benefits in the short run. Higher, if policy bad.

• Reduce emissions from stopping deforestation. Negative emissions from reforestation and
  restoration of degraded forests, or biofuel with CCS.


                                                                                           19
Hydrocarbons: rising prices/stranded assets? (I)

 •   Hydrocarbon prices rising (see next slide).

 •   And most are “unburnable uncaptured”. Only around 30 per cent of
     global proved fossil fuel reserves can be burnt “uncaptured”
     between 2012 and 2050 for a 2ºC path (IEA WEO, 2012).

 •   Therefore, either the development and deployment of CCS on scale
     must be very rapid or 70 per cent of these resources must stay in
     the ground or the 2ºC target will be greatly exceeded. Fundamental
     contradiction between current valuation methods and declared world
     climate policy.

 •   Risks of stranded assets a major issue.




                                                                          •20
Hydrocarbons: rising prices/stranded assets? (I)
                                       Oil and Natural gas prices
           10                                                                                                              140
                       History               2012                  Projections
                                                                                                                           120
            8
                                                                                                                           100

            6
 $/MmBtu




                                                                                                                           80




                                                                                                                                 $/barrel
                                                                                                                           60
            4

                                                                                                                           40
            2
                                                                                                                           20


            0                                                                                                              0
                2000                           2012                                                                 2035

                           US Natural gas at Henry Hub ($/MmBtu)          Crude Oil, OK WTI Spot Price ($/barrel)




Source: EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2012, Reference Case.


                                                                                                                                        •21
Hydrocarbons - Gas
•   Potential role for hydrocarbons in the transition, e.g. gas as a “bridge
    technology”.

•   Global trends appear to suggest a shift over the coming decades to gas;
    emissions benefits widely stated in the region of 50% of coal (divided gas
    escapes limited).

•   Much technical progress in hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling and “fracking”
    has enabled “unconventional” gas resources to be exploited economically
    (tight gas, shale gas and coal bed methane). US wholesale gas prices
    have fallen sharply; will rise with greater world market integration.

•   If a role for gas as a “bridge technology”, how to substitute ‘gas for coal’
    and not ‘gas for renewables’? Renewable investment has continued to rise
    over recent years, but could be threatened as shale boom changes
    perceptions. Need clarity now on future regulation/carbon prices.

•   The development of Carbon Capture and Storage is crucial if we are to
    continue to use hydrocarbons in the future. Slow progress. Cross-country
    collaboration can accelerate technological development?


                                                                                   •22
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         23
Policy for the low-carbon transition – medium-term structures
•   Good policy needed to drive this industrial revolution – different from past revolutions.

•   Six key market failures. Different failures point to different instruments, but the
    collection is mutually reinforcing:
    – Greenhouse gases: carbon taxes / cap-and-trade / regulation;

    – R,D&D (research, development and deployment): tax breaks, feed-in tariffs (FIT) for deployment,
      publicly funded research;

    – Imperfection in risk/capital markets: risk sharing/reduction through guarantees, equity, feed-in
      tariffs, floors on carbon prices. FIT straddles first 3 imperfections. Green/infrastructure
      development bank: reduces policy risk, provides leverage, longer-term horizon, power of example;

    – Networks: electricity grids, public transport, broadband, recycling, community-based insulation
      schemes. Government frameworks needed;

    – Information: for consumers labelling and information requirements on cars, domestic appliances,
      products more generally; awareness of options. Similar issues for producers.

    – Co-benefits: valuing ecosystems and biodiversity, valuing energy security, regulation of dirty and
      more dangerous technologies.

•   Should not see these in terms only of static re-allocations or corrections: policy concerns
    the dynamics of change and learning. Fostering a transition – experience of EBRD.


                                                                                                        24
Development, mitigation and adaptation are intertwined

•   For example:

     – Food: low-till techniques for rice save inputs, including water and energy, and
       provide more resilience, reduce methane, reduce soil disturbance and emissions.

     – Energy: low-carbon energy, e.g. decentralised solar, reduces emissions, brings
       electricity and clean cooking facilities to poor people (around 1.3 billion people in
       the world without access to electricity and 2.7 billion without access to clean
       cooking facilities (WEO, 2011)), is less vulnerable than grids, and is more
       inclusive, e.g. enables women and children to study at night, reduces time spent
       collecting and transporting biomass, and enables women to open businesses
       such as solar charging stations. Less susceptible to corruption than grids.

     – Public transport: reduces congestion and pollution, increases the mobility and
       opportunities of people, if well designed is more resilient.


•   Analytical and practical mistake to separate out the three issues into silos
    or, to portray as in conflict or tension.



                                                                                               25
Policy for the low-carbon transition – shorter-term issues


• Now is the time to invest for (low-carbon) growth: in many developed
  countries private sector sitting on record levels of savings and long-term
  real interest rates low.

• Good (clear and credible) public policy to correct market failures can
  restore confidence and leverage large private investment opportunities
  with little threat of crowding out.

• Will require government instruments that help manage risk. Mostly
  private investment and finance.

• Government is key source of policy risk. Policy uncertainty risks
  damaging short-run investment and hindering long-run structural change.
  Greater clarity can unlock private investment for a sound path for
  medium-term growth (Zenghelis, 2011 and LSE Growth Commission
  2013).

                                                                               26
Seven Part Structure
• Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review

• Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow

• Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models

• Part 4: Economic models and discounting

• Part 5: Sustainable growth and development

• Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition

• Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others


                                                         27
Collaboration and understanding others

•   It is possible to move forward without full agreement, and we are
    seeing examples including China, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico, etc.

•   Equitable access to sustainable development (language of UNFCCC
    Cancun 2010) is an attractive way of framing the issues that may help
    bridge the gap between developed and developing countries and
    accelerate action.

     – Countries come together in a dynamic partnership where the choice of their
       sustainable development path is determined by the people of developing
       countries and that path is supported by rich countries (providing strong
       example and access to know-how, technology and finance).

     – Contrast with “burden-sharing”, “others should pay incremental cost”, zero-
       sum games.




                                                                                     28
Leadership from international institutions

•   Collectively, their mandates are poverty reduction, growth, development,
    sustainability and stability.

•   They can integrate across the key problems of our decade: economic crises,
    climate crises, medium-term growth, changing international division of labour.

•   They can provide finance with a longer-term perspective for longer-term
    issues.

•   They can bring nations together in an equitable way, in part by showing what
    others are doing, around what must be an international and collaborative
    endeavour.




                                                                                     29
Conclusion
•   Six years since the Stern Review: Risks bigger, technological change promising.

•   Where are we going and why action is slow: To a dangerous place; need
    political will.

•   Describing the risks - the scientific and economic models: Both scientific and
    economic models badly under-estimate potential impacts; new generation of
    models needed.

•   Sustainable growth and development: Transition to low-carbon economy likely to
    be full of innovation and benefits beyond reduction of climate risks.

•   Policy for the low-carbon transition: Policy to overcome six major market failures
    is key to fostering the recovery of economies and the dynamic transition to a
    low-carbon growth and economy.

•   Collaboration and understanding others: International institutions are key to
    addressing economic and climate crises together and building international
    cooperation.

                                                                                         30
References
•   Ackerman, F. & Stanton, E. A., 2011, Climate risks and carbon prices: Revising the
    social cost of carbon, Economics Discussion Papers 2011-40, Kiel Institute for the
    World Economy.

•   Ackerman, F., Stanton, E. and Bueno, R., 2009, Fat Tails, Exponents, and Extreme
    Uncertainty: Simulating Catastrophe in DICE, Stockholm Environment Institute,
    Working paper.

•   Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), 2012. BNEF Spot Prices for Each
    Component. London: BNEF.

•   den Elzen, M., Meinshausen, M. and D. van Vuuren, 2007, Multi-gas envelopes to
    meet greenhouse gas concentration targets: Costs versus certainty of limiting
    temperature increase, Global Environmental Change, v.17, p.260-280.

•   DONG Energy, 2009, Rethinking energy. Ascent Business Leadership Forum 2009,
    Presentation, 22 October.

•   Edenhofer, O., Carraro, C., Hourcade, J.-C.,et al., 2009, The Economics of
    Decarbonization. Report of the RECIPE project. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact
    Research, Potsdam.


                                                                                          31
References
•   EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2012.

•   IEA, 2011, World Energy Outlook 2011, IEA/OECD Paris.

•   IEA, 2012, World Energy Outlook 2012, IEA/OECD Paris.

•   Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon (2010). “Social Cost of Carbon
    for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866.” In Final Rule Technical
    Support Document (TSD): Energy Efficiency Program for Commercial and Industrial
    Equipment: Small Electric Motors. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, p.
    Appendix 15A.

•   Knopf, B., and Edenhofer, O., with Barker, T., Bauer, N., and L. Baumstark at al.,
    2009, The economics of low stabilisation: implications for technological change and
    policy. Chapter 11 in Hulme, M. and Neufeldt, H. (eds). Making climate change work
    for us - ADAM synthesis book. Cambridge University Press.

•   LSE Growth Commission, 2013, Investing in for Prosperity: Skills, Infrastructure and
    Innovation, January.




                                                                                           32
References
•   McKinsey, 2011, Resource Revolution: Meeting the world’s energy, materials, food,
    and water needs, McKinsey Global Institute, McKinsey Sustainability & Resource
    Productivity Practice, November.

•   Merrill Lynch, 2008, The sixth revolution: the coming of Cleantech clean technology,
    Industry Overview. Online at: www.responsible-
    investor.com/images/uploads/resources/research/21228316156Merril_Lynch-
    _the_coming_of_clean_tech.pdf (accessed 22 February 2012).

•   Miller, et al., 2012, High tide of the warm Pliocene: Implications of global sea level for
    Antarctic deglaciation, Geologic Society of America 119, p, 1209-1214.

•   Nicholls, R. J., Marinova, N., Lowe, J., et al., 2011, Sea-level rise and its possible
    impacts given a “beyond 4°C world” in the twenty-first century, Philosophical
    transactions, Series A, Mathematical, physical and engineering sciences, 369(1934),
    161-81.

•   Perez, C., 2002, Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital: The Dynamics of
    Bubbles and Golden Ages, Edward Elgar, UK.




                                                                                                 33
References
•   Perez, C., 2010, Full Globalisation as a Positive-Sum Game: Green Demand as an
    Answer to the Financial Crisis,
    www2.lse.ac.uk/publicEvents/events/2010/20100518t1830vOT.aspx

•   Peters, G.P., Andrew, R.M., Boden, T., Canadell, J.G., et al., 2012, The challenge to
    keep global warming below 2 °C, Nature Climate Change, December.

•   Rockström, J., Steffen, J., Noone, K., et al., 2009, Planetary boundaries: exploring the
    safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society 14 (2): 32.

•   Romani, M., Stern, N. and D. Zenghelis, 2011, The basic economics of low-carbon
    growth in the UK, Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the
    Environment, Policy Brief.

•   Stern, N., 2007, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge
    UK: Cambridge University Press.

•   Stern, N., 2008, Economics of climate change, Richard Ely Lecture, American
    Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 98 (2), 1-37.




                                                                                               34
References
•   Stern, N., 2009, A Blueprint for a safer planet: how to manage climate change and
    create a new era of progress and prosperity, Bodley Head (“A Global Deal”, in USA)

•   UNEP, 2012, Bridging the Emissions Gap, Appendix 1, United Nations Environment
    Programme (UNEP).

•   WB, 2010, World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change, in
    collaboration with McKinsey.

•   WEF, 2012, More with Less: Scaling Sustainable Consumption and Resource
    Efficiency, in collaboration with Accenture, January.

•   Zenghelis, D., 2011, A Macroeconomic Plan for a Green Recovery, Grantham
    Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and Centre for Climate
    Change Economics and Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science,
    Policy Paper, January.




                                                                                         35

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Economic growth, poverty reduction and managing climate change

  • 1. Economic growth, poverty reduction and managing climate change Nicholas Stern IG Patel Professor of Economics & Government and, Chair of the Grantham Research Institute London School of Economics and Political Science For IMF/WRI 2 April 2013
  • 2. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 2
  • 3. Six years since the Stern Review • Stern Review underestimated the risks. • Emissions are at the top end or above projections (e.g. IPCC AR4, SRES A1) (Peters, et al. 2012). • Some effects coming through more quickly or severely than anticipated: extent of Arctic Sea ice decline; ocean acidification and functioning of ocean systems. • Interactions of climate, ecosystems, planetary boundaries (Rockström, et al. 2009) mostly omitted from models and look more worrying. • Some feedbacks and tipping points such as thawing permafrost omitted from models look more serious. • All this underlines further the potential for radical transformation in how and where people can live: migration and conflict omitted from models. • And see further below on problems with modelling. • Technical progress faster than anticipated then; political will more problematic. 3
  • 4. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 4
  • 5. Where we are going (I) • Greenhouse gas concentrations or stocks have increased from around 285ppm CO2e in the 1800s to around 445ppm today. BAU likely to take us over 750ppm by the end of the century or thereabouts (adding at a rate of over 2.5ppm per year). • Could result in an eventual temperature increase (around 50-50 chance) of more than 5ºC compared with the pre-industrial era. The planet has not seen such temperatures for around 30 million years. Have not seen 3°C for 3 million years: 450ppm gives around a 20% chance of greater than 3°C. • High probability of extreme weather events. • Global sea-level peak 22m higher than present for the Pliocene interval (2.5-5.5 million years ago), which was 2-3°C warmer than today (Miller, et al. 2012). • Deserts, coastlines, rivers, rainfall patterns, the reasons we live where we do, would be redrawn. • Potential cause of migration of hundreds of millions, perhaps billions, of people around the world: likelihood of severe and sustained conflict (note that those such as CIA who worry about security also worry about climate change). 5
  • 6. Where we are going (II) Prospects for world emissions 2020 and 2030 based on current ambitions, targets and plans 70 60 Emissions (billion tCO2e) 50 39-40 40 34-35 30 30 20 18 16-19 10 11-14 0 2005 2010 2020 2030 Annex-I (inlc. US) Non Annex-I World 2ºC path Source: UNEP, 2012, The Emissions Gap Report, Appendix; own calculations. 6
  • 7. Why action is so slow • Main obstacle to action is lack of political will. Due to: – A failure to understand the magnitude of the risks and the dangers of delay (ratchet effect of emission flows to concentrations, physical capital/infrastructure lock-in); – A failure to understand the attractiveness of the alternative paths and that these can combine growth, poverty reduction and climate responsibility; and – A failure to understand what others are doing and a presumption it is very little. • Global economic challenges/crises have diverted attention: – Major macroeconomic structural imbalances; debts and deficits in rich countries; unfinished financial sector reform; fragile growth in many countries; radical changes in international division of labour and skills. • We can do better on all these challenges, including climate change, if we tackle them together in a coherent and integrated way. But creation of political will requires deeper understanding of above issues. 7
  • 8. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 8
  • 9. Describing the risks: the scientific models (I) • Structure and calibration of scientific and economic models have broadly underestimated risks. • Disconnect between planetary history of change at high temperatures and what modelling predicts. • The scientific models mostly leave out dangerous feedbacks/tipping points. At 4-5-6°C (or below) the probability of passing some tipping points, such as melting of permafrost, may be high. If modellers cannot capture or model effects “sufficiently clearly” they are omitted. But best guess surely not zero. • The models do not generally represent the lasting/dynamic impacts of extreme weather events. – Pakistan flooding 2007, “Development in large areas set back 20 years”. If extreme events of similar magnitude happen more frequently, say every 10 years, development will go backwards. 9
  • 10. Describing the risks: the scientific models (II) • The models are not built in a way that help us describe the impacts on people: – At sea level (SL) 2m higher a few hundred million might have to move (Nicholls, et al., 2011); – At 3-4-5°C may see radical monsoon changes in India and substantial changes in flows of major rivers off the Himalayas (a billion plus people depend on them). Desertification of southern Europe? • Models should focus on understanding probabilities of events with severe consequences for people rather than on those bits which (on narrow assumptions) seem more tractable, such as change in agricultural output, relative to those effects that can be modelled more easily. Need new generation of models. 10
  • 11. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 11
  • 12. Economic modelling and discounting (I) • Severe limitations in the economic modelling structures. • Output generally modelled assuming underlying exogenous exponential growth and minor percentage GDP damages (around 5-20%) as multiplicative factors on production functions from temperature increases of 4-5-6°C and higher. • “Current economic modelling of climate damages is not remotely consistent with the recent research on impacts” (Ackerman and Stanton, 2011). • DICE, a generic economic model, has 50% GDP loss for temperature increase of 19°C (Ackerman, et al. 2009). Population would likely have vanished long before that. • Using models of this kind, the US Interagency Working Group in 2009 estimated social cost of carbon at around a modest $20/tCO2. 12
  • 13. Economic modelling and discounting (II) • An exogenous growth rate (say around 1-2%) overwhelms the damages in these models (e.g. over 100 years gives a factor of 2.5 to 7); even 50% damage would claim that we are still substantially better off. Possible scale of climate change could deeply damage growth possibilities and rates. • In standard models the damage function impacts output only in the current period (other than through reducing saving). This is a key modelling error. Impacts such as loss of capital, labour and land will impact future periods. • Absence in the models of migration, conflict, loss of life. • Models flawed in both calibration and structure. (1) Some problems not too hard to fix within models. (2) But also a new generation of economic models is needed. (3) And broader perspectives for more profound effects such as conflict. 13
  • 14. Economic modelling and discounting (III) • Modelling failures compounded by ignoring key principles of discounting. • Discount factor (discount rate is its rate of fall) depends on future development of the economy and on good chosen for accounting. • Failure to recognise that future generations may be poorer than us; magnitude of possible effects could put growth into reverse and lead to large-scale loss of life. Thus discount rates could become negative. • Pure-time discounting is discrimination by date of birth; a key asymmetry. Many or most structured ethical positions would indicate symmetry. • Failure to understand that cannot ‘read-off’ the relevant discount rates from market interest rates or rates of return (different decision-makers and decisions, market failures….). • In most models discount rates should be riskless because risk/uncertainty handled directly. • Overall failure to understand discounting and modern public economics. (See Stern 2009, Ely Lecture, AER 2008). 14
  • 15. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 15
  • 16. The new energy-industrial revolution (I) • Transition to low-carbon growth / new industrial revolution gives more than a fundamental reduction in climate risks. • Likely to be a dynamic period full of innovation, investment, creativity, opportunity and growth, with large and growing markets for the pioneers (see, for example, Perez 2002 and 2010). • With strong technical progress and breakthroughs, the growth effects may be similar, or larger, to the railways, or electricity in earlier eras, inter alia, because more widely spread, more rapid, and complementary with other technical changes and urbanisation. • When achieved, low-carbon growth will be more energy-efficient, more energy secure, more community based and inclusive, safer, quieter, cleaner and more bio-diverse. • Potential to achieve growth, overcome poverty and be climate responsible. • An attempt at high-carbon growth likely to self-destruct. 16
  • 17. Waves of innovation Cleantech & Biotech (2009-) 6TH WAVE Information & Telecom (1971-) Oil, Automobiles & Mass Production INNOVATION (1910-1975) 5TH WAVE Steel, Electricity & Heavy Engineering (1875-1920) 4TH WAVE Steam & Railways (1830-1870) 3RD WAVE Industrial 2ND WAVE (1770-1830) 1ST WAVE 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 Source: DONG Energy (2009); diagram based on Perez (2002) drawing on report by Merrill Lynch (2008) (schematic not precise quantitative vertical axis). 17
  • 18. Technical progress - solar • Solar PV module prices were $3-3.5/watt in 2005 and around $2/watt in 2010 (EIA, 2012). They have fallen around 50% since 2010: currently well below $1/watt (BNEF, 2012). Prices have come down by a factor of 4 over the last 7-8 years. Price for immediate delivery of silicon modules, November 2010 – September 2012 ($/W) 2.5 2.0 $US/watt 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Monocrystalline Silicon Module Multicrystalline Silicon Module Source: BNEF (2012) 18
  • 19. Investment for the transition • Expenditure involved in making the transition to a low-carbon economy should be analysed as an investment, rather than only a net cost (many co-benefits outside climate change). Most is not a direct cost to the public purse, largely private (Romani, et al., 2011). • This is about both the dynamics of innovation and learning and the creation of benefits beyond narrow GDP; not simply static shift to higher input-output/coefficients and lower growth. • Stern Review (2007) - incremental global investment for transition in the range of 1-2% of GDP per year. Lower figure was for target of stabilising below 550ppm CO2e. Other estimates in similar range, e.g.: den Elzen et al. (2007); Knopf, et al. (2009); Edenhofer et al. (2009); WB (2010). • IEA (2011) - 450ppm requires incremental world investments in energy sector around US$ 1 trillion p.a. to 2030, around 2% of current world GDP. • Uncertainty around these estimates, but could be lower than 2% of GDP with energy and resource efficiency gains (see work on efficiency by McKinsey 2011 and also WEF 2012), and technological change. Other co-benefits are also potentially substantial and could deliver material benefits in the short run. Higher, if policy bad. • Reduce emissions from stopping deforestation. Negative emissions from reforestation and restoration of degraded forests, or biofuel with CCS. 19
  • 20. Hydrocarbons: rising prices/stranded assets? (I) • Hydrocarbon prices rising (see next slide). • And most are “unburnable uncaptured”. Only around 30 per cent of global proved fossil fuel reserves can be burnt “uncaptured” between 2012 and 2050 for a 2ºC path (IEA WEO, 2012). • Therefore, either the development and deployment of CCS on scale must be very rapid or 70 per cent of these resources must stay in the ground or the 2ºC target will be greatly exceeded. Fundamental contradiction between current valuation methods and declared world climate policy. • Risks of stranded assets a major issue. •20
  • 21. Hydrocarbons: rising prices/stranded assets? (I) Oil and Natural gas prices 10 140 History 2012 Projections 120 8 100 6 $/MmBtu 80 $/barrel 60 4 40 2 20 0 0 2000 2012 2035 US Natural gas at Henry Hub ($/MmBtu) Crude Oil, OK WTI Spot Price ($/barrel) Source: EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2012, Reference Case. •21
  • 22. Hydrocarbons - Gas • Potential role for hydrocarbons in the transition, e.g. gas as a “bridge technology”. • Global trends appear to suggest a shift over the coming decades to gas; emissions benefits widely stated in the region of 50% of coal (divided gas escapes limited). • Much technical progress in hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling and “fracking” has enabled “unconventional” gas resources to be exploited economically (tight gas, shale gas and coal bed methane). US wholesale gas prices have fallen sharply; will rise with greater world market integration. • If a role for gas as a “bridge technology”, how to substitute ‘gas for coal’ and not ‘gas for renewables’? Renewable investment has continued to rise over recent years, but could be threatened as shale boom changes perceptions. Need clarity now on future regulation/carbon prices. • The development of Carbon Capture and Storage is crucial if we are to continue to use hydrocarbons in the future. Slow progress. Cross-country collaboration can accelerate technological development? •22
  • 23. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 23
  • 24. Policy for the low-carbon transition – medium-term structures • Good policy needed to drive this industrial revolution – different from past revolutions. • Six key market failures. Different failures point to different instruments, but the collection is mutually reinforcing: – Greenhouse gases: carbon taxes / cap-and-trade / regulation; – R,D&D (research, development and deployment): tax breaks, feed-in tariffs (FIT) for deployment, publicly funded research; – Imperfection in risk/capital markets: risk sharing/reduction through guarantees, equity, feed-in tariffs, floors on carbon prices. FIT straddles first 3 imperfections. Green/infrastructure development bank: reduces policy risk, provides leverage, longer-term horizon, power of example; – Networks: electricity grids, public transport, broadband, recycling, community-based insulation schemes. Government frameworks needed; – Information: for consumers labelling and information requirements on cars, domestic appliances, products more generally; awareness of options. Similar issues for producers. – Co-benefits: valuing ecosystems and biodiversity, valuing energy security, regulation of dirty and more dangerous technologies. • Should not see these in terms only of static re-allocations or corrections: policy concerns the dynamics of change and learning. Fostering a transition – experience of EBRD. 24
  • 25. Development, mitigation and adaptation are intertwined • For example: – Food: low-till techniques for rice save inputs, including water and energy, and provide more resilience, reduce methane, reduce soil disturbance and emissions. – Energy: low-carbon energy, e.g. decentralised solar, reduces emissions, brings electricity and clean cooking facilities to poor people (around 1.3 billion people in the world without access to electricity and 2.7 billion without access to clean cooking facilities (WEO, 2011)), is less vulnerable than grids, and is more inclusive, e.g. enables women and children to study at night, reduces time spent collecting and transporting biomass, and enables women to open businesses such as solar charging stations. Less susceptible to corruption than grids. – Public transport: reduces congestion and pollution, increases the mobility and opportunities of people, if well designed is more resilient. • Analytical and practical mistake to separate out the three issues into silos or, to portray as in conflict or tension. 25
  • 26. Policy for the low-carbon transition – shorter-term issues • Now is the time to invest for (low-carbon) growth: in many developed countries private sector sitting on record levels of savings and long-term real interest rates low. • Good (clear and credible) public policy to correct market failures can restore confidence and leverage large private investment opportunities with little threat of crowding out. • Will require government instruments that help manage risk. Mostly private investment and finance. • Government is key source of policy risk. Policy uncertainty risks damaging short-run investment and hindering long-run structural change. Greater clarity can unlock private investment for a sound path for medium-term growth (Zenghelis, 2011 and LSE Growth Commission 2013). 26
  • 27. Seven Part Structure • Part 1: Six years since the Stern Review • Part 2: Where we are going and why action is so slow • Part 3: Describing the risks: the scientific models • Part 4: Economic models and discounting • Part 5: Sustainable growth and development • Part 6: Policy for the low-carbon transition • Part 7: Collaboration and understanding others 27
  • 28. Collaboration and understanding others • It is possible to move forward without full agreement, and we are seeing examples including China, Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico, etc. • Equitable access to sustainable development (language of UNFCCC Cancun 2010) is an attractive way of framing the issues that may help bridge the gap between developed and developing countries and accelerate action. – Countries come together in a dynamic partnership where the choice of their sustainable development path is determined by the people of developing countries and that path is supported by rich countries (providing strong example and access to know-how, technology and finance). – Contrast with “burden-sharing”, “others should pay incremental cost”, zero- sum games. 28
  • 29. Leadership from international institutions • Collectively, their mandates are poverty reduction, growth, development, sustainability and stability. • They can integrate across the key problems of our decade: economic crises, climate crises, medium-term growth, changing international division of labour. • They can provide finance with a longer-term perspective for longer-term issues. • They can bring nations together in an equitable way, in part by showing what others are doing, around what must be an international and collaborative endeavour. 29
  • 30. Conclusion • Six years since the Stern Review: Risks bigger, technological change promising. • Where are we going and why action is slow: To a dangerous place; need political will. • Describing the risks - the scientific and economic models: Both scientific and economic models badly under-estimate potential impacts; new generation of models needed. • Sustainable growth and development: Transition to low-carbon economy likely to be full of innovation and benefits beyond reduction of climate risks. • Policy for the low-carbon transition: Policy to overcome six major market failures is key to fostering the recovery of economies and the dynamic transition to a low-carbon growth and economy. • Collaboration and understanding others: International institutions are key to addressing economic and climate crises together and building international cooperation. 30
  • 31. References • Ackerman, F. & Stanton, E. A., 2011, Climate risks and carbon prices: Revising the social cost of carbon, Economics Discussion Papers 2011-40, Kiel Institute for the World Economy. • Ackerman, F., Stanton, E. and Bueno, R., 2009, Fat Tails, Exponents, and Extreme Uncertainty: Simulating Catastrophe in DICE, Stockholm Environment Institute, Working paper. • Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), 2012. BNEF Spot Prices for Each Component. London: BNEF. • den Elzen, M., Meinshausen, M. and D. van Vuuren, 2007, Multi-gas envelopes to meet greenhouse gas concentration targets: Costs versus certainty of limiting temperature increase, Global Environmental Change, v.17, p.260-280. • DONG Energy, 2009, Rethinking energy. Ascent Business Leadership Forum 2009, Presentation, 22 October. • Edenhofer, O., Carraro, C., Hourcade, J.-C.,et al., 2009, The Economics of Decarbonization. Report of the RECIPE project. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam. 31
  • 32. References • EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2012. • IEA, 2011, World Energy Outlook 2011, IEA/OECD Paris. • IEA, 2012, World Energy Outlook 2012, IEA/OECD Paris. • Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Carbon (2010). “Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 12866.” In Final Rule Technical Support Document (TSD): Energy Efficiency Program for Commercial and Industrial Equipment: Small Electric Motors. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, p. Appendix 15A. • Knopf, B., and Edenhofer, O., with Barker, T., Bauer, N., and L. Baumstark at al., 2009, The economics of low stabilisation: implications for technological change and policy. Chapter 11 in Hulme, M. and Neufeldt, H. (eds). Making climate change work for us - ADAM synthesis book. Cambridge University Press. • LSE Growth Commission, 2013, Investing in for Prosperity: Skills, Infrastructure and Innovation, January. 32
  • 33. References • McKinsey, 2011, Resource Revolution: Meeting the world’s energy, materials, food, and water needs, McKinsey Global Institute, McKinsey Sustainability & Resource Productivity Practice, November. • Merrill Lynch, 2008, The sixth revolution: the coming of Cleantech clean technology, Industry Overview. Online at: www.responsible- investor.com/images/uploads/resources/research/21228316156Merril_Lynch- _the_coming_of_clean_tech.pdf (accessed 22 February 2012). • Miller, et al., 2012, High tide of the warm Pliocene: Implications of global sea level for Antarctic deglaciation, Geologic Society of America 119, p, 1209-1214. • Nicholls, R. J., Marinova, N., Lowe, J., et al., 2011, Sea-level rise and its possible impacts given a “beyond 4°C world” in the twenty-first century, Philosophical transactions, Series A, Mathematical, physical and engineering sciences, 369(1934), 161-81. • Perez, C., 2002, Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital: The Dynamics of Bubbles and Golden Ages, Edward Elgar, UK. 33
  • 34. References • Perez, C., 2010, Full Globalisation as a Positive-Sum Game: Green Demand as an Answer to the Financial Crisis, www2.lse.ac.uk/publicEvents/events/2010/20100518t1830vOT.aspx • Peters, G.P., Andrew, R.M., Boden, T., Canadell, J.G., et al., 2012, The challenge to keep global warming below 2 °C, Nature Climate Change, December. • Rockström, J., Steffen, J., Noone, K., et al., 2009, Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society 14 (2): 32. • Romani, M., Stern, N. and D. Zenghelis, 2011, The basic economics of low-carbon growth in the UK, Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, Policy Brief. • Stern, N., 2007, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. • Stern, N., 2008, Economics of climate change, Richard Ely Lecture, American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 98 (2), 1-37. 34
  • 35. References • Stern, N., 2009, A Blueprint for a safer planet: how to manage climate change and create a new era of progress and prosperity, Bodley Head (“A Global Deal”, in USA) • UNEP, 2012, Bridging the Emissions Gap, Appendix 1, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). • WB, 2010, World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change, in collaboration with McKinsey. • WEF, 2012, More with Less: Scaling Sustainable Consumption and Resource Efficiency, in collaboration with Accenture, January. • Zenghelis, D., 2011, A Macroeconomic Plan for a Green Recovery, Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, London School of Economics and Political Science, Policy Paper, January. 35