SlideShare uma empresa Scribd logo
1 de 15
Baixar para ler offline
NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
VOLUME 28, NUMBER 2, 2010-2011
GENDER RELATED ISSUES IN
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEADERSHIP
Amy Burkman
University of Texas of the Permian Basin
ABSTRACT
While the glass ceiling has been broken in regards to access to
educational leadership, females in administration still face gender
related prejudices and challenges in daily practice. The purpose of this
paper is to evaluate what challenges women in educational leadership
face and what issues are specific to serving in an elementary school.
Female principals serving in elementary schools in twenty urban school
districts in Texas were surveyed to identify the top five gender specific
issues faced in daily practices. These issues are discussed and future
implications for educational leadership programs and professional
development are evaluated.
Introduction
A
s women break through the glass ceiling of leadership, fissures are
weakening the structure of male-dominated leadership, and research is
necessary to increase cultural and gender awareness. According to Dana and
Bourisaw (2006a), perceptions, not reality, determine the leadership
opportunities and success for women in leadership. As women face these
perceptions, in addition to the challenges of the job, they need to be
adequately prepared through leadership preparation programs and
professional development.
Attention to women’s retention in administration is as important to
improving women’s numerical representation and integration into the role of
educational leaders as understanding how women attain the leadership
64
65 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
position (Tallerico, 1999). To understand the path of leadership and the
issues that impact retention, researchers must start at the early experiences of
women in leadership. Once the early experiences of leadership are
understood women can be better prepared to face gender-specific challenges
as they move to higher level positions.
Literature Review
Female leaders in the K-12 system face unusual challenges. These
women are often caught in a dichotomy between their gender and
expectations of leadership. The school community calls on the woman
principal to be caring, compassionate and collaborative, while teachers and
parents also want the principal to be decisive, firm and willing to provide
direction (Buttignol & Diamond, 2003). Current gender related leadership
issues need to be identified in order to better prepare women prior to entering
leadership roles, which will, in turn, increase opportunities in district level
positions.
Women in leadership historically begin in the position of elementary
principal, and the issues they face in this position influence the way they
approach leadership in higher administrative positions (Grogan, 2005), but
the majority of leadership studies for women in education focus on the
superintendency. To understand the general leadership experiences of
women, these studies are important to the current study.
Historically, women have been an active part of the educational
system. Prior to the suffrage movement, women held approximately 30% of
district level superintendent positions. The women’s suffrage movement not
only increased the availability of educational training to women, but also
caused a whiplash of executive decisions that decreased the opportunities for
women to take leadership positions (Blount, 1999; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
This whiplash reduced the number of women superintendents to 11% of the
total by the 1930s.
By the 1960s, two workplace issues still existed; access to equity of
benefits and access to leadership positions (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006a).
Blount (1998) stated that “women have not enjoyed easy access to the local
district superintendency… In 1910 women served in 327 out of 5,284 local
Amy Burkman 66
school districts. By 1970 women superintended only 73 out of 10,431 local
districts, producing a steady decline in representation from 6.19 percent to
only .70 percent” (p. 183). Currently, approximately 12% of superintendents
are women while over 65% of the workforce in education is women
(Shakeshaft, 2000). Growe and Montgomery (2002) found that the majority
of female superintendents either started in or occupied positions in small
districts with few central administration officers and declining enrollment.
In the 21st
century, finding an educational leadership position
presents the greatest challenge to women, although they are the majority
gender entering educational leadership preparatory programs (Bjork, 2000).
Kamler (1999) presented evidence that search consultants historically do not
select women for superintendent positions. Seven reasons were identified as
part of this research:
1) the ratio of male vs. female applicants is still disproportionate;
2) women are more satisfied holding highly visible, responsible
administrative positions;
3) women rarely have secondary leadership experience;
4) men typically have more superintendency experience;
5) few consultants search for women applicants;
6) women lack an interest in the superintendency due to an avoidance of
failure; and
7) boards perceive women as weak.
These reasons, as well as a lack of women working as search consultants,
stymie the access women have to superintendent positions. Dana and
Bourisaw (2006) verified that “all too frequently, women leaders are viewed
through the lens of male leadership and face confounding biases toward
them” (p. 67).
Leadership studies of women have shown that women are often
uncomfortable using a directive, authoritarian approach due to a public
perception of women behaving inappropriately when assuming that role
(Lips, 2003; Brunner, 2000). Women’s tendencies to nurture and to
collaborate often breed a stereotype of weak leadership without looking
toward the success of the organization. Such sex-role stereotypes negate the
opportunities of women in educational leadership, although “toward the end
of the twentieth century, school and school district leaders had come to
67 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
understand and practice both situational leadership…and transactional
leadership” (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006a, p. 170). Dana and Bourisaw (2006b)
also believe “the research [they] have completed over the past five years
clearly identifies the strong role that cultural values, sociopolitical practices,
and gender-structured policy play in determining women’s access to and
tenure in the public school” (p. 27).
Female public school superintendents are described by the U.S.
Department of Labor as working in the most gender stratified executive
position in the country (Bjork, 1999). Skrla (2000) stated that within the
context of public school leadership the role of the superintendency is socially
constructed. Social constructs, such as the assumption that males are more
effective leaders than women, create the apparent realities of societal roles.
While studies have been done to reflect on the experiences of
superintendents, male superintendents are the dominant participants in these
studies (Marshall, 1997). Skrla found that policy initiatives will only take
place if women hear and understand women with similar experiences.
Implications of Current Research
The proposed study holds particular interest due to its potential
impact on the future of educational leadership. Research in the area of
women in elementary school leadership can help all women better prepare to
lead at the campus and district level. Brunner (2000) reveals that “the
presence of women in the superintendency has tremendous potential to
change the specific common perceptions that have, in the past, disallowed
women the position” (p. 36). Women need to successfully attain and flourish
in campus leadership positions to increase access to the superintendency.
All leaders struggle with learning what good leadership
characteristics are, but women face special issues (Gunbayi 2005).
Consistently across the literature, the following issues have been identified
as challenges faced by women in leadership (Coleman, 2003; Aladejana &
Aladejana, 2005; Fennell, 2005; Celikten, 2005; Whitehead, 2001):
1. Cultural stereotype of professional roles
2. Male dominant culture
3. Lack of acceptance by male subordinates
Amy Burkman 68
4. Lack of acceptance by female subordinates
5. Sexual harassment
6. Marital and extended family problems
7. Lack of parental support
8. Lack of support from upper administration
9. Lack of support from female friends and family
10. Lack of respect from students
Coleman (2003) found additional issues, such as isolation and procedure for
challenging the male stereotype of leadership. While aggressive, assertive
behavior is expected of male leadership, women are assumed to be caring,
tolerant and nurturing. These stereotypes limit the availability of positions to
women, and create expectations that deter from successful leadership
practices. Isolation can result from the stereotypical expectations of
leadership. Coleman (2003) also found that professional women were also
faced with sexist language and expectations during professional activities in
addition to facing these issues at work.
Statement of the Problem
This study seeks to analyze the top five areas identified as concerns
to the female leadership in elementary campuses. Once these issues are
understood, implications for leadership preparation programs and
professional development can be determined.
Methodology
A simple quantitative survey was emailed to one hundred female
elementary principals selected through a random sampling method. Twenty
districts were randomly selected from the list of districts in three large urban
areas. From each district, five female elementary principals were randomly
selected to receive the survey. The independent variables identified in the
study are the women administrators, while the dependent variables are the
issues faced by these administrators.
The survey contained a list of twelve issues identified (Table 1) in
the literature review, and the principals were asked to mark each issue that
69 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
had been encountered during their careers as elementary principals.
Descriptive statistics were used to show the percentile ranks of each issue.
The percentage of votes per issue was calculated and the top five issues were
identified.
Table 1
Twelve Identified Issues
Issue Yes or No
Cultural stereotype of professional roles
Male dominant culture of leadership
Lack of acceptance by male
subordinates/coworkers
Lack of acceptance by female
subordinates
Sexual innuendo by male
subordinates/co-workers
Marital problems
Extended Family problems
Lack of support from higher
administration
Lack of support from female
friends/family
Lack of support from parents of
students being disciplined
Lack of respect from male students
Lack of respect from female students
Of the one hundred elementary principals identified for the study, eighty-
three percent responded to the survey. Seven administrators chose to write in
comments as well as marking the challenges encountered in their roles as
administrators. The return rate was well above the anticipated percentage.
Findings and Analysis of Data
The top five issues were consistently identified across the population
of elementary principals. Table 2 shows the percentages of administrators
that identified each area as affecting women in the role of elementary
Amy Burkman 70
leadership. Table 3 shows the top five issues identified as being experienced
the most by elementary administrators.
Table 2
Issue Experienced
Cultural stereotype of professional
roles
25%
Male dominant culture of leadership 35%
Lack of acceptance by male
subordinates/coworkers
5%
Lack of acceptance by female
subordinates
10%
Sexual innuendo by male
subordinates/co-workers
15%
Marital problems 5%
Extended Family problems 5%
Lack of support from higher
administration
25%
Lack of support from female
friends/family
>1%
Lack of support from parents of
students being disciplined
20%
Lack of respect from male students 5%
Lack of respect from female students >1%
Table 3
Issue Experienced
Male dominant culture of leadership 35%
Cultural stereotype of professional
roles
25%
Lack of support from higher
administration
25%
Lack of support from parents of
students being disciplined
20%
Sexual innuendo by male
subordinates/co-workers
20%
71 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
As is indicated in Table 3, the top five issues were experienced by twenty
percent or more of the administrators in the study. Of the twelve issues
identified in the literature review, four of them were experienced by less than
1% participants in the study.
Discussion
The top issue identified in the study as relevant to female
administration in the elementary school was the male dominant culture of
leadership. Men have historically held leadership position in education, and
the transition to women in leadership has been gradual. Outside of
elementary education, males still dominate the administrative arena and this
leads to pressures on women to perform with different expectations than
those of men.
The second major issue identified in the study was that of a cultural
stereotype of professional roles. Women in professional roles expected to be
caring and compassionate, yet being an administrator calls for thinking on
your feet and making difficult decisions (Buttignol & Diamond, 2003).
Women administrators in this study felt that the expectations placed on them
were contradictory and based on perceptions of the school constituent. The
cultural background of the constituent influenced the perceptions of the
leadership, leaving women at a disadvantage. Female leaders are often
underutilized or have unrealistic expectations placed on them based on the
cultural stereotype they face.
A lack of support from both higher administration and parents was
also identified as having the most impact on female leadership. Female
administrators often feel caught between a rock (administration) and a hard
place (parents). Upper administration, whether female or male, has certain
expectations of women in the principalship. Some district level
administrators have lower expectations of elementary principals, and this
translates into a lack of respect for the leaders on those campuses. Many
female administrators translate this issue into a gender specific area. Parents
also have issues with female leadership, especially when they are doling out
discipline. When a female administrator has to contact a father or male
guardian, resistance is often immediate. Many men see this as an intrusion or
a reflection on their parenting skills. This, paired with prospective cultural
Amy Burkman 72
clashes, can make the work of a female administrator very difficult. A lack
of support based on gender issues affects these leaders in everyday
situations.
The final issue identified as having an impact on women in
leadership was sexual innuendo being made by male subordinates/co-
workers. While this is surprising for the educational setting, it is an age old
problem that plagues women in all professional roles. To combat this is to
take seriously the fact that sexual comments are not appropriate in any
setting or for any reason.
Administrators that participated in the study included several
comments regarding their experiences with some of the issues. One
participant felt that a lack of support from parents was not relegated to
female principals. When a student is being disciplined parents often strike
out at the administrator regardless of the gender of the administrator.
Additionally, parents of specific cultural groups responded negatively to
women in all roles, not just leadership roles. Similarly, other participants felt
that a lack of respect from male students was not generalized, but came from
specific cultural groups. These groups were not respectful of women even if
the women represented the same cultural group. Women are viewed
differently based on the cultural groups of the school constituents.
While the top five issues in the study were identified, the research
does not end here. Knowing the issues does not create understanding of how
to educate the school community on how to avoid making these assumptions
or reacting to female leadership in inappropriate ways. Further studies need
to be done to assess why perceptions of women in leadership allow for
differing expectations and assumptions.
Another area for future study is to see if secondary administrators
experience the same types of issues that the elementary administrators faced.
If these issues occur across K-12 administration, education is necessary to
reduce instances of inappropriate interactions with women in leadership.
73 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
Implications for K-12 and Higher Education Institutions
In the field of education women have made steady gains in the move
toward campus administration. Both the K-12 organization and leadership
programs in higher education need to be prepared to train and support
women in leadership positions. Additionally, professional development
programs and early mentoring programs need to be aware of the struggles
faced by women in administration. Within the context of leadership
preparation, women can be taught to alleviate many of these issues through
basic awareness and coping skills. Support created through a group of like-
minded leaders and women from the field of educational leadership will
better prepare women for leadership within the elementary setting. This
study has implications for all of these areas.
Implications for K-12
Leadership research profoundly impacts the way a K-12 organization
selects, trains, and evaluates leadership personnel. Knowing the success rate
of women assigned to campus leadership positions affects the way
educational organizations approach the application process. Having access to
leadership information specific to women also demystifies the woman as
leader. The fear of hiring a woman reduces as the understanding of how
women integrate into school culture increases.
Training applications are also important. As women progress
through the ranks of school administration, leadership training becomes part
of the process in all school organizations. By understanding which issues
women face in daily practice the district can provide professional
development that adequately supports them. Professional development meets
the needs of the district and the district meets the needs of administrators
through professional development.
K-12 school systems can also provide teacher and parent specific
trainings on the roles of administration. If the cultural atmosphere of a
district is not gender friendly, the district can provide gender and sensitivity
training to staff, volunteers and community members. Providing this training
will show support to staff and will show the constituents of the district that
the employees are important to the educational system.
Amy Burkman 74
Implications for Higher Education
Implications for higher education are more explicit than those of K-
12 education. The majority of administrator preparation programs in higher
education train leaders to work in the K-12 organization. The research put
forth in this project will to support and encourage leadership programs
specifically for women in educational leadership roles. As specific studies
investigate the relationships between gender-specific leadership practices and
performance expectations, training expectations can correlate with these
expectations.
Administrator preparation programs would benefit from adapting
current curriculum to respond to gender specific issues. The following
suggestions require no significant change in programming:
1. Emphasize different leadership styles without connecting
them to specific genders.
2. Incorporate gender-specific discussion into cultural
proficiency courses. Identify specific cultural, religious, or
ethnic groups that have gender related beliefs and expectations.
An understanding of how cultural perceptions of leadership
affect sustained leadership is crucial for the development of
leadership preparation programs and professional development
opportunities.
3. Invite female administrators in to discuss specific personal
experiences with students.
4. When preparing administrators for district level leadership,
incorporate discussions and readings on gender specific
expectations and research for both campus level and district
level administrators. Invite current leadership from campus and
district levels to discussion support systems for campus level
leadership.
5. Incorporate sensitivity training, specific to sexism and
sexual harassment, into preparation courses.
6. Include current administrators, both male and female, in
discussions of public perceptions of administrators. Many issues
can be community related or specific to one are of the country.
Current administrators can identify those issues and prepare
future leaders for those challenges.
75 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
Preparation programs should provide a network of current and future
educational leaders. When leaders are provided a forum, and an influence
with future leadership, issues related to gender will not continue to impact
the community. Higher education has a duty to reduce gender prejudice in
educational leadership through adequately preparing future leaders.
Conclusion
Women in leadership cannot change the way leadership in education
has been done in the past, but change can be made in altering the perception
of women in leadership positions. The next generation of women in
elementary education leadership will benefit from understanding the issues
related to being a leader in the educational setting and the educational
institutions that hire them will benefit from the increased productivity and
increased administrative retention. The inequities in educational leadership
will diminish only when gender issues are identified and faced.
Amy Burkman 76
REFERENCES
Aladejana, F., & Aladejana, T. (2005) “Leadership in education: The place
of Nigerian women.” ISEA, 33(2), 69-75.
Bjork, L.G. (1999). Collaborative research on the superintendency. AERA
Research on the Superintendency SIG Bulletin, 2(1), 1-4.
Bjork, L. G. (2000). Introduction: Women in the superintendency—
Advances in research and theory. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 36(1), 5-17.
Blom, D. (2002). Superintendent Tenure. CUBE Survey Report. Alexandria,
VA: National School Boards Association.
Blount, J. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the
superintendency, 1973-1995. New York, NY: State University of
New York Press.
Blount, J. (1999). Chapter One: Turning out the ladies: Elected women
superintendents and the push for the appointive system, 1900-1935.
In C.C. Brunner (Ed.), Sacred Dreams: Women and the
superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Brunner, C. (2000). Principles of power: Women superintendents and the
riddle of the heart. New York, NY: State University of New York
Press.
Buttignol, M., & Diamond, C.T. (2003) “Gladiator meets Athena: The lure
of the warrioress and educational leadership.” Curriculum Inquiry,
33(4), 441-452.
Celikten, M. (2005). “A perspective on women principals in Turkey.”
International Journal of Leadership in Education, 8(3), 207-221.
Coleman, M. (2003). Gender and the orthodoxies of leadership. School
Leadership & Management, 23(3), 325-339.
Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006a). Women in the superintendency. Lanham,
MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006b). Overlooked leaders. American School
Board Journal, 27-30.
Fennell, H.A. (2005) “Living leadership in an era of change.” International
Journal of Leadership in Education, 8(2), 145-165.
Grogan, M. (2005). Echoing their ancestors, women lead school districts in
the United States. ISEA, 33(2), 21-30.
Growe, R., & Montgomery, R. (2002). Women and the leadership paradigm:
Bridging the gender gap. National Forum Journal. Retrieved
from http://www.nationalforum.com
77 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
Gunbayi, I. (2005) “Women and men teachers’ approaches to leadership
styles.” Social Behavior and Personality, 33(7), 685-698.
Kamler, E., & Shakeshaft, C. (1999). Chapter Three: The role of search
consultants in the career paths of women superintendents. In C.C.
Brunner (Ed.), Sacred Dreams: Women and the Superintendency.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2002). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Lips, H.M. (2003). A new psychology of women. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Marshall, C. (1997). Preface. In C. Marshall (Ed.), Feminist critical
policy analysis: A perspective from primary and secondary
schooling, pages ix-xi. London, England: Flamer.
Shakeshaft, C. (2000). Foreword. In Brunner, C. C. (Ed.), Principles of
power: Women superintendents and the riddle of the heart. Albany,
NY: State University of New York Press.
Skrla, L. (2000). Mourning silence: women superintendents (and a
researcher) rethink speaking up and speaking out. Qualitative
Studies in Education, 13(6), 611-628.
Skrla, L. (2000). The social construction of gender in the superintendency.
Journal of Education Policy, 15(3), 293-316.
Skrla, L., Reyes, P., & Scheurich, J. (2000). Sexism, silence and solutions:
Women superintendents speak up and speak out. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 44-75.
Tallerico, M. (1999). Chapter Two: Women and the superintendency: What
do we really know? In C.C. Brunner (ED.), Sacred dreams: Women
and the Superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press.
Whitehead, S. (2001) “Woman as manager: A seductive ontology.” Gender,
Work and Organization, 8(1), 84-107.
Amy Burkman 78
AUTHOR
Amy Burkman is an Assistant Professor and Graduate Program Coordinator
of Educational Leadership at the University of Texas of the Permian
Basin, Odessa, Texas. Burkman obtained her Ed.D. in Educational
Leadership from Texas Christian University and has served public
schools as a Teacher, Librarian, Assistant Principal and Principal.
Burkman is a co-author of the recently released book, Passing the
PPR TExES Exam for EC–12 Teacher.

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Gender equality .milagros gil
Gender equality .milagros gilGender equality .milagros gil
Gender equality .milagros gilSilvana Carnicero
 
Women's Role in Society
Women's Role in SocietyWomen's Role in Society
Women's Role in SocietyAmelita Torres
 
Gender And Development
Gender And DevelopmentGender And Development
Gender And DevelopmentAphosisia
 
Gender discrimination
Gender discrimination Gender discrimination
Gender discrimination nida_71
 
Black boys thoughts on improving schools
Black boys thoughts on improving schoolsBlack boys thoughts on improving schools
Black boys thoughts on improving schoolsLeslie Quigless
 
Gender inequality
Gender inequalityGender inequality
Gender inequalityAbu Bashar
 
Gender inequality11(0)
Gender inequality11(0)Gender inequality11(0)
Gender inequality11(0)Mayank Soni
 
Gender and migration
Gender and migration Gender and migration
Gender and migration ysu1314
 
Soicalization factor cause gender inequality
Soicalization factor cause gender inequalitySoicalization factor cause gender inequality
Soicalization factor cause gender inequalityFJWU, PMAS-AAUR
 
Domestic violence and gender inequality
Domestic violence and gender inequality Domestic violence and gender inequality
Domestic violence and gender inequality Aishwarya Subramanian
 
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...Jamie Crowther
 
gender inequality and discrimination
gender inequality and discrimination gender inequality and discrimination
gender inequality and discrimination As Siyam
 
Gender Inequality
Gender InequalityGender Inequality
Gender Inequalityr3h1na
 
Gender differences
Gender differencesGender differences
Gender differenceslucylee79
 

Mais procurados (20)

Gender inequality
Gender inequalityGender inequality
Gender inequality
 
Gender equality .milagros gil
Gender equality .milagros gilGender equality .milagros gil
Gender equality .milagros gil
 
Women's Role in Society
Women's Role in SocietyWomen's Role in Society
Women's Role in Society
 
Gender And Development
Gender And DevelopmentGender And Development
Gender And Development
 
Gender discrimination
Gender discrimination Gender discrimination
Gender discrimination
 
Black boys thoughts on improving schools
Black boys thoughts on improving schoolsBlack boys thoughts on improving schools
Black boys thoughts on improving schools
 
Gender
GenderGender
Gender
 
Gender inequality in india
Gender inequality in indiaGender inequality in india
Gender inequality in india
 
Gender inequality
Gender inequalityGender inequality
Gender inequality
 
Gender inequality11(0)
Gender inequality11(0)Gender inequality11(0)
Gender inequality11(0)
 
Gender and migration
Gender and migration Gender and migration
Gender and migration
 
Soicalization factor cause gender inequality
Soicalization factor cause gender inequalitySoicalization factor cause gender inequality
Soicalization factor cause gender inequality
 
Domestic violence and gender inequality
Domestic violence and gender inequality Domestic violence and gender inequality
Domestic violence and gender inequality
 
Gender sensitivity
Gender sensitivity Gender sensitivity
Gender sensitivity
 
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...
An investigation into the perceptions of coaches of young athletes within and...
 
GENDER ISSUES
GENDER ISSUESGENDER ISSUES
GENDER ISSUES
 
gender inequality and discrimination
gender inequality and discrimination gender inequality and discrimination
gender inequality and discrimination
 
Gender society
Gender societyGender society
Gender society
 
Gender Inequality
Gender InequalityGender Inequality
Gender Inequality
 
Gender differences
Gender differencesGender differences
Gender differences
 

Destaque

Gestione Del Telefono Manuale
Gestione Del Telefono   ManualeGestione Del Telefono   Manuale
Gestione Del Telefono Manualeguest2c539f
 
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher education
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher educationWilliams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher education
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher educationWilliam Kritsonis
 
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...William Kritsonis
 
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhDCurriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhDWilliam Kritsonis
 
Nathalie South Africa Slideshow
Nathalie South Africa SlideshowNathalie South Africa Slideshow
Nathalie South Africa SlideshowWaikatoForever
 
Local401 Pilot Project
Local401 Pilot ProjectLocal401 Pilot Project
Local401 Pilot ProjectSami Nerenberg
 
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theory
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theoryTeoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theory
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theoryveryfikator
 
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007lodzi
 
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...William Kritsonis
 
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational Philosophy
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational PhilosophyDr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational Philosophy
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational PhilosophyWilliam Kritsonis
 
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...William Kritsonis
 
Sabato paying attention
Sabato paying attentionSabato paying attention
Sabato paying attentionDiane Sabato
 
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010William Kritsonis
 
Moodle Strategy for Small Business
Moodle Strategy for Small BusinessMoodle Strategy for Small Business
Moodle Strategy for Small BusinessRhys Moult
 
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011William Kritsonis
 

Destaque (20)

Gestione Del Telefono Manuale
Gestione Del Telefono   ManualeGestione Del Telefono   Manuale
Gestione Del Telefono Manuale
 
From faith to evidence: demonstrating the value of libraries.
From faith to evidence: demonstrating the value of libraries.From faith to evidence: demonstrating the value of libraries.
From faith to evidence: demonstrating the value of libraries.
 
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher education
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher educationWilliams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher education
Williams, Monica national focus on postmodernism in higher education
 
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...
 
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhDCurriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Curriculum Issues & Law PPT. - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
 
Nathalie South Africa Slideshow
Nathalie South Africa SlideshowNathalie South Africa Slideshow
Nathalie South Africa Slideshow
 
Local401 Pilot Project
Local401 Pilot ProjectLocal401 Pilot Project
Local401 Pilot Project
 
Slideshare
SlideshareSlideshare
Slideshare
 
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theory
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theoryTeoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theory
Teoria gneratora energii z czasu - Time energy generator theory
 
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007
Ponny Igj Putaran Doha Dan Fta Jakarta 11 Des 2007
 
Microdata y SEO: Para qué queremos tener datos estructurados hoy
Microdata y SEO: Para qué queremos tener datos estructurados hoyMicrodata y SEO: Para qué queremos tener datos estructurados hoy
Microdata y SEO: Para qué queremos tener datos estructurados hoy
 
WelcometoourSchool
WelcometoourSchoolWelcometoourSchool
WelcometoourSchool
 
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...
Postmodernism patton, margaret curette a n ationally recommended postmodern m...
 
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational Philosophy
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational PhilosophyDr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational Philosophy
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Educational Philosophy
 
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...
Neurological differences between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and...
 
Sabato paying attention
Sabato paying attentionSabato paying attention
Sabato paying attention
 
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010
Durst, hope holley building life long readers nftej v21 n1 2010
 
I Tre Canali
I Tre CanaliI Tre Canali
I Tre Canali
 
Moodle Strategy for Small Business
Moodle Strategy for Small BusinessMoodle Strategy for Small Business
Moodle Strategy for Small Business
 
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011
Lunenburg, fred c. a system wide turnaround schooling v2 n1 2011
 

Semelhante a Dr. Kritsonis, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.com

IDSL 825 Research Paper Final
IDSL 825 Research Paper FinalIDSL 825 Research Paper Final
IDSL 825 Research Paper FinalBrenda Sipe
 
BA 500 Week eight chapter 15 ppt
BA 500 Week eight   chapter 15 pptBA 500 Week eight   chapter 15 ppt
BA 500 Week eight chapter 15 pptBealCollegeOnline
 
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, LeadeAnastaciaShadelb
 
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010William Kritsonis
 
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents done
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents doneChallenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents done
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents doneWilliam Kritsonis
 
Gender and leadership by Christopher Arcos
Gender and leadership  by  Christopher ArcosGender and leadership  by  Christopher Arcos
Gender and leadership by Christopher ArcosChristopher Arcos, M.A.
 
Make Way for Women
Make Way for WomenMake Way for Women
Make Way for WomenKaren Chand
 
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadership
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and LeadershipDr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadership
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadershipguestfa49ec
 
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher education
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher educationA gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher education
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher educationAlexander Decker
 
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14MFMinickiello
 
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About Gender
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About GenderLDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About Gender
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About GenderArdavan Shahroodi
 
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)Alexis Martinez
 
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions  The Case Of Benish...An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions  The Case Of Benish...
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...Jeff Nelson
 
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docx
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docxCollege Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docx
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docxstudywriters
 
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docx
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docxAssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docx
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docxnormanibarber20063
 
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) done
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneInequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) done
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneWilliam Kritsonis
 

Semelhante a Dr. Kritsonis, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.com (20)

Wynn brown
Wynn brownWynn brown
Wynn brown
 
IDSL 825 Research Paper Final
IDSL 825 Research Paper FinalIDSL 825 Research Paper Final
IDSL 825 Research Paper Final
 
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Sel...
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Sel...Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Sel...
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Sel...
 
BA 500 Week eight chapter 15 ppt
BA 500 Week eight   chapter 15 pptBA 500 Week eight   chapter 15 ppt
BA 500 Week eight chapter 15 ppt
 
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade
1Gender and LeadershipChapter 15Northouse, Leade
 
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010
Lane washington, la forrest women superintendents nfeasj v27 n4 2010
 
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents done
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents doneChallenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents done
Challenges, barriers and experiences women superintendents done
 
Gender and leadership by Christopher Arcos
Gender and leadership  by  Christopher ArcosGender and leadership  by  Christopher Arcos
Gender and leadership by Christopher Arcos
 
LetHerSpeak
LetHerSpeakLetHerSpeak
LetHerSpeak
 
Make Way for Women
Make Way for WomenMake Way for Women
Make Way for Women
 
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadership
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and LeadershipDr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadership
Dr. Kritsonis - Women and Leadership
 
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher education
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher educationA gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher education
A gendered analysis of promotional issues in higher education
 
The Omnipresent Gendered Career Pathways for Women and the Role of Career Cou...
The Omnipresent Gendered Career Pathways for Women and the Role of Career Cou...The Omnipresent Gendered Career Pathways for Women and the Role of Career Cou...
The Omnipresent Gendered Career Pathways for Women and the Role of Career Cou...
 
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14
MSMC PPT Lecture Authentic leadership and women in leadership- ppt 2.19.14
 
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About Gender
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About GenderLDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About Gender
LDR 7980 Assignment Essay 2 What About Gender
 
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)
AWP Poster 2016_FINAL (1)
 
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions  The Case Of Benish...An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions  The Case Of Benish...
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...
 
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docx
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docxCollege Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docx
College Role of Gender in Leadership Analysis.docx
 
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docx
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docxAssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docx
AssignmentPost the author(s) and title of the article on leade.docx
 
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) done
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneInequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) done
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) done
 

Último

Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptx
Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptxOver the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptx
Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptxraviapr7
 
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using Code
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using CodeHow to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using Code
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using CodeCeline George
 
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...Nguyen Thanh Tu Collection
 
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....Riddhi Kevadiya
 
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptx
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptxEducation and training program in the hospital APR.pptx
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptxraviapr7
 
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptx
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptxAUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptx
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptxiammrhaywood
 
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdfJayanti Pande
 
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdf
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdfDiploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdf
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdfMohonDas
 
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdf
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdfP4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdf
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdfYu Kanazawa / Osaka University
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...raviapr7
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...CaraSkikne1
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxheathfieldcps1
 
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational Trust
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational TrustVani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational Trust
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational TrustSavipriya Raghavendra
 
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxUltra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxDr. Asif Anas
 
A gentle introduction to Artificial Intelligence
A gentle introduction to Artificial IntelligenceA gentle introduction to Artificial Intelligence
A gentle introduction to Artificial IntelligenceApostolos Syropoulos
 
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 Sales
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 SalesHow to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 Sales
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 SalesCeline George
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17Celine George
 

Último (20)

Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptx
Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptxOver the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptx
Over the counter (OTC)- Sale, rational use.pptx
 
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using Code
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using CodeHow to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using Code
How to Send Emails From Odoo 17 Using Code
 
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...
CHUYÊN ĐỀ DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 11 - GLOBAL SUCCESS - NĂM HỌC 2023-2024 - HK...
 
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....
Riddhi Kevadiya. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE....
 
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptx
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptxEducation and training program in the hospital APR.pptx
Education and training program in the hospital APR.pptx
 
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptx
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptxAUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptx
AUDIENCE THEORY -- FANDOM -- JENKINS.pptx
 
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
10 Topics For MBA Project Report [HR].pdf
 
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17
How to Show Error_Warning Messages in Odoo 17
 
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quizPrelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
 
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdf
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdfDiploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdf
Diploma in Nursing Admission Test Question Solution 2023.pdf
 
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdf
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdfP4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdf
P4C x ELT = P4ELT: Its Theoretical Background (Kanazawa, 2024 March).pdf
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
 
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
Patient Counselling. Definition of patient counseling; steps involved in pati...
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
 
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational Trust
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational TrustVani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational Trust
Vani Magazine - Quarterly Magazine of Seshadripuram Educational Trust
 
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxUltra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
 
A gentle introduction to Artificial Intelligence
A gentle introduction to Artificial IntelligenceA gentle introduction to Artificial Intelligence
A gentle introduction to Artificial Intelligence
 
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 Sales
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 SalesHow to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 Sales
How to Manage Cross-Selling in Odoo 17 Sales
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
 

Dr. Kritsonis, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.com

  • 1. NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL VOLUME 28, NUMBER 2, 2010-2011 GENDER RELATED ISSUES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEADERSHIP Amy Burkman University of Texas of the Permian Basin ABSTRACT While the glass ceiling has been broken in regards to access to educational leadership, females in administration still face gender related prejudices and challenges in daily practice. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate what challenges women in educational leadership face and what issues are specific to serving in an elementary school. Female principals serving in elementary schools in twenty urban school districts in Texas were surveyed to identify the top five gender specific issues faced in daily practices. These issues are discussed and future implications for educational leadership programs and professional development are evaluated. Introduction A s women break through the glass ceiling of leadership, fissures are weakening the structure of male-dominated leadership, and research is necessary to increase cultural and gender awareness. According to Dana and Bourisaw (2006a), perceptions, not reality, determine the leadership opportunities and success for women in leadership. As women face these perceptions, in addition to the challenges of the job, they need to be adequately prepared through leadership preparation programs and professional development. Attention to women’s retention in administration is as important to improving women’s numerical representation and integration into the role of educational leaders as understanding how women attain the leadership 64
  • 2. 65 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL position (Tallerico, 1999). To understand the path of leadership and the issues that impact retention, researchers must start at the early experiences of women in leadership. Once the early experiences of leadership are understood women can be better prepared to face gender-specific challenges as they move to higher level positions. Literature Review Female leaders in the K-12 system face unusual challenges. These women are often caught in a dichotomy between their gender and expectations of leadership. The school community calls on the woman principal to be caring, compassionate and collaborative, while teachers and parents also want the principal to be decisive, firm and willing to provide direction (Buttignol & Diamond, 2003). Current gender related leadership issues need to be identified in order to better prepare women prior to entering leadership roles, which will, in turn, increase opportunities in district level positions. Women in leadership historically begin in the position of elementary principal, and the issues they face in this position influence the way they approach leadership in higher administrative positions (Grogan, 2005), but the majority of leadership studies for women in education focus on the superintendency. To understand the general leadership experiences of women, these studies are important to the current study. Historically, women have been an active part of the educational system. Prior to the suffrage movement, women held approximately 30% of district level superintendent positions. The women’s suffrage movement not only increased the availability of educational training to women, but also caused a whiplash of executive decisions that decreased the opportunities for women to take leadership positions (Blount, 1999; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). This whiplash reduced the number of women superintendents to 11% of the total by the 1930s. By the 1960s, two workplace issues still existed; access to equity of benefits and access to leadership positions (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006a). Blount (1998) stated that “women have not enjoyed easy access to the local district superintendency… In 1910 women served in 327 out of 5,284 local
  • 3. Amy Burkman 66 school districts. By 1970 women superintended only 73 out of 10,431 local districts, producing a steady decline in representation from 6.19 percent to only .70 percent” (p. 183). Currently, approximately 12% of superintendents are women while over 65% of the workforce in education is women (Shakeshaft, 2000). Growe and Montgomery (2002) found that the majority of female superintendents either started in or occupied positions in small districts with few central administration officers and declining enrollment. In the 21st century, finding an educational leadership position presents the greatest challenge to women, although they are the majority gender entering educational leadership preparatory programs (Bjork, 2000). Kamler (1999) presented evidence that search consultants historically do not select women for superintendent positions. Seven reasons were identified as part of this research: 1) the ratio of male vs. female applicants is still disproportionate; 2) women are more satisfied holding highly visible, responsible administrative positions; 3) women rarely have secondary leadership experience; 4) men typically have more superintendency experience; 5) few consultants search for women applicants; 6) women lack an interest in the superintendency due to an avoidance of failure; and 7) boards perceive women as weak. These reasons, as well as a lack of women working as search consultants, stymie the access women have to superintendent positions. Dana and Bourisaw (2006) verified that “all too frequently, women leaders are viewed through the lens of male leadership and face confounding biases toward them” (p. 67). Leadership studies of women have shown that women are often uncomfortable using a directive, authoritarian approach due to a public perception of women behaving inappropriately when assuming that role (Lips, 2003; Brunner, 2000). Women’s tendencies to nurture and to collaborate often breed a stereotype of weak leadership without looking toward the success of the organization. Such sex-role stereotypes negate the opportunities of women in educational leadership, although “toward the end of the twentieth century, school and school district leaders had come to
  • 4. 67 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL understand and practice both situational leadership…and transactional leadership” (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006a, p. 170). Dana and Bourisaw (2006b) also believe “the research [they] have completed over the past five years clearly identifies the strong role that cultural values, sociopolitical practices, and gender-structured policy play in determining women’s access to and tenure in the public school” (p. 27). Female public school superintendents are described by the U.S. Department of Labor as working in the most gender stratified executive position in the country (Bjork, 1999). Skrla (2000) stated that within the context of public school leadership the role of the superintendency is socially constructed. Social constructs, such as the assumption that males are more effective leaders than women, create the apparent realities of societal roles. While studies have been done to reflect on the experiences of superintendents, male superintendents are the dominant participants in these studies (Marshall, 1997). Skrla found that policy initiatives will only take place if women hear and understand women with similar experiences. Implications of Current Research The proposed study holds particular interest due to its potential impact on the future of educational leadership. Research in the area of women in elementary school leadership can help all women better prepare to lead at the campus and district level. Brunner (2000) reveals that “the presence of women in the superintendency has tremendous potential to change the specific common perceptions that have, in the past, disallowed women the position” (p. 36). Women need to successfully attain and flourish in campus leadership positions to increase access to the superintendency. All leaders struggle with learning what good leadership characteristics are, but women face special issues (Gunbayi 2005). Consistently across the literature, the following issues have been identified as challenges faced by women in leadership (Coleman, 2003; Aladejana & Aladejana, 2005; Fennell, 2005; Celikten, 2005; Whitehead, 2001): 1. Cultural stereotype of professional roles 2. Male dominant culture 3. Lack of acceptance by male subordinates
  • 5. Amy Burkman 68 4. Lack of acceptance by female subordinates 5. Sexual harassment 6. Marital and extended family problems 7. Lack of parental support 8. Lack of support from upper administration 9. Lack of support from female friends and family 10. Lack of respect from students Coleman (2003) found additional issues, such as isolation and procedure for challenging the male stereotype of leadership. While aggressive, assertive behavior is expected of male leadership, women are assumed to be caring, tolerant and nurturing. These stereotypes limit the availability of positions to women, and create expectations that deter from successful leadership practices. Isolation can result from the stereotypical expectations of leadership. Coleman (2003) also found that professional women were also faced with sexist language and expectations during professional activities in addition to facing these issues at work. Statement of the Problem This study seeks to analyze the top five areas identified as concerns to the female leadership in elementary campuses. Once these issues are understood, implications for leadership preparation programs and professional development can be determined. Methodology A simple quantitative survey was emailed to one hundred female elementary principals selected through a random sampling method. Twenty districts were randomly selected from the list of districts in three large urban areas. From each district, five female elementary principals were randomly selected to receive the survey. The independent variables identified in the study are the women administrators, while the dependent variables are the issues faced by these administrators. The survey contained a list of twelve issues identified (Table 1) in the literature review, and the principals were asked to mark each issue that
  • 6. 69 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL had been encountered during their careers as elementary principals. Descriptive statistics were used to show the percentile ranks of each issue. The percentage of votes per issue was calculated and the top five issues were identified. Table 1 Twelve Identified Issues Issue Yes or No Cultural stereotype of professional roles Male dominant culture of leadership Lack of acceptance by male subordinates/coworkers Lack of acceptance by female subordinates Sexual innuendo by male subordinates/co-workers Marital problems Extended Family problems Lack of support from higher administration Lack of support from female friends/family Lack of support from parents of students being disciplined Lack of respect from male students Lack of respect from female students Of the one hundred elementary principals identified for the study, eighty- three percent responded to the survey. Seven administrators chose to write in comments as well as marking the challenges encountered in their roles as administrators. The return rate was well above the anticipated percentage. Findings and Analysis of Data The top five issues were consistently identified across the population of elementary principals. Table 2 shows the percentages of administrators that identified each area as affecting women in the role of elementary
  • 7. Amy Burkman 70 leadership. Table 3 shows the top five issues identified as being experienced the most by elementary administrators. Table 2 Issue Experienced Cultural stereotype of professional roles 25% Male dominant culture of leadership 35% Lack of acceptance by male subordinates/coworkers 5% Lack of acceptance by female subordinates 10% Sexual innuendo by male subordinates/co-workers 15% Marital problems 5% Extended Family problems 5% Lack of support from higher administration 25% Lack of support from female friends/family >1% Lack of support from parents of students being disciplined 20% Lack of respect from male students 5% Lack of respect from female students >1% Table 3 Issue Experienced Male dominant culture of leadership 35% Cultural stereotype of professional roles 25% Lack of support from higher administration 25% Lack of support from parents of students being disciplined 20% Sexual innuendo by male subordinates/co-workers 20%
  • 8. 71 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL As is indicated in Table 3, the top five issues were experienced by twenty percent or more of the administrators in the study. Of the twelve issues identified in the literature review, four of them were experienced by less than 1% participants in the study. Discussion The top issue identified in the study as relevant to female administration in the elementary school was the male dominant culture of leadership. Men have historically held leadership position in education, and the transition to women in leadership has been gradual. Outside of elementary education, males still dominate the administrative arena and this leads to pressures on women to perform with different expectations than those of men. The second major issue identified in the study was that of a cultural stereotype of professional roles. Women in professional roles expected to be caring and compassionate, yet being an administrator calls for thinking on your feet and making difficult decisions (Buttignol & Diamond, 2003). Women administrators in this study felt that the expectations placed on them were contradictory and based on perceptions of the school constituent. The cultural background of the constituent influenced the perceptions of the leadership, leaving women at a disadvantage. Female leaders are often underutilized or have unrealistic expectations placed on them based on the cultural stereotype they face. A lack of support from both higher administration and parents was also identified as having the most impact on female leadership. Female administrators often feel caught between a rock (administration) and a hard place (parents). Upper administration, whether female or male, has certain expectations of women in the principalship. Some district level administrators have lower expectations of elementary principals, and this translates into a lack of respect for the leaders on those campuses. Many female administrators translate this issue into a gender specific area. Parents also have issues with female leadership, especially when they are doling out discipline. When a female administrator has to contact a father or male guardian, resistance is often immediate. Many men see this as an intrusion or a reflection on their parenting skills. This, paired with prospective cultural
  • 9. Amy Burkman 72 clashes, can make the work of a female administrator very difficult. A lack of support based on gender issues affects these leaders in everyday situations. The final issue identified as having an impact on women in leadership was sexual innuendo being made by male subordinates/co- workers. While this is surprising for the educational setting, it is an age old problem that plagues women in all professional roles. To combat this is to take seriously the fact that sexual comments are not appropriate in any setting or for any reason. Administrators that participated in the study included several comments regarding their experiences with some of the issues. One participant felt that a lack of support from parents was not relegated to female principals. When a student is being disciplined parents often strike out at the administrator regardless of the gender of the administrator. Additionally, parents of specific cultural groups responded negatively to women in all roles, not just leadership roles. Similarly, other participants felt that a lack of respect from male students was not generalized, but came from specific cultural groups. These groups were not respectful of women even if the women represented the same cultural group. Women are viewed differently based on the cultural groups of the school constituents. While the top five issues in the study were identified, the research does not end here. Knowing the issues does not create understanding of how to educate the school community on how to avoid making these assumptions or reacting to female leadership in inappropriate ways. Further studies need to be done to assess why perceptions of women in leadership allow for differing expectations and assumptions. Another area for future study is to see if secondary administrators experience the same types of issues that the elementary administrators faced. If these issues occur across K-12 administration, education is necessary to reduce instances of inappropriate interactions with women in leadership.
  • 10. 73 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL Implications for K-12 and Higher Education Institutions In the field of education women have made steady gains in the move toward campus administration. Both the K-12 organization and leadership programs in higher education need to be prepared to train and support women in leadership positions. Additionally, professional development programs and early mentoring programs need to be aware of the struggles faced by women in administration. Within the context of leadership preparation, women can be taught to alleviate many of these issues through basic awareness and coping skills. Support created through a group of like- minded leaders and women from the field of educational leadership will better prepare women for leadership within the elementary setting. This study has implications for all of these areas. Implications for K-12 Leadership research profoundly impacts the way a K-12 organization selects, trains, and evaluates leadership personnel. Knowing the success rate of women assigned to campus leadership positions affects the way educational organizations approach the application process. Having access to leadership information specific to women also demystifies the woman as leader. The fear of hiring a woman reduces as the understanding of how women integrate into school culture increases. Training applications are also important. As women progress through the ranks of school administration, leadership training becomes part of the process in all school organizations. By understanding which issues women face in daily practice the district can provide professional development that adequately supports them. Professional development meets the needs of the district and the district meets the needs of administrators through professional development. K-12 school systems can also provide teacher and parent specific trainings on the roles of administration. If the cultural atmosphere of a district is not gender friendly, the district can provide gender and sensitivity training to staff, volunteers and community members. Providing this training will show support to staff and will show the constituents of the district that the employees are important to the educational system.
  • 11. Amy Burkman 74 Implications for Higher Education Implications for higher education are more explicit than those of K- 12 education. The majority of administrator preparation programs in higher education train leaders to work in the K-12 organization. The research put forth in this project will to support and encourage leadership programs specifically for women in educational leadership roles. As specific studies investigate the relationships between gender-specific leadership practices and performance expectations, training expectations can correlate with these expectations. Administrator preparation programs would benefit from adapting current curriculum to respond to gender specific issues. The following suggestions require no significant change in programming: 1. Emphasize different leadership styles without connecting them to specific genders. 2. Incorporate gender-specific discussion into cultural proficiency courses. Identify specific cultural, religious, or ethnic groups that have gender related beliefs and expectations. An understanding of how cultural perceptions of leadership affect sustained leadership is crucial for the development of leadership preparation programs and professional development opportunities. 3. Invite female administrators in to discuss specific personal experiences with students. 4. When preparing administrators for district level leadership, incorporate discussions and readings on gender specific expectations and research for both campus level and district level administrators. Invite current leadership from campus and district levels to discussion support systems for campus level leadership. 5. Incorporate sensitivity training, specific to sexism and sexual harassment, into preparation courses. 6. Include current administrators, both male and female, in discussions of public perceptions of administrators. Many issues can be community related or specific to one are of the country. Current administrators can identify those issues and prepare future leaders for those challenges.
  • 12. 75 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL Preparation programs should provide a network of current and future educational leaders. When leaders are provided a forum, and an influence with future leadership, issues related to gender will not continue to impact the community. Higher education has a duty to reduce gender prejudice in educational leadership through adequately preparing future leaders. Conclusion Women in leadership cannot change the way leadership in education has been done in the past, but change can be made in altering the perception of women in leadership positions. The next generation of women in elementary education leadership will benefit from understanding the issues related to being a leader in the educational setting and the educational institutions that hire them will benefit from the increased productivity and increased administrative retention. The inequities in educational leadership will diminish only when gender issues are identified and faced.
  • 13. Amy Burkman 76 REFERENCES Aladejana, F., & Aladejana, T. (2005) “Leadership in education: The place of Nigerian women.” ISEA, 33(2), 69-75. Bjork, L.G. (1999). Collaborative research on the superintendency. AERA Research on the Superintendency SIG Bulletin, 2(1), 1-4. Bjork, L. G. (2000). Introduction: Women in the superintendency— Advances in research and theory. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 5-17. Blom, D. (2002). Superintendent Tenure. CUBE Survey Report. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association. Blount, J. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency, 1973-1995. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Blount, J. (1999). Chapter One: Turning out the ladies: Elected women superintendents and the push for the appointive system, 1900-1935. In C.C. Brunner (Ed.), Sacred Dreams: Women and the superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Brunner, C. (2000). Principles of power: Women superintendents and the riddle of the heart. New York, NY: State University of New York Press. Buttignol, M., & Diamond, C.T. (2003) “Gladiator meets Athena: The lure of the warrioress and educational leadership.” Curriculum Inquiry, 33(4), 441-452. Celikten, M. (2005). “A perspective on women principals in Turkey.” International Journal of Leadership in Education, 8(3), 207-221. Coleman, M. (2003). Gender and the orthodoxies of leadership. School Leadership & Management, 23(3), 325-339. Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006a). Women in the superintendency. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006b). Overlooked leaders. American School Board Journal, 27-30. Fennell, H.A. (2005) “Living leadership in an era of change.” International Journal of Leadership in Education, 8(2), 145-165. Grogan, M. (2005). Echoing their ancestors, women lead school districts in the United States. ISEA, 33(2), 21-30. Growe, R., & Montgomery, R. (2002). Women and the leadership paradigm: Bridging the gender gap. National Forum Journal. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com
  • 14. 77 NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL Gunbayi, I. (2005) “Women and men teachers’ approaches to leadership styles.” Social Behavior and Personality, 33(7), 685-698. Kamler, E., & Shakeshaft, C. (1999). Chapter Three: The role of search consultants in the career paths of women superintendents. In C.C. Brunner (Ed.), Sacred Dreams: Women and the Superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2002). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lips, H.M. (2003). A new psychology of women. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Marshall, C. (1997). Preface. In C. Marshall (Ed.), Feminist critical policy analysis: A perspective from primary and secondary schooling, pages ix-xi. London, England: Flamer. Shakeshaft, C. (2000). Foreword. In Brunner, C. C. (Ed.), Principles of power: Women superintendents and the riddle of the heart. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Skrla, L. (2000). Mourning silence: women superintendents (and a researcher) rethink speaking up and speaking out. Qualitative Studies in Education, 13(6), 611-628. Skrla, L. (2000). The social construction of gender in the superintendency. Journal of Education Policy, 15(3), 293-316. Skrla, L., Reyes, P., & Scheurich, J. (2000). Sexism, silence and solutions: Women superintendents speak up and speak out. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 44-75. Tallerico, M. (1999). Chapter Two: Women and the superintendency: What do we really know? In C.C. Brunner (ED.), Sacred dreams: Women and the Superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Whitehead, S. (2001) “Woman as manager: A seductive ontology.” Gender, Work and Organization, 8(1), 84-107.
  • 15. Amy Burkman 78 AUTHOR Amy Burkman is an Assistant Professor and Graduate Program Coordinator of Educational Leadership at the University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas. Burkman obtained her Ed.D. in Educational Leadership from Texas Christian University and has served public schools as a Teacher, Librarian, Assistant Principal and Principal. Burkman is a co-author of the recently released book, Passing the PPR TExES Exam for EC–12 Teacher.