1. CREATING A STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK FOR
MARITIME SECURITY COOPERATION IN
THE INDIAN OCEAN REGION
Lieutenant Commander (S) WAK Piyantha Warna Kumara
Sri Lanka Navy

2. ABSTRACT
In the new century global super power and influential nations have put
their interest on India Ocean Region (IOR) due to its vast growth in strategic
importance in geo political, natural resources, commercial and security aspect.
However, it is facing a risk of growing strategic competition mainly between
India and China. Amidst such developments Western powers particularly
America exhibits an extensive interest and influence in the region.
Nevertheless, risk of interstate conflict, terrorism, illegal fishing, and
smuggling, human trafficking, gun running, drug trafficking, natural disasters,
sea level rising, climatic changes etc. and many traditional and non-traditional
security threats are evident in the IOR. Therefore, IOR states have understood
the necessity of a strategic frame work for maritime security cooperation. In
this regard considerable efforts are being made by the regional countries.
Since most of the countries are under developing and strangled with internal
political upheaval the efforts lack significant momentum. Consequently, some
conflicts have global implications. This situation presents many threats to IOR
to withstand and make a strong regional organisation. However, now Indian
Ocean security is no longer domain in colonial states or super powers. Today
India and China has become a regional power and they are acting as
developing their domination and influence over Indian Ocean. Nevertheless
current global realities has introduces new maritime security issues as non-
state actors are influencing the security in the region directly. Therefor this is
serious issue in IOR in terms of maritime security and trade concern.

3. CHAPTER ONE
"Whoever controls the Indian Ocean dominates Asia. This ocean is the key to the seven
seas in the twenty-first century, the destiny of the world will be decided in these waters”
Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan-US Navy
BACKGROUND
Since ancient time, the people living around the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) have
benefited from its vast and rich trade. Moreover, the communication resulting from these
maritime exploits, with the cultural and religious nature. These traditional forms of trade
and living style changed radically when the Portuguese and then other European seafarers
began sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, India, Sri Lanka and other Asian countries
to establish trade links with empires in European countries.
From the beginning, the IOR was directly affected by European maritime activities
and they concerned on trade activities with East and European countries. Therefore, the
formidable warships of European navies were radially established their dominance in
Indian Ocean and same times they have influenced their power in every nock and corner
of the region, over the period of centuries. Specially the British in particular, able to utilised
there sea power to create the large kingdom over Indian Ocean Region. Therefore, during
the 19 century European navies also played very important role in maintaining good order
at sea, eradicating piracy and slavery.
After the World War ended the decolonisation process had begun in IOR countries.
Thus British hegemony has been diminished in IOR countries after the centuries. However,
the subsequent Cold War was began due to strategic and geopolitical importance in the
Indian Ocean Region. When Cold War period came to an end, the Indian Ocean countries
have rediscovered some of the economic, social and cultural facets that made the ocean the
bridge between Asia and world.
Now Indian Ocean security is no longer domain in colonial states or super powers.
However presently it has become a multifaceted and dynamics. Today India and China has
become a regional power and they are acting as developing their domination and influence

4. over Indian Ocean. However current global realities has introduces new maritime security
issues as non-state actors are influencing the security in the region directly. Therefor this
is serious issue in IOR in terms of maritime security and trade concern.
The maritime security is complex and board somewhat amorphous area of focus.
However the rich IOR is very much important in present day and more in future. Therefore
the strategic value of the Indian Ocean is crucial as well as its maritime security and threats.
AIM
The aim of this study is to appraise a viable strategic framework for maritime
security cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region.
Figure 1: Indian Ocean Region
Source : http://www.iora.net

5. INTRODUCTION AND STRATEGIC CONTEXT IN INDIAN OCEAN REGION
In Indian Ocean the body of salt water covering approximately one –fifth of total
ocean area of the world. Same time it is the smallest, youngest and physically most
complex of the world there major oceans.
The various criteria has been used to designate Indian Ocean Region. The IOR is
large area and its Western border is continental Africa in a longitudes 20’ E and it stretches
from South from Cape Agulhas. Same time it is north border is continental Asia from Suez
channel to the Malay Peninsula. In the east it goes up to Singapore, the archipelagos of
Indonesia, longitude 17’ E from Australia and Tasmania. From the south it stretches to
latitude 60’ S as determine by the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 (Maritime security in the Indian
Ocean: strategic setting and features, 2015).
As well as geographical features, there are various criteria has been used to
designated IOR states. Within 51 total states can be categorised as follows:
a. There are 26 Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) states.
b. 5 Res Sea states.
c. 4 Persian Gulf States.
Apart from that, most of these states are the former colonies. The landlocked states
comprise as IOR states are depend on Indian Ocean of their trade, Sea Lines of
Communications (SLOCs). However, with the expansion of the Afghanistan, 39% the
present global population has comprised in IOR states. Thus those population comprised
with vast difference and diversified features in cultural, political, religion and economical
mixture in the countries (Maritime security in the Indian Ocean: strategic setting and
features, 2015).

6. Figure ii: Indian Ocean Region Countries
Source: http://www.iora.net
When considering the present political situation number of IOR countries are
existing with complex situation in political stability of the countries due internal and
external problems. At the same times some conflicts are global significance are still
disposed to foreign political and military influences. According to recent research of global
conflicts by the Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research’ 42% countries
been existing in IOR. Some of conflict states are Israel and Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq,
Syria, Pakistan, Somalia, etc. The significant level of poverty, international and
governmental influence on non-state actors, poorly develop institutions, corruptions,
competition of scare resources, the absence of democracy, influences of foreign power and
global war and terror, ‘turbulence of the Islamic world actions’, activities are leads to
present anarchy situation. Therefor the urgent needs of substantial development of
sovereign rights, security and corporation within the IOR is very essential.
The IOR is very important to the global economy due to its reach in energy
resources, minerals, oil and gas resources and fishery resources. Thus roughly over 55%
identified oil resources and 40% gases resources are yet to be exploited in Indian Ocean

7. (Maritime security in the Indian Ocean: strategic setting and features, 2015).
Same times IOR ports handing over 30% of global trade and 50% world container
traffic in the Indian Ocean Region. Moreover other importantly is Indian Ocean has some
of the world most important chock points, in terms of security and world trade and energy
and it is very vital for regional and extra regional existent. Moreover not only that due to
high strategically geopolitical position and scare resources this chock points are significant
features in the Indian Ocean Region.
Presently international interest and influence to the region is rising day by day on
security concern about instability characterises and destabilises the region. The main
hidden factor is the strata oil resources and its importance for energy shipments, wealth of
resources and raw materials in the region, the involvement of extra-regional powers and
affairs in a number of conflicts, and the rise of new regional powers (India and China) and
their ability to project their power to region and to the world.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

8. CHAPTER TWO
IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION
GEOGRAPHY
Indian Ocean is the world 3rd
largest ocean division covering 20% of the water in
the earth’s surface with 66,526 km coastline. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the
west by Africa, on the east by Australia, and on the south by Antarctica. Further, Marginal
seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include:
a. Arabian Sea.
b. Persian Gulf.
c. Red Sea.
d. Gulf of Oman.
e. Gulf of Aden.
f. Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb connecting Arabian Sea.
g. Gulf of Kutch.
h. Gulf of Khambat.
i. Palk Strait connecting Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
j. Bay of Bengal.
k. Andaman Sea.
l. Malacca Strait.
m. Mozambique Channel.
n. Great Australian Bight.
o. Gulf of Mannar.
p. Laccadive Sea.

9. The ocean covers 70,560,000 km2
(27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and
the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% world's oceans, and volume
is 264,000,000 km3
or 19.8% of oceans volume, it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274
ft) and a maximum sea depth of 7,906 m (25,938 ft) in the India Ocean (Rais, 1986).
Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Strait of Malacca, the Lombok Strait and the
Palk Strait are considered as the major choke points. The Indian Ocean is artificially linked
to the Mediterranean Sea over the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea.
Figure iii: Important Chock Points in Indian Ocean Region.
Source : http://www.eia.gov.
IOR has 36 countries around its coastal belt with additional eleven neighborhood
states, though landlocked are equally important as they are involved in its politics,
economics and trade. This region today plays a vital role in geo-economics and geo-
politics as it is the major sea path that connects Middle East, Africa and Asia with Europe.

10. CLIMATE IN THE REGION
The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-
east winds blow from October until April and from May until October south and west winds
prevail. In the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon carries rain to the Indian subcontinent. In
the southern hemisphere, the winds are usually milder, but summer squalls near Mauritius
can be undecorated. Cyclones sometimes used to strike the coasts of the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal, when the monsoon winds change. The Indian Ocean is the warmest
ocean in the world.
HYDROLOGY
The ocean’s continental shelves are narrow away from base line, averaging 200
kilometers in width. An exception is found off western coast of Australia, where the shelf
width exceeds 1,000 kilometers. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,762 ft). Its
deepest point is Diamantina Deep with the depth of 8,047 m in Diamantina Trench, Sunda
Trench also sometimes considered at a depth of 7,258–7,725 m. In IOR 86% of the main
basin is covered by pelagic sediment at north of 50° south latitude which is more than half
of Globigerina ooze. The rest of 14% is layered with Terrigenous sediments (McCreary
2001).
Continental shelves cover about 4.2% of the total area of the Indian Ocean and are
reported to be very rich in minerals including Tin, Gold, Uranium, Cobalt, Nickel,
Aluminum and Cadmium although these resources have been largely not exploited, so far.
MARINE LIFE
The heat of the Indian Ocean keeps low production microscopic plants, except along
the northern fringe and in a few dispersed spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is hence limited.
Fishing is limited to survival levels, because its fish are of great and rising importance to
the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Japan,
Russia, Taiwan and South Korea also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.
Also very rare marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales.

11. Indian Ocean possesses some of the world’s largest fishing grounds, providing
approximately 15% of the world’s fish catch (9 million tons per annum). However,
globally, 87% of marine fish stocks are estimated to have been fully exploited and many
IOR countries depend on fisheries for a substantial portion of their protein needs and have
national concerns with the management of fish stocks (UKEssays, 2015).
SEA LINES OF COMMUNICATIONS AND CHOKE POINTS
Major sea lines of communications (SLOCs) are across the Indian Ocean
connecting East Asia, Europe, Middle East, East Africa, South Asia and Australia.
Therefore, Indian Ocean is important for global trading access, particularly for energy
supplies. With the economic evolution of India and China, majority of the world's trade in
energy now transit through these SLOCs. The Hormuz strait between Iran and Oman, The
Bab el madeb strait between Djibouti and Yemen and the Malacca strait between Malaysia
and Indonesia are the three critically important entry and exit points in the Indian Ocean.
About two-thirds of Gulf oil distributes through Indian Ocean to most of the Asian
countries. Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean is a comparatively
closed area and access to it is possible only through the choke points of the Cape of Good
Hope, the Red Sea and Suez Canal and the Straits of Malacca. Therefore the Indian Ocean
can easily be controlled by controlling these choke points (UKEssays, 2015).
TRADE AND ECONOMICS THROUGH SLOC
Nearly 40% of Asia’s population lives within 100 km of the coastline and all
activities in the IOR is directly effecting to their day to day life style. Those key factors of
trade economics taken place across the IOR through Sea Lines of Communication is as
follows: 55% of known world oil reserves are present in Indian Ocean.
a. 50% of the world’s container traffic passes through Indian Ocean.
b. About 30% of world trade is handled in the ports of the Indian Ocean.

12. d. 40 out of 54 types of raw materials used by U.S. industry are supplied by
the Indian Ocean.
e. Several of the world’s top container ports, including Port Kelang and
Singapore, are located in Indian Ocean as well as some of the world’s fastest
growing and busiest ports.
f. 40% of the world’s natural gas reserves are in Indian Ocean littoral states.
g. As economies in the littoral and hinterland of the IOR develop the Indian
Ocean will become even more important as a transport surface.
MAJOR PORTS AND HARBOURS
The Port of Singapore is the busiest port in the Indian Ocean, located in the Strait
of Malacca where it is connecting to the Pacific Ocean. Mumbai Port is the chief trading
port in India on the coast of the Indian Ocean. Chennai Port is the second largest port in
India and the busiest on the east coast.
2. Tuticorin port, Mormugao Port, Panambur, Mundra, Hazira, Kochi, Port Blair,
Kolkata, Alang, Visakhapatnam, Ennore, Paradip, and Nagapattinam are the other major
ports in India. South Asian ports include Chittagong in Bangladesh, Colombo, Galle,
Trincomalee (Natural) and Hambantota in Sri Lanka, and ports of Karachi, Sindh province
and Gwadar, Balochistan province in Pakistan (Alpers, E. A. 2013)
25. In the Yemen, Aden is a major port and it controls ships entering the Red Sea. Major
African ports on the shores of the Indian Ocean include: Mombasa (Kenya), Dar es Salaam,
Zanzibar (Tanzania), Durban, East London, Richard's Bay (South Africa), Beira
(Mozambique), and Port Louis (Mauritius). Zanzibar is especially famous for its spice
export. Other major ports in the Indian Ocean include Yangon (Burma), Muscat (Oman),
Medan (Indonesia), Jakarta, Fremantle (port servicing Perth, Australia) and Dubai (UAE).

13. Figure iv: Indian Ocean Port Development.
Source: Indian Development Cooperation Research (IDCR) 2014.
INTERNATIONAL INTEREST
26. The inaugural of the Suez Canal in 1869 re-energized European interest in the East,
but no nation was successful in forming trade dominance in Indian Ocean individually to
date. Since World War II the United Kingdom was forced to withdraw from the countries
in the area, to be replaced by India, the USSR, China and the United States and many other
nations and the found that the IOR is importance same as their territorial waters.
3. France. One of the European country with a stable presence in the IOR, with
an air force and naval base on Reunion, with few naval facilities on Mayotte and, at
Djibouti, its largest overseas base. It also has fishing interests in the region and its large
fishing fleets and the sizeable EEZs around its island territories.

14. 4. United States of America. IOR is very vital in its war on terror. Its principal
anxieties are answering terrorism and Islamic radicalism. The Afghanistan Pakistan border
areas have been recognized by USA as source of terrorism, and to counter this, IOR region
is very important for USA. The Strait of Hormuz is also very significant, as it may be shut
down by Iran in case of any future tensional situation. USA has a strong military presence
in Afghanistan and Iraq and also has naval facilities in Diego Garcia, Bahrain and
Singapore.
5. Japan. They have extensive oil and other resource interests in the IOR,
including a great concern for the security of its SLOCs. It's also a large aid donor in the
region.
6. European Union. Fishing fleets and the EU warships on patrol off Somalia and
in the Gulf of Aden. The EU is also complex in packages to build security in Horn of Africa
countries and is assisting the Seychelles to build the capacity of local maritime security
forces, and improve fisheries industry.
7. India. The Indian Ocean affords direct access to the Indian landmass and it
constitutes an intrinsically significant security area to India, where it is only externally
important to other states. For India, the Indian Ocean is even more important as any other
nation’s military presence can pose serious security challenges to the nation. India has
intense its forces along their western borders and north eastern borders due to the security
challenges posed by its western and northern countries. In case of any threat from the Indian
Ocean, India would have to disperse its military resources all along its land and coastal line.
Therefore for India, the Indian Ocean is very important, both economically and militarily.
8. China. Chinese companies are making investments in several Indian Ocean
ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colombo and Sonadia. This has sparked a argument
about the strategic inferences of these investments. Also they are building, roads networks
and infrastructure such as, railways and ports, which aid the transit of energy and minerals
particularly in Africa.

15. 9. Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka's prime location in prime maritime real estate has made it
a prominent player in the IOR. Trincomalee harbour, located in eastern part of Sri Lanka,
is considered as the best natural harbour in Asia. For external regional players, Trincomalee
is always been a very attractive location to base their naval assets and there have been
reports in the history and present that United Stares desire to base its naval assets there.
Due to its strategic location, Sri Lanka has been identified as a natural land based aircraft
carrier. Britain used Trincomalee airbase and naval base extensively during World War II.
It also gains its strategic position due to its close vicinity to India and also due to the fact
that its port, Colombo port named as a transit port for Cargo changeover or transition to
India. Peaceful and friendly locality is always the desire of all the peaceful nations, and
same is expected by India from Sri Lanka. India's more than two third borders are
surrounded by Sea and Sri Lanka is the only neighbour in that region, which makes it very
important for India.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

16. CHAPTER THREE
CURRENT MARITIME SECURITY CHALLENGES AND EMERGING
THREATS IN IINDIAN OCEAN REGION
10. The growth of Asian economies and their increased need for raw materials,
including energy from Middle East caused Indian Ocean to become a key strategic arena
in 21st
century. Further, it has been observed that this trade is encompasses with two way
street and it facilitates flow of Asian labour, capital and consumer goods much to the rich
countries in Arabian Peninsula. In addition prevailing instability in Middle East and Europe
diminished the importance of Atlantic Ocean and boost up the importance of Indian Ocean
for their military supplies.
11. Since the IOR is one of the strategic arena for global trade, increasingly influence
of state and non-state actors for regional affairs can be observed. Specially the extra
regional powers such as EU, US Japan and China involvement in this regard more
prominently can be observed. As result of these influences IOR today represent the most
politically troubled and potentially combustible area of the world by acquiring 142 among
388 political conflicts worldwide occurred up to 2015.
12. Therefore maritime security concern in IOR becomes more important and valuable
topic which needs to be addressed carefully. Maritime security threats in IOR ranges vary
from non-traditional threats to the traditional threats. So in present day context following
might be identified as potential threats and challenges to the IOR.
a. The threat of major intra state conflicts.
b. Presence of external forces.
c. The threat of terrorist attack against vulnerable points in the region.
Specially the offshore gas and oil installations and other mining infrastructure.
d. Non-traditional threats including Piracy, Global Warning, Smuggling of
People, Fishery Depletion, Maritime Natural Disasters, Drug Trafficking and
Marine Pollution.

17. e. The security of the chock points in the region.
f. Protection of SLOC.
13. Major Intra state conflict between India and Pakistan and Indian boarder dispute
with other surrounding states has caused much inflicts to the stability of the region as well
as to the maritime security concerns. Because maritime arena will be the deciding factor in
the final outcome for the domination in IOR.
14. Shows of force by rising powers in IOR more common in present day context due
country like US, China has much concern over these Judgement. Diego Garcia and String
of Pearls can be taken as examples and these issues increasing the tension in the region and
required early attention. Due to the presence of extremist groups in IOR, Maritime terrorist
attacks are a threat which needs to be paid great concern. Mumbai terrorist attack in 2008
shows the risk of sea born terrorist attack if coastal waters are not properly secured. Further,
terrorist speed boat attacks to the 03 Iraqi oil terminals in Persian Gulf in 2003 can be taken
as example.
15. Due to the large international naval effort, Somalian piracy near Eastern coast of
Somalia sharply dropped since 2012. Growing lack of support from local communities and
even their resistance to piracy operations was the other major factor for this decline. After
20 years of chaos and war Somalia now in relatively stability position and it could lead to
a more permanent solution to a problem. But Somalian piracy 100% not yet stopped.
Therefore it has yet to be solved the issue. In addition other two clusters which piracy
frequently taken placed in IOR are Gulf of Aden and Indonesian archipelago. So increasing
of maritime security on these two piracy ground also need to be addressed.

18. Table 1: Piracy in the Indian Ocean Region,actual and attempted attacks.
South -East Asia
Ser Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
1 Indonesia 121 94 79 50 43 28 15 40
2 Malacca Strait 28 38 12 11 7 2 2 2
3 Malaysia 5 9 3 10 9 10 16 18
4 Myanmar 1 1 1
5 Singapore 2 8 7 5 3 6 9 3
6 Thailand 2 4 1 1 2 1 2
Indian Sub -Continent
7 Bangladesh 58 17 21 47 15 12 17 23
8 India 27 15 15 5 11 10 12 5
9 Sri Lanka 2 1 4 1
10 Africa
11 Egypt 2 2
12 Eritrea 1 1
13 Kenya 1 1 4 2 1
14 Madagascar 1 1 1
15 Mozambique 1 3 2
16 South Africa 1
17 Tanzania 5 2 7 9 11 14 5 1
18 Horn of Africa
19 Gulf of Aden 18 8 10 10 13 92 116 53
20 Red Sea 15 25
21 Somalia 3 2 35 10 31 19 80 139
Rest of the Indian Ocean
22 Arabian Sea 2 2 2 4 2 1
23 Arabian Gulf 1
24 Gulf of Oman 1
25 Other Indian
Ocean
1 1
26 Iran 2 2 2
27 Iraq 1 10 2 2 2
28 Oman 3 4

19. 29 Saudi Arabia 1
30 Seychelles 1
31 UAE 2
32 Year Total 277 206 222 166 171 200 297 311
Source: Institute for Security Studies (2012)
16. If global warming continuous rising sea levels and polluted sea water are the major
problems for all the Asian countries which can be serious in years ahead. Parallely growing
desertification in East Africa leading to food shortages can be expected. Along with these
issues increasing of migration, much of it illegal can be expected. In addition present illegal
migration through sea to the Australia and Western Countries through IOR also need to be
addressed immediately.
17. Fishery depletion due Illegal Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing caused
much harm to the livelihood of the population in the IOR. Poor monitoring and over fishing
in present environment further exaggerated the issue and immediate solution on this regard
required.
18. Since IOR lies in one of the ‘world hazardous belt, maritime natural hazards due to
the climate change and several oceanic conditions like tsunami and tropical storms tends to
arise frequently. Though South East Asia is the porn to these hazards scientific findings
reveals that area and frequency of these hazards will be changed with the time comes.
19. Since the Golden crescent and Golden triangle for illegal drug production lies in the
IOR, narco-terrorism will be a great maritime security concern in IOR.
20. Since the ecology in maritime environment can be seriously damaged due to the oil
related disasters at sea, deep concern must be paid for the oil spill or wrecks of oil tankers
in the IOR. If such incident taken placed in harbour approach, TSS or at choke points such
incident can seriously be affected for the flow of merchant shipping in the area.
21. The Bab El-Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz and Malacca straits became the major choke
points lies in the IOR and which has great strategic importance for the every maritime

20. nation. The piracy and frequent conflicts in Gulf of Aden are the two issues which can be
identified as security concern. Since the large volume of cargo and nearly 9.4 million
barrels of oil per day (according to EIA) traversing through this area protection of SLOC
take higher priority. Parallaly protection of broadband undersea cable communication
connections between US, Europe and Asia which traversing through IOR is also very much
important. So littoral states has much responsibility over the own growing routes in future
SLOC protection.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

21. CHAPTER FOUR
STRENGTHENING MARITIME SECURITY IN THE INDIAN OCEAN REGION
22. The maritime security is an essential element to manage the ocean resources and
ocean environment effectively. It covers the marine assets within the water column and
sea bed, marine trade and commerce and various practices within the maritime environment
such as fishing and shipping. Further, maritime security is also considered as an important
aspect of national security of all the littoral states at large. Because, it provides a
background to acquire firm socio-political and administrative environment to any littoral
state with sustainable profit through maritime industries. Maritime security covers the
effective response against both traditional and non-traditional threats in the maritime
environment (Joseph, 2012).
23. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) highlights the following
salient aspects related to maritime security:
a. Military Dimension. The military dimension is intended to enhance,
conserve and safeguard the territorial integrity, coastal peace and order of coastal
states. The UNCLOS and many other International Agreements pay their attention
to the following facets:
(1) Monitoring innocent passages through territorial waters, transit
passage and archipelagic sea lanes to ensure the freedom of navigation.
(2) Activities in the EEZ.
(3) Monitoring and enforcement of environmental laws, rules and
regulations.
(4) Concern on food security laws, rules and regulations along with
fishing incursions by foreign ships in EEZ.

22. (5) Regulating the process of conservation and optimum utilization of
ocean resources.
b. Environmental Dimension. The environmental dimension covers the
policies on the preservation and protection of the marine environment. Further,
these dimensions are to enhance the protection and preservation of the marine assets
of a country (Joseph, 2012).
24. Maritime security is a vital aspect in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), since Indian
Ocean is providing the passage to interconnect the East and West of the world. The littoral
states in the IOR have extended diversity among them in terms of their sizes, economy,
language and culture. Furthermore, many of the countries in IOR are still developing and
they are deficient in both modern technology and economic aspects as well. IOR is also
facing many traditional and non-traditional security challenges continuously. Hence, it is
required to ensure the uninterrupted and reliable safe movement of goods, energy, people
and other supplies via Indian Ocean (Iora.net, 2015).
STABILITY OF INDIAN OCEAN REGION
25. The IOR comprises with considerable number of world’s failed and failing states.
Further, IOR has labelled as ‘Arc of Crisis’ or ‘Arc of instability. Middle East conflicts,
political instability and conflict in Yemen, Sudan, and Eritrea, the Taliban influence to
Pakistan and Afghanistan, social unrest in India, the political polarization in Bangladesh,
the prodemocracy movement in Burma, bubbling ethnic tensions after the war in Sri Lanka
are added fuel to tarnish the political stability in the countries of IOR (Cordner, 2011).
26. A key consequence is a “yawning maritime security gap off the Horn of Africa due
to the lack of law and order ashore. The degeneration of other states adjacent to vital
international SLOCs and straits must be seriously considered. The maritime security
interests of regional and extra regional states are likely to be expanded. Many of the IOR
littoral states are absence of effective maritime-border control, even though they possess
small navies. Further, most of IOR states lack intelligence, early warning, maritime air
surveillance and reconnaissance or the coordinated maritime security patrol and efficient

23. response capabilities indispensable to exercising sovereign control over their maritime
domains (Cordner, 2011).
27. Many extra regional countries have significant interests to safeguard the IOR. The
extensive involvement of the US, Chinese, South Korean and various European navies in
the antipiracy effort in IOR in order to ensure the safe passage to the maritime trade. The
engagement of Western power to provide energy security and in addressing the sources of
Islamist extremism have also made impact on the stability of IOR through ‘Gunboat
Diplomacy’ since many nations are experienced the colonial rule. The emergence of China
as a maritime power with greater interest on IOR has generated anxiety on some countries
in IOR such as India.
MARITIME INITIATIVES WITHIN THE REGION
28. The robust political framework on which to build the necessary collaboration
among states to meet the maritime security challenges of the IOR is lacking at present. The
Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC) has not been effective
although it may be revitalised in 2011 when India and Australia assume the positions of
Chair and Vice-Chair of the association respectively.
29. The ASEAN Defence Ministers Meeting + 8 format which includes Australia,
China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, South Korea and the United States (ADMM+8)
maritime experts working group is another potential forum in which maritime cooperation
might be discussed. The maritime domain of the IOR includes the areas of maritime
security cooperation, fisheries management, maritime safety, marine scientific research,
people smuggling by sea, and the mitigation of marine national hazards. These initiatives
might be launched on a region-wide basis, at a sub-regional level, or bilaterally depending
on the particular issue.
30. India has stimulated the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) to foster the
required cooperation between navies and coast guards in the littoral states of the IOR. The
forum provides facility to discuss maritime issues relevant to the region which result the
flow of information between naval professionals to understand and initiate the possible
cooperative solutions on the way ahead. However, extra-regional countries that have the

24. significant interests in the IOR were not invited to participate to the symposium. The IONS
is an inclusive forum and has a clear sense of purpose.
31. The ‘Galle Dialogue’ is an International Maritime Conference which is organized
by the Sri Lanka Navy annually since 2010. Both local and international professionals
represent the event in each year. This conference can be considered as a forum of
facilitating to discuss on issues of maritime environment.
POSSIBILITIES TO STRENGTHEN THE MARITIME SECURITY IN INDIAN
OCEAN REGION
32. It has become vital for the littoral states of IOR to consider the improvements for a
regional maritime vision or strategy integrating capacity-building of nations to address the
issues and problems of maritime safety and security. The strategy should be combined with
both regional and extra regional parties who have the interest on IOR whilst promoting
maritime trade and industry in innovative, viable and environment-friendly manner.
Further, it is required to consider a suitable mechanism to improve the coordination,
collaboration, cooperation and fruitful dialogue among all communities, policymakers,
private sectors and scientific researchers in maritime environment especially in littoral
States.
33. The littoral states in IOR must have the responsibility to enhance the existing
national, regional and multilateral measures to build up a sustainable maritime security
environment in order to safeguard the maritime safety and security of IOR. Further, it can
be considered effective cross-border collaboration and sharing of knowledge and
information with respect to maritime security among states and region as a better and
efficient practice. This will enhance the political will of each littoral state to address the
future challenges in maritime security and explore the possibilities.
34. The harmonisation of co-operation between public and private investors could
promote maritime security needs and requirements in order to implement the maritime
safety and security regulations and would promote modernization initiatives towards
creating a common environment to strengthen the maritime security of IOR. Further, it is

25. essential to open a forum to involve with other external stakeholders, regional and sub-
regional groupings for investment which generate interest on strengthening of maritime
security of IOR through their countries or companies. The coordination with UN Agencies
such as IMO, IOC-UNESCO and UNEP will provide the expert assistance when a situation
arises.
35. The concerns neighbouring the protection and the effective use of the ocean and its
resources are trans-boundary in nature and require healthy cooperation among the littoral
states. The establishment of an IORA Centre of Excellence on Ocean Sciences and
Environment and the proposal of Seychelles to establish a hub for environmental research
(marine and terrestrial) for the Western Indian Ocean are pragmatic steps to protect and
manage Indian Ocean sustainably (Forbes, 2010).
CAPACITY BUILDING
36. Capacity in a maritime protection at a national level embraces the ability to provide
tolerable protection for maritime infrastructure such as offshore installations, ports and port
facilities, security in waters under national jurisdiction and border protection. Further,
maritime protection extends towards the implementing international standards in ship
security (ISPS), cargo security, and port security, documentation of seafarers and to
discharge the duty on responsibilities as a flag state. Capacity at the sub-regional and
regional levels will comprise provisions for collaboration and coordination of maritime
security arrangements, exchanging of information and supportive training and education,
and improvements of protocols and systems to facilitate such arrangements.
37. Developing countries in particular to encounter substantial difficulties in evolving
their capacity to afford maritime security effectively. Specifically, this encompasses the
human, technological, scientific, organisational, and resource capabilities. The basic goal
of capacity-building is to develop the ability to assess, evaluate and address the critical
questions related to policy choices and modes of implementation of options. In order to
achieve this, it is required to understand the environmental potentials, restrictions and needs
as perceived by the people of the particular country. Capacity building in developing
countries requires cooperation between these countries and pertinent international
organisations, regional associations with other developed countries.

26. 38. There must be a sufficient laws and regulations in order to strengthen the maritime
security which requires identifying individuals with the legal authority to proceed with
investigations to apprehend offenders in order to impose penalties. Furthermore,
establishing procedures for national and multilateral collaboration with legal framework is
essential to enhance the maritime security.
39. Considerations are required to be given to the comparative roles of navies and
coastguards. The primary role of a navy is to conduct military operations at sea in the
defence of national security. This warfighting role and the capabilities it requires basically
underpin the ability of a navy to conduct constabulary operations or other activities at sea
in accordance with foreign and domestic policies. Coastguard vessels might be more
suitable than warships for employing in sensitive areas where there are conflicting claims
to maritime jurisdiction and/or political tensions between parties.
CONCERN ABOUT THE INDIAN OCEAN BEEN USED AS A SOFT
DIPLOMACY OPTION.
40. Whilst the building of the understanding with IOR countries itself, India and China
need to manage their energy diplomacy and co-existence with each other and also with the
rest of the industrial nations. Since both countries are presently became most energy
consuming countries in the region as well as in first 10 countries in the world. Hence been
giant nations in the region China and India need to be working together to ensure security
and good order at sea.
EFFECTIVE MARITIME GOVERNANCE AND GOOD ORDER AT SEA
41. Good order at sea is crucial in making the Indian Ocean Region safe. Regional
Corporation between various organizations at national level will be immensely value. Even
though land are and areas are well defined and monitored, maritime borders are generally
provides less restriction allowing free access without an effective mechanism for
surveillance of IOR. Most regional countries have its own extensive maritime interest.
Therefor Regional Corporation is fundamental to maintain good order at sea. Hence the

27. various organisations at region need to be collaboration as one entity. There are number of
organisations been established in the region such as Indian Ocean Rim-Association for
regional corporation,(IOR-ARC), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), South Asian
Association for Reginald Corporation (SAARC), Council for Security Corporation in the
Asian Pacific (CSCAP), Asia Pacific Economic Community (APEC), South Asian regional
Port Security Cooperative (SARPSCO), Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS), and
Galle Dialogue. These organisations need to be considered as initiatives for good order at
sea. Therefore this organitional actions and collaboration is immensely value in bridging
this much wanted security cooperation in Indian Ocean Region.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

28. CHAPTER FIVE
STRATEGIC COOPERATION FRAMEWORK FOR THE IOR
60. The IOR is in a dire need of a strategic cooperation framework with respect to
maritime security. In the purview of maritime security the focus should be towards
maritime resources management and preservation, HADR operations, shipping security
against sabotage and piracy, poaching and illegal fishing, and against transnational threats
such as terrorism, nuclear proliferation, human smuggling/gunrunning and anarchy.
61. Today’s global system presents an anarchical state as many nation states especially
Indian Ocean littorals are in the verge of becoming failed states: Afghanistan, Iraq,
Somalia, and Eretria. This despite the region itself presenting its potential of the rising
middle class and booming economies of India, ASEAN possibly Pakistan and Sri Lanka if
reconciliation takes place.
62. The global population has reached 7 billion. Thus, the IOR undeniably is the conduit
in keeping the global system running, ensuring that mankind would have a tomorrow.
Hence, the paper aims at discussing and addressing three issues in formulating a viable
cooperation framework for the IOR. First, why is it important to device a strategic
cooperation framework for the IOR? Second, is it possible or realistic in formulating a
framework? Third, if possible or not what are the opportunities or way forward?
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO DEVICE A STRATEGIC COOPERATION
FRAMEWORK FOR THE IOR?
63. “No ocean is in need of a strategic stability more than the Indian Ocean, which is
arguably the most nuclearized of the seven seas”, - Thomas P.M Barnett. Indian Ocean is
where the rivalry between the USA and China in the Pacific interlocks with the regional
rivalry between China and India. In addition America’s crusade against terrorism in the
Middle East, which includes USA’s attempt to contain Iran are also vital focus areas. It

29. should be noted whenever U.S navy warships have bombed Iraq or Afghanistan, they have
often done from the Indian Ocean.
64. Indian Ocean does not have a single focal point, it has many: Horan of Africa,
Persian Gulf, Bay of Bengal and Malacca Strait. Thus, there are different threats in different
areas. Apart from the security perspectives let’s focus on the collective response capacity
and capabilities available in the IOR. For easy assimilation and reference two contemporary
incidents are brought to light.
65. First, is the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami. If one recalls the USA 7th
fleet was able to
respond with assistance to Sri Lanka and Indonesia as the fleet was moving cross the region
towards Japan and directed/tasked for relief and rehabilitation operations. In this respect
one must not forget the Indian Navy, which was at the forefront in responding and
extending assistance especially to Sri Lanka. But the concern is that unlike air the floating
platforms takes time. Thus, the issue is the comparative slowness in which ships move
which would be a challenge for any Navy to get to a crisis zone in adequate time.
66. Second, the missing MH 370 incident. Was the response of the concerned regional,
global players adequate or timely? Was the mission successful? What were the lapses?
Though, the paper would not further deal with the MH 370 discussion, it is a clarion call
for the IOR navies to appreciate that we need faster, better, adequate platforms with
technologies of the future that are capable of providing a better and uncluttered maritime
picture. But for the time being this very event underscored that not only the IOR Navies
but the International Community is unfortunately behind with the integration of viable
technology.
67. If the importance or need for a strategic cooperation framework in the IOR is to be
stated in a single sentence: IOR sketches across seven time zones and almost half of the
world’s latitudes.

30. IS IT POSSIBLE AT FORMULATING A FRAMEWORK?
68. Yes or no, first we need to underscore the complexity, multiplicity and ideological
differences in the IOR which was emphasized previously. The challenge is in bringing
Navies of the seven time zones to coordinate, respond and operate in a single framework.
69. In addition the multiplicity of regional and ideological alliances is also a challenge
that needs to be overcome in formulating a framework, which has a strategic outlook and
operational implications. Already. There are alliances with security orientation in the IOR
such as ASEAN security initiative, Combined Task Group to deter Piracy. In this respect
NATO could be viewed as an ideological alliance with a security implication.
70. The sensitivity of national interests of IOR littorals and global hegemonic powers
such as China, USA, India, Russia are also additional thresholds that needs to be smothered
or minimized. The possibility of strategic formulation also needs to be taken into
perspective with India’s horizontal expansion in the IOR and China’s vertical extension
towards the IOR. Thus, in addition to the four main focal areas mentioned earlier, the
inclusion of Arabian Sea, especially with respect to Gwadar port development is also a vital
red zone to be considered in any strategic cooperation framework that would be devised to
the IOR.
71. In this backdrop, it is foreseen that any future Indian Ocean alliance will be like the
present NATO alliance with a singular focus. Thus, the best COA would be a cooperative
framework which is singularly orientated towards mitigating transnational threats:
terrorism, natural disasters, nuclear proliferation and anarchy, providing a looser grip
without hindering IOR littorals national interest ambitions that would not be detrimental to
global security or commerce.
72. Finally, despite the existing anarchical system one cannot deny the fact that there is
a significant possibility in formulating a strategic framework for cooperation in the IOR.
Hence, any opportunity presented should not be ruled out as it is now or never, before the
next geopolitical tectonic shift takes place. So where do we start?

31. WHAT IS THE WAY FORWARD?
73. As previously discussed a NATO like organization which is singularly focused with
a looser attitude in hindering pursuing national interests would be suitable. The focus
should be towards transnational threats such as terrorism, natural disasters, nuclear
proliferation and anarchy. These, any littoral state could easily compromise than sensitive
issue of delimitations, poaching etc.
74. The establishment of the Indian Ocean Security Organization (IOSO) would be a
perfect platform. China, Japan, Russia and USA should be included as both facilitators and
observers in this alliance. In addition coordinating centers should be included in following
state: ASEAN, Australia, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Kenya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka,
South Africa and Pakistan.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

32. CHAPTER SIX
RECOMMENDATIONS
75. The considering the way ahead on addressing various challenges to maritime
security is formulation of collaborative maritime security corporation. It is pre-requisite to
make any practical headway in this regards will be resolved contentious issues and
disagreements between the regional sates through dialogue and political process. Thus such
an approach could facilitate confidence building and trust between the regional states, to
enhance the Maritime Doman Awareness (MDA) and furtherance of corporation in
combating maritime crimes. The establishment of the Indian Ocean Security Organization
(IOSO) would concern about the following prospective to formulate a maritime security
frame work:
a. Concern about the Strategic Sea Line Access and Chock-Points in the
IOR. Prevention of seaborne trade is crucial for economic wellbeing of the region
and extra-regional state alike. Exiting level of corporation by regional state need to
be further strengthened flow of seas born trade playing on the SLOCs crisscrossing
IOR. A regional architecture for rapid information sharing may be involved to
ensure freedom of navigation on the high seas.
b. Regulation of the Maritime Traffic. Regulation of the maritime
traffic small boats/fishing vessels in respective areas of responsibility is considered
vital to check all types of illegal activities. In this regards corporation between all
stake holders and capacity building of coastal states in IOR remain key enablers.
c. Real time intelligence sharing among littoral nations in order to
enhance the maritime domain awareness. Piracy in IOR is an enduring
problem which requires a long term solution targeting political stability ashore in
Somalia. Existing cooperation between regional and extra-regional forces
combatting maritime terrorism and the menace of piracy is considered vital. Sharing
of experience, expertise and relevant information in this regards amongst regional
states can help in capacity building and effective tracking of the problem. Such fora
are considered useful to evolve workable solution for effective suppression piracy.

33. d. Concern about the Indian Ocean been Used as a Soft Diplomacy
Option. Whilst the building of the understanding with IOR countries itself,
India and China need to manage their energy diplomacy and co-existence with each
other and also with the rest of the industrial nations.
e. Need For Indian and China to Stabiles the Region with the
Collaboration with Other Regional Countries for Joint Initiatives (Regional
Integration: Key to Success). Effective regional integration can be
introduces as most effective and important pillar in finding solution. As a region
which is fast becoming the attention of the whole world by gradually taking the
center stage of geopolitics. Thus IOR regional security can be improve and ensure.
The regional integration need to focus on building up a cooperative security
dialogue and effective apparatus. Developing such mechanism will always
considered the extra regional assistance as the IOR main aim should be establish a
global reach.
f. Effective Maritime Governance and Good Order at Sea. Good
order at sea is crucial in making the Indian Ocean Region safe. Regional
Corporation between various organizations at national level will be immensely
value. Even though land are and areas are well defined and monitored, maritime
borders are generally provides less restriction allowing free access without an
effective mechanism for surveillance of IOR.
g. Effective Exercise of Authority in the Area of Jurisdiction from All
Maritime Forces by Placing Necessary Legal Instruments. Even though
most of the IOR countries ratified with maritime laws, the law enforcing authorities
couldn’t exercise those law due international influences and some other reasons.
Thus prevailing law need to be reinforce while strengthen the law enforcing
authorities. Hence this process can only be exercise by strengthen the maritime
security cooperation in the region by formulating strategic framework only.
h. Enhance the Regional Cooperation by Holding an Annual Conference
on Maritime Cooperation. It is required to enhance and strengthen the regional

34. corporation while discussing the matters in coming forum with other regional
countries to solve problems.
i. Introducing of Systematic Approach for Prevent Extra Regional
Powers in The IOR. Due to various week strength of the regional
corporations most of the powerful nations and extra regional organizations
commonly influence their power to region. To face this challenge it is very much
required to get to gather the nations/states at IOR as common regional alliance. Thus
Asian Giant such as China and India and even ASIAN power will help to mitigate
this issue.
j. Introducing of Annual Ocean Security Organization (IOSO) Forum for
Discuss the Security Matters in The Region. The research team has
been subjected the IOSO Forum for common platform to discuss this matters.
Thus the all inter regional orgaisations and countries needed to be working together
to make it materialize. Therefor China, India and ASIAN counties need to take part
in initial steps for success.
k. Equal Distribution from All Littoral Countries for Commits
Environmental Protection. It is very much required to take part their
responsibilities to safeguard area of responsibilities of the sea by respective
countries to protect environment.
l. Develop the Keen Bilateral and Multilateral Dialogues on Mutual
Strategic Trust Aimed at Enhancing Further Relations. The all countries
within the region need to be enhance their bilateral and multilateral relations to
ensure and develop their trust and agreement to ensure good order at sea.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK

35. CONCLUSION
73. IOR countries have a long history on maritime trade and marine related activities
and marine interaction with the intra-regional and extra-regional countries over
thousands of years. Today the Indian Ocean traditional states as an international trade
highway is became more significantly important than ever before. The main reason
behind is the vast resources (specially oil and gas) and strategically and geopolitical
situation on the Indian Ocean Region and shipping traveling and its water ways and
maritime security issues being encountered.
74. The maritime security issues have arising are to a greater extent link to fail or
week states at IOR. Moreover specific challenges are piracy, asymmetrical threat, illegal
trafficking of people, drug trafficking, gun running, resources security and environment
threat. Therefore the regional maritime security problem, the potential disrupting the
global energy security and the sea line of communication, global economy, have become
important international issues. Therefore many extra regional powers have stake in Indian
Ocean maritime security and deploy their navies in the Indian Ocean to fight piracy.
Meantime the UN Security Council has passes a serious of resolutions calling for
international assistant and number of multi-national task forces and few independent
naval units.
76. To mitigate this issue China is the new comer to Indian Ocean and presently them
expanding influence over Indian Ocean. But some of the countries viewed with
suspicious their activities while some of them welcome Chines presence. China recently
concluded the military agreement with Indian Ocean countries and deployed Chines
naval ships operates against piracy. Hence, this presence could be used as an opportunity
to invite China naval power inter-operability in Indian Ocean security has been sharing
with regional navies.
77. Thus transnational security organisation in the region is very important. Therefore
regional, sub regional, and international organization can contribute their support much
in security and technology means to stop this issue. The Indian navy can be considered
as leader in the IOR navies and Indian Naval initiatives such as Indian Ocean Naval
Symposium (IONS) has been accepted and welcome by many of nations.
78. As a conclusion on this paper has concerned strategic value and impotency of

36. IOR, maritime security, characteristics, threats, possible solutions and international
regional corporations. All nations in the region and Indian and China in particular are
need to keen on facilitating vibrant maritime , economical and commercial activities at
sea since these ‘underpin’ economic security. Therefore this study has make endeavor
to protect maritime domain against ocean related issues and particular in maritime non-
traditional threats. Hence objectives can be achieved by collaborating all IOR nations
together as Regional Corporation with the relationship with other extra regional
organizations, navies and maritime security agencies.
77. The main objective of the IONS is to encourage capacity-building within the region.
Though each sub-region has its own unique challenges, IOR nations required to deal with
maritime security challenges with the collaboration of all together ensure security at
maritime domain and good order at Indian Ocean. Hence need to have a structure and
platform to addresses maritime security and capacity-building and involves both regional
and extra-regional countries. Therefor great potential is for the international community
and regional organisations to improve international cooperation, to strengthen security in
the region, and to create an Indian Ocean security strategy that is acceptable to all.

37. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Groud, R. and Mookherjee, M. (2015). China in Indian Ocean Region. Newv Dhili: Allied
Publisher, pp.116 to 120.
Upadhyayaa, S. (2013). Maritime security cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region: The
role of the Indian Navy. 6th ed. Austrila: Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs,
pp.173-190.
Alpers, E. A. (2013). The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-533787-7.
Cordner, L. (2011). Progressing Maritime Security Cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
[online] Usnwc.edu. Available at: https://www.usnwc.edu/getattachment/92887ed7-4617-
4ff7-adbc-edac05c97613/Progressing-Maritime-Security-Cooperation-in-the-I.aspx
[Accessed 3 Nov. 2015].
Han, W.; McCreary Jr, J. P. (2001). "Modelling salinity distributions in the Indian Ocean"
(PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (C1): 859–877. Retrieved July 2015.
Iora.net, (2015). Maritime Safety & Security - IORA - Indian Ocean Rim Association.
[online] Available at: http://www.iora.net/about-us/priority-areas/maritime-safety-
security.aspx [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].
Joseph, R. (2012). Maritime Security Concerns and the Future Role of the Sri Lanka Coast
Guard. [online] Kotelawala Defence University. Available at:
http://www.kdu.ac.lk/southern_campus/images/documents/symposium/symposium2012/p
apers/ts/MaritimeSecurityConcernsandtheFutureRoleoftheSriLankaCoastGuard.pdf
[Accessed 23 Oct. 2015].
Maritime security in the Indian Ocean: strategic setting and features. (2015). Institute for
Security Studies, [online] AUGUST 2012 No. 236, pp.13 to 18. Available at:
https://www.citethisforme.com/cite/journal [Accessed 20 Oct. 2015].
Maritime security in the Indian Ocean: strategic setting and features. (2015). Institute for
Security Studies, [online] AUGUST 2012 No. 236, pp.13 to 18. Available at:
https://www.citethisforme.com/cite/journal [Accessed 20 Oct. 2015].
Oceanwithsea.blogspot.com, (2015). Indian Ocean ~ Ocean and Sea. [online] Available at:
http://oceanwithsea.blogspot.com/2013/01/indian-ocean.html [Accessed 25 Oct. 2015].

38. Rais, R. B. (1986). The Indian Ocean and the Superpowers. Routledge. ISBN 0-7099-4241-
9.
UKEssays, (2015). Importance Of Indian Ocean Region And Sri Lanka. [online] Available
at: http://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/importance-of-indian-ocean-region-and-sri-
lanka-history-essay.php#ixzz3pIJwINc8 [Accessed 25 Oct. 2015].
UKEssays, (2015). Strategic importance of the Indian Ocean Region. [online] Available
at: http://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/strategic-importance-of-the-indian-ocean-
region-history-essay.php#ixzz3pafJgXr5 [Accessed 24 Oct. 2015].
Web sites
www. galledialogue.lk
www. ions.gov.in
www. www.maritimeindia.org
www.cfr.org