Forms of triangulation

1. ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Exploring the forms of triangulation in qualitative
research.

2. Presentation outline
 Introduction: Exploring qualitative research
 Background for triangulation
 Triangulation defined
 Rationale for triangulation
 Exploring forms of triangulation and discussion
 Conclusion

3. Introduction: Exploring qualitative research
 According to Moon et al (2016), qualitative research is defined by the philosophical nature of
the inquiry, that is, the ontologies, epistemologies, and methodologies that researchers adopt
during the design of their research projects and the associated assumptions they make when
collecting, analysing and interpreting their data (citing Khagram et al. 2010).
 The growth of qualitative social science research (herein referred to as qualitative research)
can be attributed to an increasing recognition of its value in seeking to define and understand
complexity rather than to reduce it (Creswell 2009), expanding the range of research
questions that can be asked (Prokopy 2011); providing an in-depth understanding of
phenomena.
 Qualitative research engages the target audience in an open-ended, exploratory discussion
using tools like focus groups or in-depth interviews. Qualitative research explores the “what,
why and how” questions and provides directional data about the target audience. It is
commonly used to explore the perceptions and values that influence behaviour, identify
unmet needs, understand how people perceive a marketing message, or to inform a
subsequent phase of quantitative research.
 Researchers must provide sufficient information on their research design to enable end-users
to determine its quality, namely, the dependability, credibility, confirmability and transferability

4. Background for
triangulation
 Triangulation has been used in quantitative surveying from at least the
1600s to describe a method that calculates a distance that is difficult (or
impossible) to measure, from two or more easier-to-measure distances
(Lowler:2017).
 Historically, triangulation is a new concept in the social science repertoire
dating back to a paper published by Campbell and Fiske in 1959. In their
paper they discussed establishing validity of measures through the
application of a multitrait-multimethod matrix, a procedure which examines
both convergent and discriminant validation of measures of traits state
Mathison (1988). While the procedure was presented in a mathematically
elegant fashion; the basic idea was that in the development of measures
of psychological traits, several methods should be employed to measure.
 The metaphor is a good one because a phenomenon under study in a
qualitative research project is much like a ship at sea. The exact
description of the phenomenon is unclear.
 Webb et al. (1966) coined the term "triangulation" in their published paper
in the social sciences.

5. Triangulation defined
 According to Cresswell (2013; pg 252), triangulation is collecting data
over different times or from different sources. The process involves
corroborating evidence from different sources to shed light on a theme or
perspective.
 Triangulation is the practice of obtaining more reliable answers to
research questions through integrating results from several different
approaches, where each approach has different key sources of potential
bias that are unrelated to each other (Lawlor: 2017)
 Cohen and Manion (2000) define triangulation as an attempt to map out
or explain more fully the richness and complexity of human behaviour by
studying it from more than one standpoint.
 O’Donoghue and Punch (2003) mentions triangulation as a method of
cross-checking data from multiple sources to search for regularities in the
research data.

6. Triangulation defined
(Cont.)
 Triangulation involves using multiple data sources in an investigation to
produce understanding.
 Some see triangulation as a method for corroborating findings and as a test
for validity of research through the use of a variety of methods to collect data
on the same topic.
 Rather than seeing triangulation as a method for validation or verification,
qualitative researchers generally use this technique to ensure that an account
is rich, robust, comprehensive and well-developed.
 Triangulation is an approach to research that uses a combination of more
than one research strategy in a single investigation. Denzin (1978), however,
indicated that triangulation should not be confused with mixed methods; but
instead, these are two distinct ways to conceptualize interpretations and
findings.

7. Rationale for
triangulation
 Denzin proposes four reasons to triangulate:
1. Enriching-outputs of different informal and formal instruments add value to
each other by explaining different aspects of an issue and thus reducing
sources of error.
2. Refuting- where one set of options disproves a hypothesis generated by
another set of options
3. Confirming –where one set of options confirms a hypothesis generated by
another set options
4. Explaining –where one set of options sheds light on expected findings
derived from one set of options
 It minimises bias and helps to balance out any of the potential weaknesses in
each data collection method
 The goal in choosing different strategies in the same study is to balance them
so each counterbalances the margin of error in the other.

8. Rationale for triangulation (Cont.)
 Qualitative investigators may choose triangulation as a research strategy to assure
completeness of findings or to confirm findings.
 Assure completeness: The most accurate description of the elephant comes from
a combination of all three individuals' descriptions.
 Confirm findings: Researchers might also choose triangulation to confirm
findings and conclusions. Any single qualitative research strategy has its
limitations. By combining different strategies, researchers confirm findings by
overcoming the limitations of a single strategy.
 Uncovering the same information from more than one vantage point helps
researchers describe how the findings occurred under different circumstances and
assists them to confirm the validity of the findings.

9. Rationale (Cont.)
 Triangulation does not only ensure validity but places the
responsibility with the researcher for the construction of
plausible explanations about the phenomena being studied.
 Mathison (1988) mentions three outcomes that might result
from a triangulation strategy i.e.
 Convergence: data from different sources, methods, investigators, and so on
will provide evidence that will result in a single proposition about some social
phenomenon.
 Inconsistency: When multiple sources, methods, and so on are employed we
frequently are faced with a range of perspectives or data that do not confirm
a single proposition about a social phenomenon.
 Contradiction: When we have employed several methods we are sometimes
left with a data bank that results in opposing views of the social phenomenon
being studied.
 Triangulation therefore, is in support of the complementary
theorist who carefully considers the outcome in logical
sequence and evaluates whether differences in conclusions can

10. Rationale (Cont.)
 A subjectivist scientific perspective, triangulation is seen as a way of
exploring the data, creating different data.
 Triangulation is a validity procedure where researchers search for
convergence among multiple and different sources of information to
form themes or categories in a study.
 Triangulation has some features in common with Austin Bradford
Hill’s concept of ‘consistency’ which he defines in his considerations
on causality as ‘[results that have] been repeatedly observed by
different persons, in different places, circumstances and times’
(Lowler:2017).

11. Exploring forms of triangulation
 In his explication of how to use triangulation as a research strategy,
Denzin outlines four types of triangulation and Potter (1999) points out the
fifth to be the combination of other four:
Forms of
Triangulation
Data
Method
Investigato
r
Theory
5th Type:
Multiple
Triangulation

12. Data Triangulation
 Data triangulation refers simply to using several data sources, the obvious
example being the inclusion of more than one individual as a source of data.
However, Denzin expands the notion of data triangulation to include time and
space based on the assumption that understanding a social phenomenon requires
its examination under a variety of conditions.
 Denzin (1989) described three types of data triangulation: (1) time, (2) space, and
(3) person.
 Time triangulation: researchers collect data about a phenomenon at different
points in time. Studies based on longitudinal designs are not considered examples
of data triangulation for time because they are intended to document changes over
time.
 Space triangulation: consists of collecting data at more than one site. At the
outset, the researcher must identify how time or space relate to the study and
make an argument supporting the use of different time or space collection points in
the study.

13. Data Triangulation
 Person triangulation: researchers collect data from more than one level of
person, that is, a set of individuals (aggregate analysis), groups (interactive
analysis), or collectives (collectivity level).
 Researchers might also discover data that are dissimilar among levels. In such a
case, researchers would collect additional data to resolve the incongruence.
 Example: for example, to study the effect of an inservice program on teachers,
one should observe teachers at different times of the school day or year and in
different settings such as the classroom and the teachers' lounge.

14. Methodological Triangulation
 Smith and Kleine (1986) suggest that the use of multi-methods results in "different
images of understanding" thus increasing the "potency" of evaluation findings.
 Methodological triangulation is the most discussed type of triangulation and refers
to the use of multiple methods in the examination of a social phenomenon.
 Denzin suggests that the within-methods triangulation approach has limited value,
because essentially only one method is being used, and finds the between-
methods triangulation strategy more satisfying.
 Methods triangulation at the design level has also been called between-method
triangulation and methods triangulation at the data collection level has been called
within-method triangulation. This implies methods triangulation can occur at the
level of design or data collection.
 "The rationale for this strategy is that the flaws of one method are often the
strengths of another: and by combining methods, observers can achieve the best
of each while overcoming their unique deficiences" (Denzin, 1978, p. 302).
 This method is potentially the most powerful because of the bias of methods from
one paradigm could be counterbalanced by the methods from the other, Gray D E
(2014).

15. Methodological Triangulation (Cont.)
a. Design/Between-method
 Design methods triangulation most often uses quantitative methods combined with qualitative
methods in the study design.
 simultaneous implementation
 sequential implementation
 Theory should emerge from the qualitative findings and should not be forced by researchers
into the theory they are using for the quantitative portion of the study.
 The blending of qualitative and quantitative approaches does not occur during either data
generation or analysis. Rather, researchers blend these approaches at the level of
interpretation, merging findings from each technique to derive a consistent outcome.
 The process of merging findings "is an informed thought process, involving judgment,
wisdom, creativity, and insight and includes the privilege of creating or modifying theory“.
 lf contradictory findings emerge or researchers find negative cases, the investigators most
likely will need to study the phenomenon further.
 Sometimes triangulation design method might use two different qualitative research methods.
 When researchers combine methods at the design level, they should consider the purpose of
the research and make a logical argument for using each method.

16. Methodological Triangulation (Cont.)
b. Data collection/Within method
 Using methods triangulation at the level of data collection, researchers use two
different techniques of data collection, but each technique is within the same
research tradition.
 “is given when different approaches in one method are used systematically and
are theoretically well founded” (Flick 2007, p.73).
 refers to different ways of finding data contained in one method.
 The purpose of combining the data collection methods is to provide a more holistic
and better understanding of the phenomenon under study.
Example: For instance, within a survey, various subscales can be used in one
questionnaire, assessing different aspects of a phenomenon; or some items can be
included in order to check up on other items.

17. Investigator Triangulation
 Investigator triangulation occurs when two or more researchers with divergent
backgrounds and expertise work together on the same study.
 To achieve investigator triangulation, multiple investigators each must have
prominent roles in the study and their areas of expertise must be complementary.
 involves more than one investigator in the research process, is also considered
good practice. This perhaps more than other types of triangulation is usually built
into the research process because most studies simply require more than one
individual to accomplish the necessary data collection. However, the decision about
who these multiple researchers should be and what their roles should be in the
research process is problematic (Denzin, 1978; Miles, 1982). How much hands-on
data collection the principal investigator needs to do in order to analyze the data,
and how much data analysis is relegated to field workers because much of the
analysis occurs as data are collected, are both relevant and not easily answered
questions.

18. Investigator Triangulation (Cont.)
 Use of methods triangulation usually requires investigator triangulation because
few investigators are expert in more than one research method. This involvement in
data collection and analysis allows verification of findings from a range of
perspectives.
 This can provide a check on selective perception and illuminate blind spots in an
interpretive analysis, Blanche ,et al(2006)
 The goal is not to seek consensus, but to understand multiple ways of seeing the
data.
 Observer bias can be reduced and inter-judge reliability can be improved.
 However, the observers should be taught to keep an open mind and not to become
obsessed with their hypothesis. They should not jump towards solutions to a
problem as this will tend to make them ignore facts that do not confirm their
expectations, Creswell,J W(2013).

19. Theory Triangulation
 Theory triangulation incorporates the use of more than one lens or theory in the
analysis of the same data set.
 Is described as “approaching data with multiple perspectives and hypotheses in
mind” (Denzin, 1978, p. 297). Thus when explaining empirical data, rather than
using a well-known and suitable – and favourite – theory, or just letting data speak
for themselves, Denzin advocates a strategy that employs different theoretical
analyses onto the same set of data. Testing and discussing the findings in different
lights, new theories may also emerge.
 Its using multiple theoretical perspectives to examine and interpret data.
 In qualitative research, more than one theoretical explanation emerges from the
data.
 Researchers investigate the utility and power of these emerging theories by
cycling between data generation and data analysis until they reach a conclusion.

20. Multiple Triangulation
 which uses a combination of two or more triangulation techniques in one study.
According to Denzin to incorporate multiple methods of data collection, multiple
sources of data and multiple investigators with multiple areas of expertise.
 Denzin states that multiple research methods are desirable because each method
reveals a different aspect of reality. This idea has since been developed to include
triangulation as a metaphor for strength, trustworthiness, and comprehensiveness.
 A combination of multiple methods, data types, observers and theories are
combined in the same investigation.
 Guba argues that trustworthiness through triangulation enhances the credibility,
dependability and ‘confirmability’ in qualitative studies.

21. Multiple triangulation example

22. Conclusion
 Triangulation is a strategy that enhances the quality of the research
thereby ensuring that the findings are reliable, dependable and valid.
 Idea of using different sources to verify the authenticity of the information
is important since a single perspective is never enough.
 It helps to unveil the complexities of phenomena under study and
understand them in depth rather than generalising the findings.

23. Thank you!!! End of presentation!!!!