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CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT AND SUBJECT
BENCHMARKING

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Lesson objective
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Identify varying definitions of curriculum
 Analyze the five major conceptions of curriculum
 Identify typical elements of curriculum
 Differentiate between planning, design, and development of
curriculum.
 Compare the 2 models of curriculum development
 Elaborate subject benchmarking
 Develop a draft curriculum
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Glossary
 Course A building block of a program consisting of a time-limited
component, usually over one term, one semester or 1 year, and usually
ending with a summative evaluation
 Course outline a brief description of a course which allows the reader
to understand the curriculum.
 Curriculum: planned learning experiences offered in a single program
 Discipline A field of study and practice often associated with a
specific profession.
 Macro-curriculum: the overall design or blueprint of the program
done by a Curriculum Committee.
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Glossary...
 Micro-curriculum: the course outlines and unit plans, usually developed
by the individual teacher.
 Module: a unit within a program or a course, which can be examined
separately (modular instruction) or at the end of course.
 Program: a coherent set of courses, leading to a certain degree, diploma or
certificate. Courses might be core (compulsory) or optional courses
(electives)
 Subject: a clearly identifiable area of knowledge that studies a specific set
of phenomena from a particular perspective.
 Unit: the building block of a course, used interchangeably with ‘module
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Curriculum –- Definition
 The word comes from the Latin “CURRERE”, meaning “to
run, or to run a course” (Wiles & Bondi, 2011).
 Curriculum is defined as “A COURSE, specifically, a
regular course of study or training, as at a school or
university” (OED Online, 2016).
 Another perspective of curriculum is “a desired goal or set of
values that can be activated through a development process,
culminating in experiences for learners” (Wiles & Bondi, 2011).
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Curriculum — Definition
 A more specific and expansive view is the curriculum is a
set of plans made for guiding learning.
 Usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of
generality, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom,
as experienced by the learners and as recorded by an observer;
those experiences take place in a learning environment that also
influences what is learned (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead, &
Boschee, 2016)
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Curriculum — Definition
 Despite differing definitions, a curriculum is implemented
with the intention that learning will occur & student
potential will be unlocked.
 Curriculum here refers to planned learning experiences
that the educational institution intends to provide for its
learners.
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Curriculum — Conceptions
 Conceptions of curriculum helps to look at a curriculum
from several viewpoints.
 It’s simply a way to see how a curriculum is defined.
 When you see a curriculum it focus either on social and
culture needs, the individuals needs or subject matter.
 Conception of curriculum → Curriculum orientation
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Curriculum—Conceptions
The 5-Main
conceptions of
curriculum
Humanistic
Academic
Technology
Cognitive
process
Social
reconstruction
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The Academic — conception
 Academic rationalism conceptualizes curriculum as
distinct subjects or disciplines.
 Individual needs to learn various academic subjects
 Information should be taught by the teachers.
 Basically, curriculum should be used to help individuals
understand knowledge (skills, tools, concepts) they need
to participate actively in their cultural needs.
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The Academic –conception
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Academic: Focuses more on subjects, cognition and knowledge.

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Cognitive Process—conception
 Focuses on the development of the intellectual process.
 The curriculum should shape intellect and cognitive skill.
 Once the skill is attained, it can be applied to others forms
of learning and context.
 It focuses mainly on the learner.
 Right set of intellectual skill will help individual to grow
intellectually.
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Cognitive Process—conception
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Cognitive Process: Shaping the intellectual skills of young individuals

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Humanistic—conception
 Focuses on individual and the individual’s needs.
 A curriculum should be student oriented and child centered
meaning children can pursue their individual choices.
 Helps learner to discover and construct learning for themselves.
 Everything in the curriculum should bring personal meaning to
each individual that relates to experiences unique to the learner.
 This can allow the individual to learn ways on how to manage
things of personal significance.
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Humanistic—conception
Humanistic: Focuses on the whole child

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Social reconstruction—conception
 Focuses on societal needs.
 an education where subject matter focuses on
environmental, economic, social and political issues or
perspectives happening in society.
 It view curriculum as a way to produce social change.
 Education should be structured to prepare students for
living in a changing society
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Social reconstruction—conception
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Social Reconstruction: Curriculum should be an extension of society

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Technology — Conception
 This conception focused on how curriculum should be
taught or how knowledge should be communicated.
 It looks for a system of instruction that can be used to
teach any content.
 Learning is preplanned thus, goals, standards,
expectations, and objectives should be predetermined.
 The content, lesson plans, learning outcomes, assessment
methods must align with these elements.
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Technology—conception
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Technology: Technology is used to transfer learning through audio visual aids
or computer assisted programs giving students immediate knowledge
• Through this conception you focus more on the organization
and presentation of materials to the learner.

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Curriculum vs program
 The term curriculum is often used interchangeably with
program.
 However, program is broader in scope.
 The program comprised of the curriculum, the schools
culture; administrative operations of the school; faculty
members’ complete teaching, research, and professional
activities; and the school’s affairs with other units.
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Typical components of curriculum
 Background
 Mission/vision
 Philosophy
 Program rationale
 Program objectives
 Graduate profile
 Implementation plan
 Admission criteria
 Graduation requirement
 Program duration and
nomenclature
 Program profile
 Course profile (course outline)
 Grading scheme
 Resource and facility required
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Curriculum planning
design, and development

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Curriculum — Planning
 The process concerned with making decisions about what to learn, why,
and how to organize the teaching and learning process taking into account
existing curriculum requirements and the resources available.
 At the general level, it often results in the definition of a broad curriculum
framework, as well as a syllabus for each subject to be used as reference
by individual schools. At the school level, it involves developing course
and assessment plans for different subjects. At the classroom level, it
involves developing more detailed plans for learning units, individual
lessons and lesson sequences.
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What is Curriculum Planning?

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Curriculum — Planning
1. Setting the objectives to be achieved
2. Establishing an efficient procedure to met the objectives:
- Select apt content/subject matter & learning experiences
- Creating a proper environment to achieve the objectives
- Establishing sound methods
- Allocation of resources required to met the objectives
- Appropriate time allocation
- Identifying the characteristics of the student
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Curriculum planning involves a two step

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Curriculum — Planning
What is curriculum plan?
 This is a document or a package indicating the curriculum
goals, objectives, content, learning activities, teaching
methods and suggested evaluation procedures.
Who plans the curriculum?
 Curriculum planning is a united effort by all those
responsible in the organization of an education system.
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Curriculum—Planning
 All curriculum planning depends on the following
factors
• The nature of knowledge, subject matter or content.
• The needs and interests of learners
• The social and physical environment
• The nature of learning process
• The facilities/resources available e.g. man power,
classrooms, equipment's etc.
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Curriculum—Design
 Curriculum design generally refers to the way in which
the component parts or elements of the curriculum are
arranged in order to facilitate instruction.
 It is aspects like the structure, pattern or organization of
the curriculum.
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What is curriculum design?

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Curriculum—Design
 The term curriculum design or curriculum organization
refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum
into a applicable entity.
 According to Saylor and Alexander, the pattern or
framework or structural organization used in selecting,
planning and carrying forward education experiences in
the school is called curriculum design.
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Curriculum—Design
 Curriculum design is a scheme for planning and
providing learning experiences. The scheme should:
- Include the elements of design namely, objectives,
learning experiences, content selection and evaluation
- Be based on the principles of design, such as balance,
vertically integration, coherence, rigorous, appropriate,
focused and relevant.
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Key principles of curriculum design

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Curriculum—Development
 Curriculum development is a process of improving the
curriculum.
 Curriculum development has a broad scope because it is
not only about the school, the learners and the teachers.
 It is also about the development of a society in general.
 Different approaches have been used in developing
curricula.
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What is Curriculum Development?

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Stages of Curriculum Development
 In every step of curriculum development, it is imperative
to keep the learner in mind and involve them in process.
 The curriculum development process consists of the
following six stages:
1. Assessment of educational needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of learning experiences to achieve these
objectives.
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Stages of Curriculum Development
4. The selection of content through which learning
experiences may be offered.
5. The organization and integration of learning experience
and content with respect of the teaching learning process.
6. Evaluation of all the above phases.
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Curriculum Development Models
 THE TYLER’S CURRICULUM INQUIRY MODEL
(OBJECTIVE)
 THE TABA’S GRASS-ROOTS RATIONALE MODEL
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The Tyler’s Curriculum Inquiry Model
 Tyler's inquiry model is an ends-means approach
 Those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define
the four basic components of curriculum listed below:
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes;
3. Organization of these experiences and
4. Evaluation of the purposes
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The Tyler’s Curriculum Inquiry Model
 By ‘purposes’, Tyler was referring to “objectives”
 He indicated that curriculum planners should identify
these general objectives by gathering data from three
sources – the subject matter, the learners and the society.
 Then formulate specific instructional objective
 Next select educational experiences that would allow the
attainment of objectives.
 The organization and sequencing of these experiences
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The Tyler’s Curriculum Inquiry Model
 Ordering of the experiences should be systematic to
produce a maximum cumulative effect.
 Organizing elements, like ideas, concepts, values & skills
should be woven as threads into the curriculum fabric.
 These key elements could serve as organizers and means
and methods of instruction.
 Lastly, evaluating effectiveness of planning and actions.
 An evaluation should relate to all of the objectives.
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The Taba’s Grass-Roots Rationale
Model
 Hilda Taba deemed that, those who teach curriculum
should participate in developing it.
 Definite order in creating curriculum “GRASSROOTS
APPROACH”
 An INDUCTIVE approach should be used to curriculum
development.
 The needs of the students are at the forefront
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The Taba’s Grass-Roots Rationale
Model
7 Major Steps of Grass-roots Model
1. Diagnosis of Needs: assessing needs of the students
2. Formulation of Objectives: set objective to be achieved
3. Selection of content: is based on the objectives. Validity &
significance of content should be defined.
4. Organization of content: should rely on learners
maturity, academic achievement and interests.
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The Taba’s Grass-Roots Rationale
Model
5. Selection of Learning experiences: pupils must engage in
interaction with content. Instructional methods should
involve students with the content.
6. Organization of Learning Activities: sequence of the
learning activities is determined by the sequence of
content.
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The Taba’s Grass-Roots Rationale
Model
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation:
• The curriculum planner must define what objectives
have been achieved.
• Evaluation considers both the students and teachers.
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Subject
Benchmarking

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Subject Benchmarking
 Benchmarking is a process for identifying, understanding,
and adopting best practices from others to refine one’s
organization’s performance.
 In the case of higher educational institutions the central
focus is educational quality improvement.
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What is BENCHMARKING?

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Benchmarking…
 It helps to identify weakness that needs improvement.
 And it answers the following questions:
- How well are we doing compared to others?
- How good do we want to be?
- Who is doing it to the best? And How do they do it?
- How can we adapt what they do to our institution?
- How can we do better than the others?
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Subject Benchmark—Components
 Educational Aims
 Program learning outcomes
 Program content specifications
 Teaching/learning strategies (method of delivery)
 Assessment methods
 Level of performance criteria for learning outcomes.
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Subject Benchmark—Components
1. Educational Aims:
 Are statements that identify the broad educational
purposes of the program.
 MEANT to provide a clear understanding of the
programs teaching intentions.
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Subject Benchmark—Components
2. Program Learning Outcomes:
 LO: are statements of what the student is expected to know,
understand or be ABLE to do on completion of the program.
 Benchmarking for learning outcomes may indicate reference
to the following three benchmark categories.
a. Subject and Understanding (facts, concepts & principles)
b. Intellectual (Cognitive/subject specific practical Skill)
c. Transferable skills
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Subject Benchmark—Components
3. Program content specification.
 Course titles with credit hours offered in each
semester/year.
 Each course shall be identified as general, or supportive,
Major, or Minor, Core or Elective (course type)
 Course syllabus is the main element of program content
specification.
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Subject Benchmark—Components
 General information (course title, course code, credit
hours etc.)
 Course description
 Couse Objectives
 Course content
 Mode of delivery
 Method of Assessment
 References
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COURSE SYLLABUS—CONTENTS

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Subject Benchmark—Components
4. Teaching learning strategies
 Lectures, Tutorials and Seminars
 Special external or guest lecturers
 Practical classes- simulation or field practice
 Independent learning
 Group or individual assignments or projects
 Web based, and computer assisted learning
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Subject Benchmark—Components
5. Assessment methods
 Should match the teaching and learning strategy.
 Should meet learning outcomes & include varied
methods.
 Should be used to assess students learning.
 Assessments must be clear, just, valid & reliable.
 Should include both formative & summative assessment.
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Subject Benchmark—Components
 Oral Presentations (ability, confidence, and knowledge of
subject matter)
 Group or individual seminar presentations
 Practicum (simulated or real situation)
 Group or individual assignments or projects
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Subject Benchmark—Components
6. Level of performance criteria
 Threshold Performance – describes the baseline to be
exceeded by all graduates to obtain a degree.
 Modal Performance – is expected to be achieved by the
majority of graduates (better to develop & apply)
 Top Performance– is characterized by excellence
(additional creativity and adaptability)
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Curriculum—Evaluation
 Evaluation is the process of measuring and judging the
extent to which the planned courses, programs, learning
activities and opportunities as expressed in the formal
curriculum actually produce the expected results.
 Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part
of curriculum development.
 The findings are used to develop, maintain and/or revise
the program.
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Curriculum –evaluation
 It is a continuous activity and not a “tail-end-process”.
 Evaluation and planning are complementary processes
which occur almost simultaneously and continuously.
 Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa
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 There are two ways of looking at curriculum evaluation
A. Curriculum Program Evaluation
B. Curriculum Program Component Evaluation

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Ways of looking at curriculum
evaluation

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Curriculum evaluation..
Curriculars/person Definition
Ornstein, A. &
Hunkins, F. [1998]
Curriculum evaluation is process done to gather
data that enables one to decide whether to accept,
change, or eliminate the whole curriculum of a
textbook.
McNeil, J (1997) Evaluation answers two questions:
1. Do planned learning opportunities, programs,
courses and activities as developed and
organized actually produce desired results?
2. How can a curriculum best be Improved?
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Curriculum evaluation..
Curriculars/person Definition
Gay, L (1985) Evaluation is to identify the weaknesses and
strengths as well as problems faced in the
implementation, to improve the curriculum
development process.
It is to determine the effectiveness of and the
returns on allocated finance.
Olivia, P. (1988) It is a process of delineating, obtaining and
providing useful information for judging
alternatives for purposes of modifying, or
eliminating the curriculum.
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Reason for curriculum evaluation
 Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and
weaknesses of an existing curriculum that will be the
basis of the intended plan, design or implementation.
 When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum
development, it will tell if the designed or implemented
curriculum can produce or is producing the desired
results.
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Reason for curriculum evaluation
 Based on some standard, curriculum evaluation will
guide whether the results have equaled or exceeded the
standards, thus can be labeled as success.
 Curriculum evaluation provides information necessary
for teachers, school managers, curriculum specialist for
policy recommendations that will enhance achieved
learning outcomes.
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Tyler Objectives Centered Model (1950)
Curriculum Elements Evaluation Process Action taken
Yes or No
1. Intended objectives
learning Outcomes
Pre- determine intended learning
Outcomes or objectives
2. Situation or Context Identify the situation/context that
gives opportunity to develop behavior
or achieve objectives.
3. Evaluation
Instruments/Toots
Select, modify and construct
evaluation instruments or tools.
Check its objectivity, reliability and
validity.
4. Utilization of Tool Utilize the tools to obtain results.
Compare the results obtained from
several instruments before and after
to determine the change
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Tyler Objectives Centered Model (1950)
Curriculum Elements Evaluation Process Action Taken
Yes or No
5. Analysis of Results Analyze the results obtained to
determine strength and weaknesses.
Identify possible explanation about
the reasons for the particular pattern
6. Utilization of
Results
Use the results to make the necessary
modifications.
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Daniel Stufflebeam medel-context, Input, Process Product Model
(CIPP)
Stages of the CIPP model Steps Taken in All the Stages
1. Context Evaluation Step 1; identify the kind of decision to be made.
Step 2: Identify the kinds of data to make that
decision.
2. Input Evaluation Step 3: Collect the data needed
Step 4: Establish the criteria to determine quality
of data.
3. Process Evaluation Step 5; Analyze data based on the criteria.
4. Product Evaluation Step 6: Organize needed information needed for
decision makers

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A simple way of curriculum evaluation
process
 Does the curriculum emphasize learning outcomes?
 Does the implemented curriculum require less demands?
 Can this curriculum be applied to any particular level?
 Can the curriculum aspects be assessed as a)written,
(b)taught (c) supported (d) tested and (e) learned?
 Does the curriculum include formative assessment?
 Does the curriculum include summative assessment?
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A SIMPLE WAY OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION
PROCESS
 Does the curriculum provide quantitative methods of
assessment
 Does the curriculum provide for qualitative methods of
assessment
 Can the curriculum provide the data needed for decision
making?
 Are the findings of evaluation available to stakeholders?
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References
 Glatthorn, A. A., Boschee, F., Whitehead, B. M., & Boschee, B. F. (2016).
Curriculum leadership: Strategies for development and implementation (4th ed.)
 OED Online. (2016). Curriculum. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from
http://www.oed.com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/view/Entry/46107?redirectedFrom=curri
culum
 Wiles, J. (2005). Curriculum essentials: A resource for educators (2nd ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson.
 Wiles, J. W., & Bondi, J. C. (2011). Curriculum development: A guide to practice
(8th ed.)
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