FE 657- Research Methodology and Seminar
in Financial Economics
Part I
Understanding the Elements of Research
Methodology

Main Contents of the lecture
1. Introduction – What is research?
2. What is knowledge and how is it generated
3. The Scientific Method of Research
4. Types of Reasoning
5. Research Methods vs. Research Methodology
6. Classification of Research
7. Research Ethics
 Harm to participants
 Lack of informed consent
 Invasion of privacy
 Deception
 Protecting research subjects
2

Introduction -The Meaning of Research
 While research is important in both business and academia,
there is no consensus in the literature on how it should be
defined.
 The main reason for this is that different people can
interpret research differently.
 However, from the many definitions there appears to be
conformity that research:
 is a process of enquiry and investigation;
 is systematic and methodical; and
 increases knowledge.

Introduction -The Meaning of Research
 The ‘process of enquiry and investigation’ suggests that
research is all about having a predetermined set of
questions, and then aim to answer these questions through
the gathering of information and analysis.
 “Systematic and methodical” implies that your research
must be well organized and go through a series of stages.
 i.e. research is done in an organized manner.
 A research project has a well-known structure: a
beginning, a middle, and an end.
4

Introduction -The Meaning of Research
 “Research increases knowledge” means that:
 Not only your own knowledge about the subject
improves as a result of your research, but so too will
that of your audience.
 Hence, research can be defined as a ‘step-by-step process
that involves the collecting, recording, analyzing and
interpreting of information’
5

Introduction -The Meaning of Research
 Research is about advancing the frontiers of knowledge.
 Research = creation of knowledge
 It is a systematic and methodological process of enquiry
to solve problems and increase knowledge.
 Social interrelationship, opinions, customs, habits,
conditions of life can be the focus of a social research.
 To do research, it is necessary to know what the correct
tools are, and how to use them.
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Introduction -The Meaning of Research
 And the techniques and range of tools you use to do research
are called Research methods.
 Research methods provide the needed information that
guide policy makers to make informed decisions by reducing
uncertainty.
 With the right sort of methods you should be able to
convince other people that your conclusions have
some validity

Introduction – Objectives of Research
 The role of research has increased in modern times b/c
research
 provides the basis for nearly all government policies.
 helps in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 reduces uncertainty for policy makers, planners,
business managers, and other stakeholders by
providing information that improves the decision-
making process
8

Introduction – Objectives of Research
 In general, research studies may be broadly grouped as to:
 gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it - exploratory research studies
 portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group- descriptive research studies
 determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else -diagnostic
research studies
 test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables-
hypothesis-testing research studies
9

Introduction – What You Can do With Research
 Research can be used to:
 Categorize - involves forming a typology of objects,
events or concepts and can be useful in explaining which
‘things’ belong together and how.
 Describe - attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm- the what question.
 Explain - aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in
order to make sense of the myriad other elements
involved – the why question.
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Introduction – What You Can do With Research
 Evaluate - involves making judgments about the quality of
objects or events.
 Compare - Two or more contrasting cases can be examined
to highlight differences and similarities between them,
leading to a better understanding of phenomena.
 Correlate - relationships between two phenomena are
investigated to see whether they move in the same direction.
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Introduction – What You Can do With Research
 Predictions- if there has been a strong relationship between
characteristics or events in the past, then similar
circumstances should exist in the future, leading to
predictable outcomes.
 Control- Once you understand an event or situation, you may
be able to find ways to control it.
 If the cause and effect relationships are identified you are
able to exert control over the vital ingredients.
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Introduction – Motivation in Research
 The motivation to do research may be due to the desire:
 to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits
 to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research
 to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 to be of service to society
 to get respectability, etc.
13

Factors Affecting Social Research
 Although research is important, it is not a panacea for all
the problems that an organization faces.
 Therefore, an organization should decide upon the option
of conducting research after considering various factors.
 time constraints,
 availability of resources,
 availability of data, and
 nature of information that the organization is
expecting and the costs involved.
14

How is knowledge generated
 Research is about generating knowledge - an awareness of
something or an understanding of a matter.
 Knowledge of our social world comes from a range of
different sources:
 through reasoning
 through intuition, or
 through the use of appropriate methods.
 But, not all roads to knowledge are equally
useful/reliable.
15

How is knowledge generated
 The methods of obtaining knowledge can be categorized as:
scientific and non-scientific methods.
 Non-Scientific Method: gaining knowledge through
senses, experience, intuition, and revelation.
 1. Senses and Experiences (Experiential
knowing). Some gain knowledge through
physical senses - seeing, sound, touch, taste, and smell -
and experience.
 When one gets too close to a fire and gets burned, he
or she gains the knowledge that it is dangerous to be
too close to the fire.
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How is knowledge generated
 2. Intuition (Tenacity): knowledge is obtained if one
strongly believes what one perceives is real and true.
 Intuition is the strong feeling (belief) that what one
perceives to be the case.
 Believing something because, based on your view of the
world and your assumptions, you don’t want to give up your
belief.
 But it is subjective, because:
 If two people hold mutually contradictory beliefs, both
cannot be true.
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How is knowledge generated
 3. Revelation (Authoritative knowledge): An alternative to an
individual’s belief in what is true, could come from what
authorities say is true.
 Revelation is the presentation of the truth from a
supernatural source.
 We may feel convinced that something is true because an
authority (the Bible, Koran, a leader or teacher) tells us it is
true.
 Authorities would force beliefs under threat of some kind of
penalty.
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How is knowledge generated
 But, experts with different perspectives will hold different
beliefs. How is one to know which expert/authority is right?
 So, knowledge acquired through nonscientific methods
cannot be subjected to objective testing.
 Scientific Method: The most valid approach is through
science, which is objective and self-correcting
 This method of gaining knowledge is considered to be the
most reliable method of gaining knowledge.
 knowledge obtained by scientific method can be subject to
testing (verification).
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The Scientific Method of Research
 The scientific method consists of a systematic observation,
classification and interpretation of data
 appropriate methods are used.
 Scientific knowledge relies on observations which are
objective, data-driven, public, and potentially replicable.
 The process is also incremental, with a series of small steps
rather than a giant leap.
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The Scientific Method of Research
 Science insists on following systematic, methodical “rules“ for
gathering empirical evidence.
 Because, evidence that is obtained in an unsystematic way
is regarded as problematic;
 i.e. it is seen as less trust worthy or unreliable.
 The actual practice of science also shows that there are
alternative methods of gathering information and of analyzing
the data.
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The Scientific Method of Research
 Of course, what constitutes a ‘science’ and the nature of
its methods are open to dispute.
 But, in general science is interested to discover “ laws“
or regularities of both the physical and social worlds.
 The law of gravity
 demand and supply
 Some sciences, deal with the physical and material
world- natural science.
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The Scientific Method of Research
 The subject matter of the natural sciences is the physical world,
and is independent of the researcher and the way it is
understood.
 For example, a tree has a physical structure of its own,
regardless of the scientist who is studying the way it grows.
 But, other sciences involve the study of people – their beliefs,
behavior, interactions, attitudes, institutions, and so forth-
social sciences.
 They are sometimes also called soft sciences.
23

The Scientific Method of Research
 The subject matter in social science (human life) is fluid,
formidable to observe, and hard to measure precisely with
laboratory instruments.
 But, it does not mean it lacks rigor.
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Steps in the Scientific Method of Research
 The main steps in the scientific method include:
1. Choose a question to investigate
2. Identify a hypothesis related to the question
3. Make testable predictions in the hypothesis
4. Design an experiment to answer hypothesis question
5. Collect data (experiment)
6. Determine results and assess their validity
7. Determine if results support or refute your hypothesis
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 A set of overriding principles govern the scientific
investigation.
 It is based on empirical evidence
 The scientific method is based on empirical evidence
and utilizes relevant concepts
 It is concerned with the realities that are observable
through the use of verifiable experience or
observation.
 Some of the realities could be directly observed, like the
number of students present in the class or the number of
people employed in a factory.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 But, there are also realities which cannot be observed
directly.
 Realities that cannot be put to “sensory experience”
directly or indirectly
 existence of heaven,
 the Day of Judgment,
 life hereafter,
 God’s rewards for good deeds, etc.
 do not fall within the domain of scientific method.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 it is based on logical reasoning (Critical thinking)
 The scientific method practices logical reasoning which
allows determination of the truth through steps
different from emotional and hopeful thinking
 Science is fundamentally a rational activity, and the
scientific explanation must make sense.
 Religion may rest on revelations, custom, or
traditions, gambling on faith, but science must rest
on logical reasons.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It possesses skeptical attitude
 any proposition is open to analysis and critique
 This is the constant questioning of your beliefs and
conclusions.
 It requires the possession of skeptical attitudes.
 A skeptic holds beliefs tentatively, and is open to new
evidence and rational argument
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It is Verifiable: Observations made through SM are to be
verified by using the senses to confirm or refute the
previous findings.
 The more the results are replicated or repeated, the
more we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of
our research.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It is Cumulative: Prior to the start of any study
researchers try to scan through the literature.
 Instead of reinventing the wheel researchers take
stock of the existing body of knowledge and try to
build on it -knowledge keeps on growing.
 A linkage between the present and the previous body of
knowledge has to be established, and that is how the
knowledge accumulates.
 Every new idea does not have to start from a scratch;
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It is Deterministic: Science is based on the assumption that
all events have antecedent causes that are subject to
identification and logical understanding.
 For the scientist, nothing “just happens” – it happens for
a reason.
 events occur according to regular laws and causes.
 The scientific researchers try to explain the emerging
phenomenon by identifying its causes.
 The researcher tries to narrow down the number of
reasons in such a way that some action could be taken.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It possess ethical and ideological neutrality: The
conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results of
data analysis should be objective;
 i.e., they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective
or emotional values.
 Researchers are human beings, having individual ideologies,
religious affiliations, cultural differences which can influence
the research findings.
 Therefore, follow the principle of objectivity, uphold
neutrality, and present the results in an unbiased manner.
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 It lends to statistical generalization: The scope of the
research findings in one organizational setting applicable to
other settings.
 The more generalizable the research, the greater its
usefulness and value.
 Science Is Public: Scientists only recognize research as
valid or useful when they can scrutinize it.
 Generally, we accept research as valid if it has
undergone a peer review process.
34

Ways of Reasoning
 The modern method of science is broadly of two broad
methods of reasoning: Induction and Deduction.
 However, it is often not possible practically to apply
either extreme in a pure fashion.
 The shortcomings of each can be mitigated by using a
combination that is formulated as the hypothetico-deductive
method.
 The scientific method uses the features of each approach in a
pragmatic way.
35

Ways of Reasoning
 Induction and deduction represent the two contrasting
approaches to acquiring knowledge and understanding the
world.
 Plato argued for deductive thinking (starting with theory
to make sense of what we observe)
 While Aristotle argued for inductive thinking (starting
with observations in order to build theories).
36

Ways of Reasoning
 Deductive reasoning (the rationalist’s approach)
 An argument based on deduction begins with general
statements and, through logical argument, comes to a specific
conclusion.
 Sometimes this is called a "top-down" approach.
 It consists of a major general premise (statement), followed by a
minor, more specific premise, and a conclusion which follows
logically.

Ways of Reasoning
 The research in this case is guided by the theory.
 begin with a theory – to specific hypotheses – into
observations.
 test the hypotheses with specific data- a confirmation (or
not) of our original theories.
 Theories are speculative answers to perceived problems, and
are tested by observation and experiment.
 While it is possible to confirm a theory through observations, it
can also be falsified and totally rejected - inconsistent
observations.
38

Ways of Reasoning
 A simple example of deductive logic:
 All live mammals breathe (General statement – first
premise);
 This cow is a live mammal (Inference – second premise);
 Therefore, this cow breathes (Conclusion).
 Economic theory rests largely on deductive logic.
 Examples: utility maximization in the consumer behavior; profit
maximization in the producer behavior.
 when one theory is rejected, another is proposed and tested,
and thus the fittest theory survives.
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Ways of Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning

Ways of Reasoning
 Inductive Reasoning (the empiricist’s approach)
 Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations and
then develops a general conclusion from them.
o It is the commonest popular form of scientific activity –
We use it daily.
 In induction one starts from observed data and develops a
generalization which explains the relationships between the
objects observed - this a "bottom up" approach.
 The inductive logic of reasoning is followed in most
empirical economic research.

Ways of Reasoning
 Three conditions need to be satisfied for generalizations to be
considered legitimate by inductivists:
1. There must be a large number of observation statements.
2. The observations must be repeated under a large range of
circumstances and conditions
3. No observation statement must contradict the derived
generalization
 A simple example will demonstrate the line of reasoning:
 All the giraffes that I have seen (Repeated observations)have
very long necks.
 Therefore, all giraffes have long necks (Conclusion) .
42

Ways of Reasoning
 The scientific revolution in the 17th century was based on this
approach, led by such scientists as Galileo and Newton
 The fall of an apple on Newton’s head from the tree led to
the theory of gravity
 Mendel’s discovery of genetics and Darwin’s theory of
evolution - developed through inductive reasoning.

Ways of Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
 But, choosing between one position and the other is somewhat
unrealistic in practice.
 The hypothetico-deductive method combines inductive and
deductive reasoning.
 inductively developing hypotheses (testable theories) from
observations, charting their implications by deduction, and
testing them to refine or reject them in light of the results.
 The combination of experience with deductive and inductive
reasoning is the foundation of modern scientific research.
45

In other words, most social scientific research involves both inductive
and deductive reasoning as the scientist shifts endlessly back and
forth between theory and empirical observations – research cycle.

Research methodology and Research methods
 It is necessary to distinguish the difference between the two
terms as students often use them interchangeably, although
there is a distinct difference.
 Methodology can be defined as ‘the approach and strategy
used to conduct research’.
 Research methodology is the science and philosophy behind
all research.
 It may be understood as the science of studying how
research is done scientifically.
47

Research methodology and Research methods
 Research methodology refers to the overall approaches &
perspectives to the research process as a whole and is
concerned with the following main issues:
 Why you collected certain data
What data you collected
Where you collected it
How you collected it
How you analyzed it, etc.
48

Research methodology and Research methods
 The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods.
 Because it includes:
 The theoretical perspective
 The tools and techniques of data collection
 The methods of data analysis.
 On the other hand, methods refer to the different ways by
which data can be collected and analyzed.
 So, research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology.
49

Research methodology and Research methods
 A research method refers only to the various specific tools
or ways data can be collected and analyzed, e.g. a
questionnaire; interview checklist; data analysis software
etc.)
 Research methods comprises of two things
 Research techniques – methods or techniques of data
collection– survey methods, or other methods
 Research tools- instruments for collection of the data –
questionnaire schedule, historical record, etc.
Examples of methods
(regression analysis, optimization models, surveys, ….. )
50

In the form of Recollection
 So far we have discussed
 The meaning of research
 Objective, purpose of research
 different sources of knowledge
 The scientific method of inquiry
 Steps
 General characteristics
 Ways of reasoning
 The research methodology and research methods
51

Evaluation of Social Research
 How can you tell whether a piece of research is any good?
 When doing research, we should be able to assess the
quality of the research projects.
 An evaluation of a research involves assessing
 Validity
 Reliability
 Replicability
 Generalizability
52

Evaluation of Social Research
 Validity of research is about the degree to which the research
findings are true.
 Different types of validity issues could be considered:
 Measurement validity: The degree to which measures (e.g.
questions on a questionnaire) successfully indicate concepts.
 Internal validity: The extent to which statements are
supported by the study.
 External validity: The extent to which findings can be
generalized to external (other) settings.
 Ecological validity: The extent to which the findings are
applicable to people’s everyday, natural social settings.
53

Evaluation of Social Research
 Reliability is about the degree to which the results of the
research are reputable.
 Some reliability factors include:
 Stability: The degree to which a measure is stable over
time.
 Internal reliability: The degree to which the indicators
that make up the scale or index are consistent.
 Inter-observer consistency: The degree to which there is
consistency in the decisions of several ‘observers’ in their
recording of observations.
54

Evaluation of Social Research
 Replicability is about whether the research can be repeated
and whether similar results are obtained.
 This is a check on the objectivity and lack of bias of the
research findings.
 It requires a detailed account of the concepts used in the
research, the measurements applied and methods
employed.
55

Evaluation of Social Research
 Generalizability refers to the results of the research and how
far they are applicable to locations and situations beyond the
scope of the study.
 There is little point in doing research if it cannot be
applied in a wider context.
 On the other hand, especially in qualitative research, there
may well be limits to the generalizability of the findings.
 If so, the limitations should be pointed out.
56

Classifications of Research
 Research comes in many shapes and sizes.
 There are different criteria for classifying research activities.
 Hence, the classification may be in terms of:
 The research (data collection)techniques used in it,
 the time dimension,
 research environment
 data used.
 The intended uses of research;
57

Classifications of Research
Descriptive versus Analytical Research
 The purpose of descriptive research is description of the state
of affairs as it exists at present.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher
has no control over the variables.
 The researcher can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
 Example; the frequency of shopping by people, the
preference of people, the number of employed workers
in a factory, etc.
58

Classifications of Research
 Analytical studies go beyond simple description and attempt
to model empirically the social phenomena under
investigation.
 In analytical research the researcher has to use facts or
information and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
 It asks “why” or “how” and tries to find the answer to a
problem.
59

Classifications of Research
Applied versus Basic Research:
 Research may be undertaken either to understand the
fundamental nature of a social reality (basic research) or to
apply knowledge to address specific practical issues (applied
research).
 Applied research aims at finding solution for an immediate
pressing problem facing a society or an industrial unit or
business organization.
 Theory is less central in applied research.
60

Classifications of Research
 Basic research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory.
 It is primarily concerned with the understanding of the
fundamental nature of social reality.
 It is the source of most scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world.
 It is mostly exploratory in nature.
61

Classifications of Research
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantitative figure or quantity or amount.
 applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
 Most often we collect data and see whether a hypothesis is
consistent with the data
 Methodology is simpler than qualitative research
 But it often takes longer time and is expensive.
62

Classifications of Research
 Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behavior.
 It generates results, which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.
 Generally group interviews, projective techniques and in
depth interviews are used.
 Qualitative research is particularly important in the behavioral
sciences.
63

Classifications of Research
 BUT, social research is often pluralistic:
 researchers often combine quantitative and qualitative
research methods within the same study.
 Mixed-method research strategies are particularly effective
in policy-oriented research and the contribution that
qualitative research can make to policy evaluation is
increasingly being recognized.
64

Classifications of Research
Other types of researches
 Research
 Can be one time or longitudinal research,
 can be field setting or laboratory based or simulation
research,
 Can be inferential, experimental or simulation studies,
 can also be clinical or diagnostic research, etc.
65

Time Dimension in Research
 Time is an important element of any research design.
 Quantitative research may be divided into two groups in terms
of the time dimension
 A single point in time (cross sectional)
 Multiple points research (longitudinal research)
 Cross –sectional research takes a snapshot approach to social
world.
 This is the simplest and less costly research approach.
 Limitation – cannot capture social processes or changes.
66

Time Dimension in Research
 Longitudinal research examines features of people or other
units more than one time.
 It is usually more complex and costly than cross sectional
research but is also more powerful especially with respect
to social changes.
 Time series research – this is longitudinal study on a group of
people or other units across multiple periods (e.g. time series
data on exports of coffee).
67

Time Dimension in Research
 The panel study – consists of a sample of study units (people,
firms, etc.) randomly selected, who are questioned on two or
more occasions.
 The researcher observes exactly the same people group or
organization across time periods, each time using the snapshot
approach.
 In panel study the focus is on individuals or households.
 Example: interviewing the same people in 1991, 1993,
1995, etc, and observing the change- a panel data set.
68

Time Dimension in Research
 A cohort Analysis – is similar to the panel study, but rather
than observing the exact same people, a category of people
who share similar life experience in a specified period is
studied.
 Hence the focus is on group of individuals not on specific
individuals or households.
 Example: students from a particular year of
matriculation or people on strike at a certain time.
69

Addressing ethical issues
 The value of research depends on its ethical veracity.
 Ethics are the rules of conduct in research.
 How can we believe the results of a research project if we
doubt the honesty of the researchers and the integrity of the
research methods used?
 Ethics is not just considered from the point of view of the
researcher, but also from the viewpoint of those with a
vested interest in the research- individuals, organizations
and governments.
70

Addressing ethical issues
 Researchers, subjects, funding bodies and society may
have conflicting incentives/interests.
 As a result of its focus on people, ethical issues are
centrally important in research.
 In other words, ethical responsibility is required to do
the work honestly and with integrity.
 Researchers must ensure the accuracy, appropriateness,
of data and research results.
71

Addressing ethical issues
 Two examples that necessitated the use of research ethics:
 The way German scientists had used captive human
subjects in gruesome experiments during WW II.
 In the 1950s and 1960s, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
involved the withholding of known effective treatment for
syphilis from African-American participants who were
infected.
 Hence, nowadays when working with human participants, it is
often necessary to obtain some kind of ethical approval –
 from ethical boards.
72

73
Research stakeholders
To treat participants in your research with respect and due consideration
is a basic tenet of civilized behaviour.

Addressing ethical issues
 Honesty in your work
 It is easy to cheat, but the penalties resulting from
discovery are stiff and humiliating.
 So, honesty is essential to engender a level of trust and
credibility for the development of knowledge.
 Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
 Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the
public.
74

Addressing ethical issues
 Researcher-researcher relation (Intellectual ownership)
 Unless otherwise stated, what you write and the ideas will be
regarded as your own work.
 Directly copying someone else’s work into your report, thesis
etc. and letting it be assumed that it is your own – plagiarism.
 Plagiarism is the worst offence in academics
 Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's thoughts or
wording either by
 incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources
altogether, or
 simply by relying too heavily on external resources.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Plagiarism includes copied data/information, falsification,
fabrication or omission of significant results.
 It also includes informal published material such as the
"buying" of a paper from another student.
 Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity and betrays
your own responsibilities.
 Because it is intellectual theft, plagiarism is considered as an
academic crime with punishment
 Can easily be detected through peer reviews
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Addressing ethical issues
 Some examples of plagiarism include
 The verbatim copying of another person’s work
without acknowledging it.
 The close paraphrasing of another person’s work by
simply changing a few words or altering the order of
presentation without acknowledging it.
 The unacknowledged quotation of phrases from
another person’s work and/or the presentation of
another person’s idea(s) as one’s own.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Citation and acknowledgement
 In no field of research can one rely entirely on own ideas,
concepts and theories alone.
 Standard practices have been developed to permit the
originators of the work and ideas to be acknowledged within
your own text
 This is called citation.
 You should acknowledge the assistance of others and any
collaboration with others.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Responsibility and accountability of the researcher
 You do have responsibilities to fellow researchers,
respondents, the public and the academic community.
 Accurate descriptions are required of
 what you have done,
 how you have done it,
 the information you obtained,
 the techniques you used,
 the analysis you carried out, and
 the results of experiments , etc.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Falsifying results—to make them fit your conclusion.
 Trimming—removing data that does not fit in with your
analysis.
 Biased or inappropriate analysis.
 Fabrication and falsification of research results are serious
forms of misconduct.
 Researcher should avoid either a false statement or an
omission that distorts the truth - Objectivity.
 In order to preserve accurate documentation, every researcher
has an obligation to maintain a clear and complete record of
data acquired.
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Addressing ethical issues
 It is unethical to conduct research that is badly planned or
poorly executed.
 Fraud must be avoided in research and this can come in
several forms:
 Being selective in sampling.
 Not reporting survey response/participation rates.
 Deliberately biasing the data collection instruments—for
example, asking leading questions in surveys.
 Making up data—because you can’t be bothered doing
the data collection.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Data and Interpretations
 There is often a temptation to be too selective in the use of
data and in presenting the results of the analysis.
 Irresponsible policy advise
 Waste of research fund, etc.
 Silently rejecting or ignoring evidence which happens to be
contrary to one’s beliefs constitutes a breach of integrity.
 What could be of vital importance in developing a theory
could be lost.
 Scientific objectivity should be maintained.
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Addressing ethical issues
 It is considered a breach of research integrity to fail to
report data that contradict or merely fail to support the
conclusions.
 Negative (unexpected) results must also be reported.
 Records should include sufficient detail to permit
examination for the purpose of
 replicating the research,
 responding to questions that may result from
unintentional error or misinterpretation,
 establishing authenticity of the records, and
 confirming the validity of the conclusions.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Funding bodies and researchers
 Pressure and sponsorship from sources which might
influence the impartiality of the research outcomes should be
avoided.
 Fund allocations directing research
 ‘money buying research results’?
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Addressing ethical issues
Researcher and research subjects
Some ethical principles governing data collection include: harm to
respondents, informed consent, respect for privacy and
safeguarding the confidentiality of data.
 In collecting data researchers need to be guided by principles
of respect for persons and obtaining informed consent.
 There are two standards that are applied in order to help
protect the privacy of research participants.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Confidentiality – participants are assured that identifying
information will not be made available to anyone who is not
directly involved in the study.
 If you promise anonymity to questionnaire respondents,
then that means that no one, including you, will know who
has completed the questionnaire.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Anonymity - means that the participant will remain
anonymous throughout the study -- even to the
researchers themselves.
 Anonymity means that no one will see (your completed
questionnaire/interview transcript) except the
researcher and all questionnaires and records will be
deleted once the research is completed.’
 The anonymity standard is a strong guarantee of privacy,
but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in
situations where participants have to be measured at
multiple time points (e.g., a pre-post study).
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Addressing ethical issues
1. Harm to participants
 Physical harm, humiliation, embarrassment, loss of trust, harm
to participant’s development, loss of self-esteem, stress, etc.
 Ethical standards require that researchers should not put
participants in a situation where they might be at risk of being
harmed as a result of their participation.
 Harm can be defined as both physical and psychological.
 Minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect
human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special
precautions with vulnerable populations.
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Addressing ethical issues
2. Lack of informed consent
 The principle of voluntary participation requires that people
should not be coerced into participating in research.
 Voluntary participation requires informed consent.
 This means that prospective research participants must be
fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in
research and must give their consent to participate.
i.e. getting the informed consent of those you are going
to interview, question, observe or take materials
from.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Informed consent implies that persons who are invited to
participate in the research activities should be free to choose to
take part or refuse.
 Participants should be given as much information as needed to
make decision on participation
 They are free to decide after having been given the fullest
information concerning the nature and purpose of the research.
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Addressing ethical issues
3. Invasion of privacy
 This is linked to informed consent
 Covert methods are violations of the privacy principle on
the grounds that participants are not being given the
opportunity to refuse invasions of their privacy
 Participants may refuse to address specific questions even
though they have agreed to participate
Protecting research subjects
 Legal protection
 Professional associations and universities (ethics committees)
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Addressing ethical issues
5. Deception
 Deception occurs when researchers present their research
as something other than what it is.
 Researchers usually want to limit participants understanding of
what the research is about so that they act naturally to the
experiment.
 Collection of data illegally, under false pretences (from
minors, etc.) is unethical.
 Getting access and consent to do research is essential.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Debriefing: is talking to participants following their role
in the research.
 It is often important to provide participants with any
additional information they need to develop their
understanding of the research after the data have
been collected.
 In some cases, participants may also be interested in
a summary of the research findings.
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Addressing ethical issues
 So, there needs to be a procedure that assures that
researchers will consider relevant ethical issues in
formulating research plans.
 Formulating an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
 A panel of persons will review proposals with respect to
ethical implications and decide whether additional actions
need to be taken to assure the safety and rights of
participants.
 Ethics committees play an important part in ensuring that
no badly designed or harmful research is permitted.
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Addressing ethical issues
 Ethics committees have a duty to consider all possible
sources of harm.
 They have to make sure that the researcher has thought
through all the relevant issues prior to granting
permission to proceed
 By reviewing proposals for research, IRBs help to protect both
 the organization, and
 the researcher against potential legal implications of
neglecting to address important ethical issues of
participants.
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Addressing ethical issues
 In summary: Some important shared values for the
responsible conduct of business research include:
 HONESTY — conveying information truthfully and
honoring commitments,
 ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and taking
care to avoid errors,
 EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and avoiding
waste, and
 OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for themselves
and avoiding improper bias.
 Social Responsibility-strive to promote social good and
prevent or mitigate social harms through research.
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Politics in research
 Does politics manifest itself in social research?
 If yes, in what ways?
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Politics in research
 Politics becomes important in different contexts and
ways.
 researchers are sometimes put in the position where
they take sides
 Funding: funding organizations frequently have a
vested interest in the outcomes of the research.
 The very fact that some research is funded, while other
research is not, suggests that political issues may be
involved, in that such organizations will seek to invest in
studies that will be useful to them and that will be
supportive of their operations.
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Politics in research
 Gaining access is also a political process.
 Access is usually mediated by gatekeepers, who are
concerned about the researcher’s motives:
 what the organization can gain from the investigation,
 what it will lose by participating in the research in
terms of staff time and other costs, and
 potential risks to its image
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Politics in research
 When research is conducted in teams, politics may loom
large,
 since the different objectives of team members and
their different (and sometimes divergent)
perceptions of their contributions may form a quite
separate political arena.
 There may be pressure to restrict the publication of
findings
 The politics of method.
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