This Research Spotlight provides a summary of the academic literature on how dual-class share structures influence firm value and corporate governance quality. It reviews the evidence of: • The relation between dual-class shares and governance quality • The relation between dual-class shares and tax avoidance • The relation between dual-class shares and firm value and performance This Research Spotlight expands upon issues introduced in the Quick Guide “The Market for Corporate Control.”

1. David F. Larcker and Brian Tayan
Corporate Governance Research Initiative
Stanford Graduate School of Business
DUAL-CLASS SHARES
RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

2. Dual-Class (or Multi-Class) Shares
• Companies issue more than one class of stock with unequal voting rights.
• In general, a family or group of insiders controls the class with superior
voting rights, giving them a disproportionate say over corporate matters.
• When these owners control more than 50% of the vote, the company
cannot be taken over without their consent.
• Excess control (or “the wedge”) is calculated as the difference between the
voting and economic interests of the controlling class.
– E.g., if Class A has 30% voting and 10% economic interest, the wedge = 20%.
KEY CONCEPTS

3. • Potential benefits:
(+) Allows insiders to access public capital without forfeiting control.
(+) Protects company from opportunistic takeover; allows for long-term investment.
(+) Preserves the independence of management and board.
• Potential costs:
(-) Insulates management and board from market forces that encourage performance.
(-) Can lead to management entrenchment.
(-) Can lead to rent extraction and excess compensation.
• Empirical evidence tends to be negative.
• Dual-class shares are generally associated with higher agency costs and lower
governance quality.
KEY CONCEPTS

4. • Masulis, Wang, and Xie (2009) examine the relation between dual-class shares
and governance quality.
• Sample: 503 U.S. companies with dual-class shares, 1995-2003.
– Insiders hold 67% voting and 39% cash flow rights, on average (wedge = 28%).
• Find that as wedge increases:
– Shareholders react more negatively to acquisitions and capital expenditures.
– Shareholders place less value on cash (i.e., expect it to be put to less valuable use).
– CEO compensation increases.
• Conclusion: dual-class shares are associated with lower governance quality.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND GOVERNANCE QUALITY
“These findings support the agency hypothesis that managers with greater excess control rights
over cash flow rights are more prone to pursue private benefits at shareholders’ expense.”

5. • McGuire, Wang, and Wilson (2014) examine the relation between dual-class
shares and tax avoidance.
• Sample: 1,857 firm-year observations, 1995-2002.
• Find that as wedge increases, dual-class companies pay higher effective tax
rates.
• Interpret results as consistent with hypothesis that entrenched managers
face less market pressure to increase profit.
• Conclusion: dual-class shares are associated with lower governance quality.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND TAX AVOIDANCE
“Lower levels of tax avoidance are likely a result of excess voting
rights creating managerial entrenchment that allows managers
to perform at a suboptimal level without fear of job loss.”

6. • Gompers, Ishii, and Metrick (2010) study the relation between dual-class
shares and firm value.
• Sample: Between 362 and 504 dual-class companies, 1995-2002.
• Find that firm value (Tobin’s Q) decreases as insider voting rights increase
relative to cash-flow rights.
• Conclusion: dual-class shares are associated with lower firm value.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND FIRM VALUE

7. • Lauterbach and Pajuste (2015) study the impact of share-class unification
on firm value.
• Unification: voluntarily changing from dual-class to single-class shares.
• Sample: 121 unifying companies, 190 non-unifying companies, 1996-2006.
• Find that voluntary share-class unifications are associated with
economically significant increases in firm value (Tobin’s Q).
• Conclusion: removing dual-class shares is beneficial to firm value.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND FIRM VALUE
“These findings suggest that unifications, per se, are beneficial
for public shareholders, most probably because of the corporate
governance improvements accompanying them.”

8. • Smart, Thirumalai, and Zutter (2008) also study the relation between share-
class structure and firm value.
• Sample: 253 dual-class, 2,369 single-class companies with IPOs 1990-1998.
• Find that:
– Dual-class companies trade at lower values (relative to earnings and cash flow)
than companies with single-class shares following IPO.
– Valuation discounts persist for the subsequent 5 years.
– Sensitivity of CEO turnover to performance is lower among dual-class companies.
– Shareholders react positively to share-class unifications (5-day period around the
effective date).
• Conclusion: dual-class shares are associated with lower firm value.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND FIRM VALUE

9. • Cremers, Lauterbach, and Pajuste (2018) study the long-term performance of
companies with dual-class shares.
• Sample: 667 dual-class and 8,555 single-class companies, 1980-2015.
• Find that dual-class companies:
– Have similar long-term stock price performance.
– Have higher valuation at IPO (Tobin’s Q); premium disappears 6 to 9 years later.
– (however, those with a valuation discount at IPO continue to trade at a discount.)
– Are less likely to be taken over within 9 years following IPO (27% vs. 35%).
– Are less likely to be delisted due to financial distress (6.3% vs. 13%).
– Voting wedge increases over time (16% 1 year post IPO, 22% 5 years, 26% 9 years).
• Conclusion: shareholders are not harmed by dual-class shares.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE

10. • Anderson, Ottolenghi, and Reeb (2017) also study the long-term performance
of companies with dual-class shares.
• Sample: 2,379 companies, 2001-2015.
• Find that:
– Founding families control 89% of dual-class firms (28% of single-class firms).
– Dual-class companies with family owners trade at 12% discount (Tobin’s Q).
– Those without family owners trade at 21% premium.
– Dual-class firms with family owners outperform benchmark by 3.5% annually.
• Conclusion: governance quality depends on factors other than share structure.
DUAL-CLASS SHARES AND LONG-TERM PERFORMANCE
“Investor concern about dual-class shares may not be driven by pure
monetary concern but a behavioral bias against unequal voting rights.”

11. • The evidence on dual-class shares tends to be negative.
• In general, dual-class shares are associated with lower firm value, worse
capital allocation decisions, and lower governance quality.
• Researchers generally conclude that these outcomes are the result of a
controlling share structure that insulates managers from market forces.
• Nevertheless, some research finds that companies with dual-class shares
do not perform worse than peers.
• It might be the case that the variation of governance quality among
companies with dual-class shares can be explained by variables other than
share structure.
CONCLUSION

12. Ronald W. Masulis, Cong Wang, and Fei Xie. Agency Problems at Dual-Class Companies. 2009. The Journal of Finance.
Sean T. McGuire, Dechun Wang, and Ryan J. Wilson. Dual Class Ownership and Tax Avoidance. 2014. The Accounting Review.
Paul A. Gompers, Joy Ishii, and Andrew Metrick. Extreme Governance: An Analysis of Dual-Class Firms in the United States. 2010. The
Review of Financial Studies.
Beni Lauterbach and Anete Pajuste. The Long-Term Valuation Effects of Voluntary Dual-Class Share Unifications. 2015. Journal of
Corporate Finance.
Scott B. Smart, Ramabhadran S. Thirumalai, and Chad J. Zutter. What’s in a Vote? The Short- and Long-Run Impact of Dual-Class
Equity on IPO Firm Values. 2008. Journal of Accounting and Economics.
Martijn Cremers, Beni Lauterbach, and Anete Pajuste. The Life-Cycle of Dual Class Firms. 2018. Social Science Research Network.
Ronald Anderson, Ezgi Ottolenghi, and David Reeb. The Dual Class Premium: A Family Affair. 2017. Social Science Research Network.
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