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Designing Online Learning to 
Actual Human Capabilities
Conference Break‐out Session Presentation 
(long version slideshow) 
College and University Professional Association for Human 
Resources (CUPA‐HR), Midwest Regional Conference 2016 
November 9 – 10, 2016
Session overview
• In instructional design work, instructional designers (IDs) often focus 
on the changing technological capabilities (of authoring tools, of 
learning management systems, and so on)—namely, on enablements 
/ affordances and constraints.  What is less often discussed are 
human capabilities, their affordances and constraints.  Human 
enablements may be broadly conceptualized as the following:  (1) 
perception (five senses and proprioception), (2) cognition, (3) 
learning, (4) memory, (5) decision‐making, and (6) action‐taking.  This 
presentation summarizes some of the latest research on these areas 
of human capabilities and some design mitigations to design for these 
particular aspects of people. 
2
Two presentation objectives
Participants will learn:  
1. The latest findings on human capabilities (perception, cognition, learning, 
memory, decision‐making, and action‐taking) 
2. How online trainings are most effectively designed to align with knowledge 
of human capabilities 
• These objectives relate to human resources professionals because 
they need to know which trainings are most effective for their various 
constituencies.  HR professionals develop and provide trainings, and 
they also select third‐party developed trainings.  Some commission 
locally developed trainings on campus as well. 
3
A warm‐up 
What do we (in this group) know about the following?  
How do these various aspects of human capabilities below interact 
with each other?  
(1) perception
(2) cognition
(3) learning
(4) memory
(5) decision‐making
(6) action‐taking
What are some questions you have about the above areas?  
4
Should you decide to accept this mission, 
Your task… 
• Jot down some instructional design ideas that arise as we review 
some features of each of the following aspects of human capabilities:   
(1) perception, 
(2) cognition, 
(3) learning, 
(4) memory, 
(5) decision‐making, and 
(6) action‐taking
• Be ready to share these ideas!  
5
A Light Review of Human 
Capabilities
6
Selected research sources 
• Empirical research from 
educational and occupational 
psychology, neuroscience, 
education, adult learning, and 
other fields 
• Focus on 
• up‐to‐date research work 
• findings relevant to this 
presentation 
• Caveat
• Not a survey view nor a 
comprehensive overview of all the 
main research on the related 
topics 
7
Professional training context
• Compliance with policies and laws:  safety, security, legal handling of data, 
proper workplace processes for supervision, due process service on 
committees, national security, and others 
• Regular updates to policies and laws, half‐life of information 
• Informed by new cases and the world 
• Required for the institution of higher education as a matter of business 
• For employees:  (1) awareness and recognition, (2) attitude and stance, (3) 
professional decision‐making, and (4) workplace behavior 
• Transformational learning from critical reflection in order to create 
meaning and break out of unthinking habits and to see things in a new 
light; focuses on the thinking as important (and working through epistemic, 
socio‐cultural, and psychic distortions) and not the doing (Mezirow)
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Some contemporary technological 
affordances for online teaching and learning 
9
• Multimedia‐rich contents for 
multimodal delivery 
• Variety of authoring tools for 
interactive digital learning objects 
(DLOs)
• Digital learning object re‐use and 
sharing (think SCORM, Tin Can API
protocols)
• Machine learning applied to 
human learning
• Mapping of optimized learning paths 
for particular learning contexts 
• Data collection and analytics per 
and across learners (including “big 
data” analytics)
• Customizable learning (based on 
learner profiles, based on on‐the‐
fly learner behavior during the 
learning) 
• Automated (non‐human‐led) training 
options with rich feedback loops 
• Deployment of automated co‐
learner ‘bots
Some contemporary technological affordances for 
online teaching and learning (cont.)
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• Built‐in accessibility features (alt‐
texting, timed text integrations 
with videos, auto‐transcription in 
online video delivery) 
• Auto‐translation of websites across 
languages (expressed through UTF‐
8 charset)
• Machine reading and linguistic 
analysis of human textual and 
spoken communications 
• Object analysis and sentiment 
analysis of people’s visual 
communications
• Web‐scale delivery, MOOC 
platforms, mobile platform delivery 
• Across‐systems interoperability (LTIs)
• Persistent online learning contexts 
and learning over time
• Virtual immersive worlds with in‐
world physics
• Learning management systems 
(LMSes) 
• Across‐systems badging and 
credentialing, federated learner 
performance record‐keeping 
Adult learners 
• Adult learners will have gaps (not equal access or opportunity during 
developmental periods, with severe differences in learning 
opportunities based on class and wealth factors); inconsistent 
learning opportunities through a life span 
• Known cognitive developmental “windows” which certain types of learning 
have to be achieved (and if not, some unbridgeable gaps in terms of 
percentile rankings, such as in establishing reading skills by age 9) during the 
life span (Hirsch, 1996, p. 44)
• Different cultural expectations for learning and learning preferences 
(based on nature and nurture)
• Informed by lived life experiences (diverse and different backgrounds)
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Adult learners (cont.)
• Will explore multiple sources for learning 
• Tend to be time‐constrained 
• May pursue “just‐in‐time” and “anytime, anywhere” learning at the 
point‐of‐need (such as through mobile devices) 
• Require credentialing options to indicate capabilities and knowledge 
for professional workplaces 
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Andragogy 
• Autonomous and self‐directed 
adult learners 
• Require motivation (intrinsic and 
extrinsic) to learn 
• Expect respect for who they are 
and what they already know 
• Expect to have a voice in the 
learning; need to be heard and 
to have options 
• Goal‐oriented, practical 
applications 
• Desire for relevant and 
applicable learning, little 
patience for theory 
• Prefer kinesthetic or hands‐on 
(“learning by doing”) learning 
• Prefer connecting new learning 
to prior knowledge 
13
Focus:  Six Areas of Human 
Capabilities Related to Learning 
14
Six sections
1. Perception:  human sensing systems in engaging the external and 
internal environments 
2. Cognition:  sense‐making from sensory input and experiences 
3. Learning:  acquisition of knowledge and skills from study and 
experience 
4. Memory:  recall in short‐ and long‐term contexts  
5. Decision‐making:  selecting from possible actions  
6. Action‐taking:  following through on a course‐of‐action 
15
16
(The above is an copyright‐free image of a robot from Pixabay.)
1 Perception
17
(“Normalized response spectra of human cones, to monochromatic spectral stimuli, 
with wavelength given in nanometers,” by BenRG, 2009, released on Wikipedia)
1 Perception
• Classic:  
• Near senses:  smell, taste, touch
• Far senses:  sight, hearing 
• And elicited senses:  echolocation 
• Internal senses / embodiment / proprioception (through muscle spindles and 
joints), somatosensory inputs (tactual or through touch, through the skin), 
vestibular system (involving balance, movement, perception of place of the 
body, and the inner ear and other systems) 
• interoception (internal senses describing internal physical states)
• exteroception (exterior senses sensing stimuli from outside the body)  
18
Proprioception
Interoception:  sensory signals from internal 
sources to the body 
Exteroception:  sensory signals from external 
sources to the body 
19
“The cerebellum is largely responsible for coordinating the unconscious aspects of proprioception,” 2013, 
originally from National Institutes of Health, shared by jkwchui on Wikipedia.
1 Perception (cont.)
• Human senses fairly limited in the world 
• Limits to what is seeable in the light wave spectrum 
• Limits to what is hearable in the sound wave spectrum 
• Signals come from the environment (externally)…but also from the 
mind (internally) and body (internally) 
• Human mind creates perceptual illusions of various types, including optical 
illusions
20
1 Perception (cont.) 
• Human perceptual capabilities evolve and change over time and are 
affected by 
• lifestyle, health, aging…and
• augmentary technologies…and 
• attention and focus…and 
• memory…and 
• training, and more . 
21
1 Perception (cont.) 
• There are many augmentations to human perception that enhance 
the acuity of the natural senses. 
• Some (eye glasses, contact lenses, hearing aids, binoculars, and others) 
enable “extended” experiential vision and hearing.  
• Other augmentations (chemical “sniffers,” temperature gauges, infra red 
cameras, light sensors, ultrasound, and other technical tools) enable 
“sensing” of aspects of the environment beyond the human perceivable 
spectrum.  
• There are “sensory substitution technologies” to enable other human senses 
to stand‐in for limited sensory capabilities (Smith, Apr. 28, 2014).  
22
2 Cognition 
23
(“Major brain areas involved in action selection” by Tamas Madl, Bernard J. Baars, 
and Stan Franklin, 2011, released on Wikipedia)
2 Cognition 
• Cognition refers to the interpretation of the sensory signals from the 
perception system.  
• Cognition (the sensemaking of perceptual signals) depends on how actively people 
pay attention and engage the environment and others and experiences that may 
contribute to the learning.  
• Bandura (1993) cites the importance of self‐efficacy in engaging cognition.  
• Cognition is affected by a person’s biological “hard wiring” and also by 
lifestyle effects (including training), but more of the first than the latter.  
• Some researchers conceptualize cognitive styles as two dimensions:  
• Wholist vs. analytic (part) dimension 
• Verbalizer / imager dimension (Rayner & Riding, 1998, in Cognitive Styles and 
Learning Strategies:  Understanding Style Differences in Learning and Behaviour) 
24
2 Cognition (cont.)
• Cognition may inform analytical capability, planning, and foresight.
• Curiosity is a net positive for human learning and engagement with others and the 
environment. 
• A healthy skepticism is useful to question cognition and what was sensed and 
interpreted.  A “naïve realism,” if unquestioned and untested, can lead to erroneous 
conclusions.   
• In terms of what is seen (visually perceived) by people, 40% comes from 
visual signals, and the remaining 60% is informed by patterns observed 
from prior experiences and memory (Catmull, 2014, p. 178).
• It helps to know what a person’s tendencies are in terms of interpretations, so that 
such biases may be accounted for and counter‐balanced.  History informs, but it can 
overshadow newer interpretations.  
• People with broader cognitive schemas (mental models, conceptual models) may 
better interpret complex sensory information.  
25
2 Cognition (cont.)
• Cognition may be explicit (conscious) or implicit (latent, unnoticed by 
the conscious mind, unconscious).  
• Latent cognitions may be elicited through various research means.   
• Unconscious cognition suggests that people arrive at ideas and 
decisions without being aware of the reasoning process and apply 
interpretations of their own actions ex post facto (and there is a fair 
amount of research that suggests that that is how this happens).   
26
2 Cognition (cont.)
• There is a dissociation between unconscious and conscious cognition 
where unconscious cognition is independent and dominant (to 
conscious processing); unconscious cognition processing is automatic 
and bottom‐up, covert, and implicit, resulting in procedural and non‐
declarative representations (Augusto, 2016, p. 296). 
• Unconscious cognition engages “parallel” processing while conscious 
cognition engages “serial” (one item at a time) processing (and is therefore a 
lot slower and costlier for the brain to engage) (Augusto, 2016, p. 296).  
27
2 Cognition (cont.)
• “Situated cognition” suggests that knowing occurs from engaging 
actively in “social, cultural and physical contexts” in an embodied way.  
• People make sense of the sensory information based on the context 
they’re in.  
• In new contexts, the accuracy of understanding of the environmental 
signals may be much lesser than in a familiar context.  
• Sometimes, expectations of an environment though make people less 
capable of seeing change (“change blindness”) or anything 
unexpected in the context and seeing unexpected information.   
28
3 Learning 
29
(“Learning process and quality standards,” by Maria Cruz, Jaime Anstee, and Katy Love, 
adapted from the Ohio Department of Education, 2015, released on Wikipedia)
3 Learning 
• Learning refers to the acquisition of new knowledge through 
experiences and study (including reflection and thinking).  
• In general, learning proceeds developmentally from the simple to the 
complex, the foundational to the specialized.  
• Rote memorization, emulation, and simpler forms of learning may be 
important to learn some basic factual information.  
• At the highest levels of learning is the application of complex 
knowledge and skills to creatively and effectively solve real‐world 
problems without causing more problems.  
30
New Bloom’s Taxonomy (with “Creating” at the Pinnacle) 
31
(“New Bloom’s Pyramid,” by Andrea Hernandez, shared on Flickr)
Note: “Creating” 
(innovation) has been 
added at the apex in 
this new Bloom’s 
Pyramid.  The older 
one used to have 
“Evaluating” at the 
top.  
Bloom’s Taxonomy “Learning in Action” 
32
(“Bloom’s Taxonomy – Learning in Action” / “Bloom’s Rose,” by K. Ainsqatsi, on Wikipedia, CC By‐SA 3.0)
Note:  This 
visualization ties 
Bloom’s Taxonomy to 
lived‐level practices 
and activities.  This 
serves as a bridge 
between the theory 
of the taxonomy and 
actual practices.  
3 Learning (cont.)
Learning at the Unconscious, Subconscious, and Conscious Levels
• People can learn consciously, sub‐consciously, and unconsciously.  
• Unconscious learning often happens below the level of human consciousness 
(awareness), and the learned information may affect the person’s thoughts and 
behaviors below the level of consciousness.  People’s perception and learning are not 
completely filtered by attention.  
• There is purposive learning using the subconscious and unconscious, such as during 
sleep or under hypnosis.   
• One example is “memory reactivation for language learning during sleep” (Schreiner & Rasch, 
2016).  
• Conscious learning requires engagement of learner motivation and focused 
attention.  
• Conscious learning requires purposive acquisition of knowledge, reflection or mulling and / or 
practice over the learning to understand, evolution of the mental models to situate the new 
knowledge, and effort to encode that into long‐term memory. 
33
3 Learning (cont.)
Different Types of Learning
• There are different types of learning:  
• instrumental learning (classical conditioning, operant conditioning; learning 
by reinforcement—such as rewards or punishments),  
• procedural learning (motor skills, complex activities), 
• psychomotor learning (connections between the brain and physical activities, like driving 
a car, cooking, bike riding, exercising, and others),  and others 
• perceptual learning (improved or more sensitive perception),  
• verbal learning (learning through language‐based means, both spoken and 
written), and 
• serial learning (memorizing items in order, recall, often based on rote 
memorization), and others 
34
3 Learning (cont.)
Learning Preferences and Learning Modalities
• People learn through a variety of modalities.  
• Based on nature and nurture, people may have different learning 
preferences.  
• The Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one personality test used to 
map cognitive learning styles based on the following dimensions:  
• Extraversion / Introversion 
• Sensing / Intuition 
• Thinking / Feeling 
• Judging / Perceiving 
35
Cognitive functions 
related to personality 
types per the MBTI
Image description:  “A diagram depicting the 
cognitive functions of each Myers‐Briggs 
type. A type’s background color represents 
its dominant function and its text color 
represents its auxiliary function.” 
(by Jake Beech, 2013, released on Wikipedia) 
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MBTI personality types 
37
(“A chart with descriptions of each  Myers‐Briggs personality type as well as instructions for how to determine one’s type,” 2014, by Jake Beech, released on Wikipedia)
3 Learning (cont.)
Minimizing Competition for Attention
• Emotional overload / emotional “flooding” can hinder learning.  
• Anxiety, whether generalized or specific, may hinder learning, if it is excessive.  
Having some anxiety, though, can enhance learning.  
• Hunger can be distractive and hinder learning, particularly in children. 
• People cannot effectively multi‐task (but they switch focus swiftly 
between tasks), so controlling for distractions is important.    
38
3 Learning (cont.)
No “Unlearning” but Learning Over Prior Learning
• People do not “unlearn” something as if it never happened in the first 
place; rather, they build new learning over old learning.  
• It helps to get it right the first time.  
• If the learning is not accurate, new learning should be applied over the prior 
learning.  
• Over time, new paradigms and models will emerge, and there may be 
competing conceptualizations.  
• It is possible to hold multiple contradictory conceptualizations simultaneously 
and not rush to accepting one concept over another.  
39
3 Learning (cont.)
Habituations
• People commit to “keystone habits” which may be difficult to change 
or to overwrite with new behaviors.   
• People go through cue‐routine‐reward loops which may be unconscious or 
subconscious.  
• To control and / or revise these cue‐routine‐reward loops, people need to 
raise these to consciousness and control the exposure to the cues and their 
responses to the cues (Duhigg, 2012).   
• Some research suggests that changes in habits may be fragile…but may be 
achievable with some 21 days of new practice.  
• Reversion to older habits may occur particularly when people are under stress 
or fatigue.  
40
3 Learning (cont.)
Overlearning
• There is a theory that suggests that “practicing newly acquired skills 
beyond the point of initial mastery leads to automaticity” (being able 
to practice the skill in an automatic way, with little cognitive 
oversight) (“Overlearning,” May 16, 2016) 
41
4 Memory 
42
(“Memory as Used in Various Branches of Academia,” 2011, 
by Bernard Wenzl, released on Wikipedia)
4 Memory 
Where is Memory?
• Memory involves multiple regions of the brain and in a sense is a 
“brain‐wide” process.  However, the medial temporal lobe is generally 
the location for both declarative and episodic memory.   
• The limbic system is thought to process memory (particularly the 
hippocampus).  (“Neuroanatomy of memory,” July 14, 2015)
43
4 Memory (cont.)
Short‐term Memory and Long‐term Memory
• People are thought to have 
• short‐term “working memory” which can hold up to about 7 discrete objects 
at a time (and which lasts from a few seconds to a few minutes), and 
• long‐term memory, which can hold information well into old age 
• some suggest that there is also “intermediate long term” memory which lasts days to 
weeks
• Because of the large amounts of information in people’s 
environments, the brain has to select from short‐term memory to 
decide if the information is necessary or sufficiently important  or 
salient to retain.  
44
4 Memory (cont.)
Short‐term Memory and Long‐term Memory (cont.)
• Based on biological and environmental influences, the brain is better 
at handling some types of information than others.   
• The human brain remembers threat longer than other types of information 
because of the inherent need for self preservation.  To this end, threats are 
more salient (noticeable).  
• The brain is drawn to and remembers aesthetic beauty in part because of the 
reproduction imperative.  Facial symmetry and youth seen as “beautiful” 
because these features represent health.  
• The brain is not as good at some modern tasks like “mental math” and other 
complex problem solving without aids.  
45
4 Memory (cont.)
Memories and Revisions
• Memories are constantly being reinterpreted and revised.  
• The brain itself is thought to contribute to this memory plasticity (this ability 
to be shaped or molded) due to synaptic plasticity.
• Memories are susceptible to manipulation and suggestion.
46
Conceptualizations of memory 
47By Bernhard Wenzl, released on Wikipedia
4 Memory (cont.)
Different Conceptualizations of Memories
• There are different types of memories:  
• explicit (declarative) memory and 
• implicit memory (which enables actions to be done by rote memory)
• Autobiographical experiential memories (preserved in episodic 
memory—or “spatial” and “temporal” memory) are informed by 
lifelong experiences.  
• Such individual memories inform self‐identity.  People’s own histories are 
interpreted.  
• Collective memories inform collective identities.  Histories are interpretive.  
48
4 Memory (cont.)
Brain Networks and Memory
• The “default mode network” (network of frequently interacting 
regions of the brain) informs memory, intelligence, and overall 
functioning.  
• Keeping the brain active—making and reinforcing network 
connections—is important for brain functioning over time.
49
Functional networks in 
the brain 
Image description:  “Study showing four 
functional networks that were found to be 
highly consistent across subjects.  These 
modules include the visual (yellow), 
sensory/motor (orange) and basal ganglia 
(red) cortices as well as the default mode 
network (posterior cingulate, inferior parietal 
lobes, and medial frontal gyrus (maroon).  
Overlap among these modules was present 
but minimal (white).” 
[By Malaak N. Moussa, Matthew R. Steen, Paul J. Laurienti, and Satoru 
Hayasaka, PLoS One, 2012: 7(8): e44428.  Released on Wikipedia]  
50
4 Memory (cont.)
Factors Affecting Memory Loss / Diminishment
• Researchers have observed a “forgetting curve” (downward sloping 
time‐series curve) or a decrease in memory of learned information 
over time.  
• Brains shrink with age.  
• The hippocampus (of the limbic system) is important for long‐term memory; it 
loses its nerve cells with the passing decades, with loss of 20% of its nerve 
cells by the time a person reaches his / her 80s.
51
4 Memory (cont.)
Factors Affecting Memory Loss / Diminishment (cont.)
• Illnesses (such as strokes) may affect brain function.  
• Diseases may affect brain function.  
• Certain drugs affect brain functioning.
• Injuries to particular areas of the brain or the whole brain may affect 
particular functioning.  
• Overall brain traumas may affect overall functioning, mood regulation, 
impulsivity, and other factors.
52
5 Decision‐making 
“intelligence” as an integration of all elements…how a person brings together perception, cognition, 
learning, memory, decision‐making and action‐taking (acquisition of knowledge and its application) 
decision‐making 
… in an individual context 
… in a group context 
53
(“Example of a simple Markov Decision Process with three states and two actions,” 2006, 
by MistWiz, released on Wikipedia)
Multiple intelligences 
• Multiple intelligences per Howard Gardner (1983, Frames of Mind):  
• logical‐mathematical, 
• linguistic, 
• spatial, 
• musical, 
• kinesthetic, 
• interpersonal, 
• intrapersonal…initially…
• and also naturalist and existential intelligences and moral intelligence (later 
added by Gardner) 
54
IQ and EQ and EI 
• IQ (“intelligence quotient”) and EQ (“emotional quotient”) or EI 
(“emotional intelligence”) 
• IQ (1912) a summary metric or score 
• IQ tests are designed for different age groups 
• IQ tests (classically) may involve reasoning, analysis, analogical thinking, 
language use, spatial analysis, cognitive problem‐solving ability, and other 
factors 
55
IQ and EQ and EI (cont.) 
• Emotional intelligence (EI) as emotional self‐ and other‐awareness 
(such as reading others’ facial expressions and body language), 
• ability to be self‐aware and to control one’s own emotions, 
• ability to moderate the emotions of others (such as through humor and other 
types of messaging), 
• ability to interpret others’ internal emotional states and thoughts, 
• ability to empathize with others, 
• high self‐impulse control, 
• ability to delay gratification (marshmallow experiment with pre‐schoolers, also with 4‐
year‐olds), 
• ability to be patient and persistent, 
• ability to be resilient in the face of challenges, hardships, and surprises ]
56
IQ and EQ and EI (cont.) 
• EQ (EI) has long‐term benefits for 
• human well‐being, 
• human health (lower BMI, for example), 
• success in interpersonal relationships, and 
• in job stability (and lifetime earnings), among others 
• EQ may be seen in children 4‐years‐old and older 
57
Fluid reasoning (Gf) and crystalized 
intelligence (Gc)
• “Fluid reasoning” (Gf or “g factor”/”general mental ability”/) refers 
to both the ability to think creatively and the ability to problem‐solve 
when faced with a novel challenge or situation (without drawing on 
past knowledge).   
• “Fluid reasoning” (Gf) involves a range of types of reasoning:  nonverbal 
reasoning (general logic); sequential (starting with rules and extracting 
processes and actions; starting with a condition, and moving to a solution), 
quantitative (application of inductive and deductive logic), categorical 
reasoning (understanding and extracting types), and so on.  
58
Fluid reasoning (Gf) and crystalized 
intelligence (Gc) (cont.)
• “Crystalized intelligence” (Gc) refers to acquired / learned knowledge 
and verbal reasoning skills (which enable the uses of skills, 
knowledge, and experience)
• May be seen in vocabulary and acquired knowledge 
• Usually acquired through formal learning (“Fluid and crystallized intelligence,” 
Jan. 9, 2016)
• Ideas were developed by Raymond Cattell (1971) and John L. Horn. 
59
John B. Carroll’s Three Stratum Theory of 
Human Intelligence (1993)
60
(underlying image by Tim Bates, 
image released on Wikimedia Commons)
“CHC Periodic Table of Human Abilities” 
• Cattell‐Horn‐Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities (late 1990s, 
2011) 
• Domain‐independent capacities (fluid reasoning, short‐term working 
memory, long‐term retrieval, processing speed, reaction and decision speed, 
and psychomotor speed) 
• Acquired knowledge systems (comprehensive knowledge, domain specific 
knowledge, reading and writing, and quantitative knowledge) 
• Sensory‐motor domain specific abilities (visual processing, auditory 
processing, tactile abilities, olfactory abilities, kinesthetic abilities, and 
psychomotor abilities) (from Schneider & McGrew, 2012, and McGrew, 
LaForte and Schrank, 2014, as cited by McGrew, 2014, Institute for Applied 
Psychometrics) 
61
5 Decision‐making
Studies in Human Decision‐making
• Human decision‐making has long been studied particularly in the 
contexts of psychology, microeconomics, game theory, political 
science, emergency planning, and other fields.  
• Decision theory (or theory of choice) is a generalist theory about how 
people make decisions from a number of choices.  Various research 
contributes to decision‐theory, many of them probability‐based.  
• There are other theories like game theory (1944), expectancy theory
(1964) and prospect theory (1979)
62
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Rational Decision‐making?
• Some core observations have been that people do not often make the 
observably rational choices.  
• People’s psychological needs may trump rational concerns.  
• Humans have a need to protect their self‐identity and egos (and so will sell stocks 
that are rising in value to feel like they’ve gained and hold stocks that are losing 
value).  
• They will believe in “hot hands” in gambling even though the prior roll of the dice 
does not have any statistical effect on the next roll.  
• People over‐value whatever they think they have touched or have had an influence 
on and will over‐price items they’re selling (well against market value).  Conversely, 
they may under‐value something else not based on the inherency of the thing and 
market pricing but based on irrelevant data.  
63
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Rational Decision‐making? (cont.) 
• Unless trained and well disciplined, people do not look at real‐world 
probabilities when making decisions. 
• They will often trust intuitions and emotions over probabilities when making 
judgments.  
• People may be unconsciously primed with subtle cues that may 
influence their attitudes and behavior without their knowledge.  In 
other words, people can be manipulated without their awareness.  
64
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Risk Preferences
• Based on personality traits, people have differing appetites for risk, 
which affect their decision‐making.  
• People who are consistent in their risk preference across three 
domains—work, health, and personal finance—tend to be risk‐averse.  
People who vary in their risk preference across the three domains 
tend to combine different aspects of personality and decision‐making 
factors (Soane & Chmiel, 2005).
65
Daniel Kahneman’s System 1 and System 2 
Thinking in Thinking, Fast and Slow (2011)
System 1:  Automatic
• “System 1 operates 
automatically and quickly, with 
little or no effort and no sense 
of voluntary control.” 
(Kahneman, 2011, p. 20)
• Is the default situation for people
• Tends to be “unthinking”  
System 2:  Effortful 
• “System 2 allocates attention to 
the effortful mental activities 
that demand it, including 
complex computations.  The 
operations of System 2 are often 
associated with the subjective 
experience of agency, choice, 
and concentration.” (Kahneman, 
2011, p. 20)
66
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking
System 1: Suggestive 
• Associational, links experiences / 
ideas / memories from the 
environment that may have no factual 
relation  
• Susceptible to priming (differing levels of 
suggestibility in people) 
• Cognitive ease (from “repeated 
experience, clear display, primed idea, 
good mood”) leads to ease which 
leads to illusory feelings of familiarity, 
true‐ness, good‐ness, and 
effortlessness (Kahneman, 2011, p. 
60)
System 2:  Aware, deliberate, and 
logical
• Practices individual agency and 
self‐direction 
• Executive application of attention, 
mental resources, concentration 
• Focus on systematic information 
gathering and applied problem‐
solving 
• Deliberative and logical 
67
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking 
(cont.)
System 1: Informed by past 
• Builds on an individual’s existing 
worldview and pays attention to 
“surprises” to that view (Kahneman, 
2011, p. 71) 
• Weights information with a confirmation 
bias (selecting information that aligns 
with what one already believes / 
worldview) 
• Tends to support belief persistence 
• Reads patterns of causation where 
none may exist (Ch. 6)
• WYSIATI (“what you see is all there 
is”) (p. 85) 
System 2:  Controls for past influence 
through systematic analysis 
• Include team members with a diversity of 
world views 
• Enable discomfort and new thinking by the 
inclusion of a range of different thinkers 
• Supports “psychological safety” to enable 
optimal teaming (Duhigg, Feb. 25, 2016) 
• Challenge patterns of causation which 
may have emerged for validity; entertain 
a number of interpretations of the same 
facts 
• Constantly strive to capture new 
information to avoid the WYSIATI fallacy 
68
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking
(cont.)
System 1:  Over‐confident 
• Tends towards confidence (vs. doubt) or “the 
illusion of understanding” (Kahneman, 2011, 
p. 113, Ch. 19)
• Hindsight bias or 20/20 hindsight assumptions 
• May be manipulated with the anchoring 
effect (a form of priming) (Kahneman, 2011, 
Ch. 11)
• Salespeople putting out a certain number to 
anchor a value at the beginning of a negotiation 
• May be affected by availability bias or what 
comes to mind easily being mistaken for truth 
/ reality (Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 11) 
System 2:  Questioning and doubting 
• Applies self‐doubt for initial 
impressions and has the resolution to 
follow through on decisions based on 
objectively arrived facts 
• Does not jump to a conclusion right 
away; does not answer right away; does 
not confuse availability of an idea with 
truth 
• Questions one’s own perceptions 
• Avoids the manipulation of others’ 
through their storytelling, priming, 
use of stereotypes, simplistic 
solutions, untruths, and so on  
69
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking 
(cont.)
System 1:  Makes spurious linkages
• Tends towards stereotyping or going 
with the easy summary (often 
informed by affect and speed)
• Discounts probabilities 
• Tends towards causal storytelling and 
narratives of the past for sensemaking  
(naïve realism) than actual analysis 
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 19); unlimited 
patterns may be found in data 
• Creates coherence where none exists in 
the real (Gestalt theory of visual 
illusions) 
• Assumes a simpler world than there is
System 2:  Assesses more accurately 
based on facts and empirics
• Uses a “base rate” to begin a 
profile or analysis  
• Understands regression to the mean 
• Understands probabilities based on 
statistical analysis 
• Avoids the influence of stereotypes 
• Is aware of but avoids the 
influences of internal and external 
narratives
70
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking
(cont.)
System 1:  Gullible
• Applies “halo effects” on people by 
giving them more credit for 
something than is reasonable 
• Tends towards intuitions 
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 18) and 
more extreme predictions (than 
would be normative)
• Makes large assumptions on little 
data 
• Goes with the “illusion of validity” 
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 20)
System 2:  Somewhat less gullible   
• Creates more systematic and 
empirically based ways to understand 
complex in‐world phenomena 
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 21) 
• Expert “intuition” / judgment has to 
be informed by empirical research, 
logic, expertise, practice, feedback…  
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 22) 
• Does not over‐value memories, which 
are highly malleable and disruptable
(such as recorded in planted “false 
memories” research) 
71
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking
(cont.)
System 1:  Focused on protecting ego
• May lead to decisions to protect ego 
(psychological need) and self‐esteem 
rather than rational decisions (such as 
in economic and financial decision‐
making) in a “self‐serving bias” 
• Endowment effect leads to over‐
valuating anything that one has touched 
(instead of using the market as a guide to 
value) (Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 27)
• Tending to like being with other people 
who make individuals feel better about 
themselves by comparison 
System 2:  Strives to avoid the negative 
influences of ego 
• Makes decisions based on rational self‐
interest (expectancy theory) and facts but 
without shorting others for their 
strengths and uniquenesses 
• Strives to avoid influence of ego in 
decision‐making, which may lead to over‐
valuing of things related to the self, ego 
protection, self‐esteem protection, and 
excessive risk aversion (avoidance of 
paying a “regret premium” for negative 
outcomes from decisions)  
• Have a reasonable assessment of self based 
on facts and not an excess of self‐love 
72
Features of System 1 and System 2 thinking
(cont.)
System 1: Emotional application of 
statistical probabilities  
• Prospect theory finds that people 
tend toward risk aversion and 
protectionism in decision‐making in 
contexts of potential gains and risks 
(Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 26) 
• People overestimate probabilities of 
unlikely or rare events and apply this 
overweighting in their decision‐
making (Kahneman, 2011, p. 324) 
• Memories are constantly being 
created and recreated and are 
manipulable (Kahneman, 2011, Ch. 
36) 
System 2:  Balances usage of statistical 
probabilities appropriately 
• Weighs probability of events based 
on real‐world statistics and facts 
• Does not overweight probabilities 
such as to assume determinism (or 
falling into “self‐fulfilling prophecy”) 
• Can understand surprise “black 
swan” events for which normal 
frequency curves and normal 
probabilities do not apply (Taleb, 
2008, 2010)
73
“Big 5” personality traits 
• Extraversion:  Sociability, gregariousness, assertiveness (vs. solitariness, reservedness)
• Agreeableness:  Altruism, trust, cooperativeness (vs. being analytical, detached)
• Openness to experience:  Broad interests, abstract thinking, imaginativeness, insightful‐
ness (vs. caution, consistency) 
• Conscientiousness:  Thoughtfulness, self‐control, goal‐directed behaviors (vs. 
carelessness, easy‐going‐ness) 
• Neuroticism:  Moodiness, emotional instability, insecurity  (vs. confidence, security) 
Notes
• Model originated from factor analysis, so an emergent set of five (initially unlabeled) 
clusters.  
• Think of each feature as a continuum and people being a combination of varying degrees 
on the five main core traits.  Some research suggests that a majority of people are 
somewhere in the middle of the continuums, with some closer to one pole or the other.  
74
Unique Profiles 
of the “Big 5” Personality Traits
75
Two meta‐traits subsuming the “Big 5” 
character traits  
Stability (“alpha”)
• Emotional stability 
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness… 
• Strongly predicts task 
performance (positively) 
Plasticity (“beta”)
• Extraversion 
• Openness…
• Strongly predicts task 
performance (positively) but a 
little less powerfully than alpha  
76
(Zhang & Schutte, 2015)
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Groups and Decision‐making
• People, as social beings, make different decisions when they are in 
the company of others.  
• In the company of others, they may be emboldened to behave in ways that 
they would not otherwise.  This issue has been studied in law enforcement 
settings, particularly in police‐involved shootings.  
• In the company of others, they may be strengthened in their collective skills. 
This has been studied in air flight.  
• Cohorts, overall, tend to be much more judgmental of their peers than those 
outside a cohort group.  
• In couples, there is the “madness of two” or folie à deux, with each 
contributing to the others’ senses of the world.
77
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Groups and Decision‐making (cont.)
• In group meetings, there are a number of known risks to decision‐
making, including:  groupthink, obedience to authority, attraction to 
charisma, social conformity, Abilene paradox, and others.  
• To combat such limitations, groups structure the work in different ways so as 
not to lead to poor decision‐making.  
• There are assigned 10th (wo)man and “red cell” approaches. 
• These individuals or groups are assigned to think the unthinkable, and they provide 
deeply divergent interpretations of the known facts.  Their role is to broaden 
conceptualizations of the others in the group to prevent the narrowing of 
understandings (or various forms of “tunnel vision”).  
78
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Groups and Decision‐making (cont.)
• In large‐group contexts, there are risks of “mob” or “herd” mentalities 
(and large‐group stampedes), or highly decentralized decision‐
making, with people just following the mass actions without 
necessarily thinking.  
• With news coverage of people’s behaviors, there may sometimes be 
copycat phenomena and clusters of emulative behavior.  
• Emotions are infectious.  Behaviors are infectious.  
• Fandom can be taken to extremes based on extreme emulations.  
79
Decision‐making in conditions of risk and 
uncertainty
Decision‐making under Duress
• In unexpected and high‐risk emergency conditions, people often 
dawdle and fail to act in logical self‐preserving ways (Ripley, 2008).  
• People can be trained to respond more effectively, such as through trainings, 
simulations, drills, and other methods.  
80
Decision‐making in conditions of risk and 
uncertainty (cont.)
Risk and Uncertainty
• “Risk” environments have known likelihoods of risk outcomes; 
“uncertainty” environments have unknown phenomenon, unknown 
probabilities, and unknown alternatives.
81
Decision‐making in conditions of risk and 
uncertainty (cont.)
Risk and Uncertainty (cont.)
• In contexts of possible gain and loss, people tend to focus excessively 
on potential loss even if there is low probability of loss.  
• Men more likely to be risk‐seeking than women.  
• Individual’s propensity for risk may be assessed in various ways, 
including through “certainty broadcasts” (communicated verbal and 
nonverbal cues of “how confident people feel about their current, 
past, or future state or position” and how much control they feel they 
have in a context) (Moons, Spoor, Kalomiris, & Rizk, 2013, p. 80)
82
Decision‐making in conditions of risk and 
uncertainty (cont.)
Risk and Uncertainty (cont.)
• People with high intuitive thinking style are less risk‐averse (or more 
careful) than those with low intuitive thinking style; high rational 
thinking style persons more risk‐averse (or more careful) than those 
with low rational thinking style.  
• High sensation‐seeking style individuals are more risk‐seeking than 
those with low‐sensation seeking styles (Van Nunen, Reniers, Ponnet, 
& Cozzani, 2016, p. 242).    
83
6 Action‐taking
84
6 Action‐taking
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
• Emotional stability and emotional intelligence are important in proper 
action‐taking (and in not making a situation worse).
• “Reactance” refers to a response people take to reassert control when they 
feel others are crowding them and their decision‐making.  
• Overall emotionality is highly associated with reactance in both genders 
(Middleton, Buboltz, & Sopon, 2015, p. 542).    
• Males high in emotional intelligence (particularly scores on well‐being, self‐control, and 
emotionality) have low behavioral reactance.   
• For females, there was “no significant difference between high and low behavioral 
reactance, and any of the EI subscales.”
• Females with “higher verbal reactance scores have higher EI scores on emotionality and 
sociability” (p. 542).   
85
John Boyd’s OODA Loop
86By Patrick Edwin Moran, released on Wikipedia
6 Action‐taking
• Once people have arrived at a decision, they have to follow through 
with courses of action. 
• Practice (such as drills) for taking appropriate actions matter and can 
result in a more effective response.  
• Adaptive decision‐making requires regular taking of assessments and 
making adjustments to actions as new information arrives (per the 
fast‐cycled OODA loop / observe orient decide act loop).  
87
6 Action‐taking (cont.)
Personality and Performance 
• Which personality type “chokes” under pressure?
• Under pressure, those who tend to rank high on “neuroticism” tend to choke.  
• Also, those who tend towards agreeableness tend to have poorer performance in a high‐
pressure situation.   
• Both (those who rank high in neuroticism and those who tend towards agreeableness) 
may make more rational decisions in less pressured situations (Byrne, Silasi‐Mansat, & 
Worthy, 2015).   
• Traits linked to poorer performance may be anxiety, narcissism, “fear of 
negative evaluation,” and others, based on “distraction theory” (Byrne, Silasi‐
Mansat, & Worthy, 2015, p. 2).  
• There is a risk in focusing on the wrong thing when a situation requiring action occurs.  
88
Looking at Trainings through the 
Human Capabilities Lens
89
A Training
Human Capabilities Features of the Training (strengths and weaknesses) 
Perception
Cognition
Learning
Memory
Decision‐making
Action‐taking
90
Comments?  Questions?  
91
#
Review:  Implications for Online 
Learning Designs 
(for Instructional Designers)
• What human capabilities and features do you want to harness and align with—for proper 
learning?  
• What human capabilities and features do you want to mitigate for—to achieve proper learning?  
• What human capabilities and features do you want to augment with teaching methodologies and 
technologies?  
92
General (vs. domain‐specific) approaches that 
enable learning gain
• Encourage learner self‐awareness and meta‐perspective on aspects of 
learning 
• Design the learning to human capabilities…
• By setting realistic expectations
• By providing proper design and development
• By being responsive to learner needs 
• By mitigating for learner weaknesses and gaps 
93
Designing for…
1 Perception 
Build to Actual Perception
• Use multimodal methods in the design, development, and delivery of 
online learning.   
• Capture learner attention early on by…
• posing a question that will be answered later on 
• showing the applied relevance of the learning
• using color, sound, size, movement, aesthetic beauty, and other sensory‐rich factors 
to draw attention tactically and strategically (in learning‐relevant ways
• offering emotionally engaging, relevant, and true stories (built on facts and research) 
based on real people 
• using multiple engaging examples 
• providing experiential learning sequences, and other methods
94
Designing for…
1 Perception(cont.)
Build to Actual Perception (cont.)
• Build to human tendencies in perception on various levels:  conscious, sub‐
conscious, and unconscious.  
• Engage perception pre‐attentively and attentively.  
• Use layout and spatial relationships that build on trained aspects of human 
perception (“built spaces”), such as visualizations from top‐to‐bottom, left‐
to‐right, in the Western and some other traditions.  
• Test for learner perception of the relevant information.  
• Draw attention to the important parts of the learning through designed attentional 
devices, such main idea summaries and repetition.  
• Also, reinforce the important parts of the learning by addressing the materials in 
multiple ways.  
95
Designing for…
1 Perception(cont.)
Build to Accessibility
• Ensure accessible design by adhering to Section 508 accessibility 
standards, accessibility, and universal design principles.   
• Make sure that the information is delivered in multiple channels (textual, 
auditory, visual, and others) and in informationally equivalent ways.  
• Make sure video and audio files are captioned accurately.  If captioning is not 
possible, include a transcript.  
• Ensure that scans of articles are searchable and machine‐readable.  Such 
scans should not be image files.  
• Make sure that color palettes are designed to include those who may be color 
blind.  Use high contrast colors.  Use text labels to label visual information.  
• Build data tables to be coherent for users using screen readers, and others.  
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Designing for…
1 Perception(cont.)
Build to Accessibility (cont.)
• Consider invisible challenges such as symbolic processing ones (innumeracy, 
reading challenges like dyslexia, and others).     
• Continue to evolve the training to ensure broad accessibility.  
• Build the digital learning objects to align with available technologies in the field 
like screen readers.  
• Avoid requiring mouse interactions for accessibility.  Enable keyboard shortcuts and 
accessibility devices for human interaction.  
• Enable learners to adjust the parameters for speed of animations, level of sound, 
speed and replay of video, and so on.  
• Learner control of speed of transient multimedia information (and intake speed) is 
paramount.  
• Learner agency (such as from growing efficacy) is important (and is linked to learning and 
risk‐taking in learning).  
97
Designing for…
1 Perception(cont.)
Build to Accessibility (cont.)
• While offering options for access, avoid excessive redundancy because of cognitive load issues (on 
both the visual and auditory channels) and risks of distraction (based on Richard Mayer’s 
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning) 
• “Intrinsic” cognitive load is determined by the nature of the learning contents 
• “Germane” cognitive load is the actual mental effort applied to the learning
• “Extraneous” cognitive load is extra effort needed to acquire the learning because of poor instructional design 
• Offer options in some of the assessments and assignments  
• Control for unconscious and sub‐conscious perception by ensuring a clear message (without 
unintended or negative learning)
• Messaging can be quite nuanced, so do ensure that even nuanced messages and possible inferences are 
accurate 
• Offer supports for learners with differing abilities, such as lead‐up learning and lead‐away 
learning (lead‐up learning to prepare for the main online learning, lead‐away learning to bolster 
the effect of the online learning), downloadables as reminders (to minimize learning decay), and 
others 
98
Designing for…
2 Cognition  
Build to Known Cognition
• Build to the human tendencies to 
• feel successful and capable, 
• remember faces (facial recognition in the fusiform gyrus), 
• pay attention to perceived threats, 
• enjoy stories, 
• play and explore, and 
• solve puzzles.
• Design learning to maximize human capabilities at processing sensory 
experiences.  
• Lessen distractions, so learners may employ their cognition and attend to the 
learning.  
99
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.)
Build to Known Cognition (cont.) 
• Treat cognition as a limited resource (cognitive load).  
• Build credibility and trust in the learning, so cognitive load related to non‐
trust is lessened.
• Phase learning contents in a developmental way.  Allow various 
points‐of‐entry for the learning.
• Chunk the learning experiences in easy‐to‐manage ways.  
• Allow different paths through the learning.  
• Employ the imagination and spark emotions to attend to “the 
unconscious meaning‐making processes at work within the human 
psyche”…and to enable transformative learning (Dirkx, 2006, p. 20).
100
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.)
Lower the Pressure 
• Reduce learner anxiety by making the learning experience low‐risk.  
• Allow plenty of time for the learning.  
• Enable opportunities for rehearsal.  
• Explain the learning with clarity at every point. Provide multiple ways 
to understand the material.  
• Lower learner anxiety by enabling “interpersonal help‐seeking” (Wart 
& Downing, 2000).  
• Offer plenty of learner support.  
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Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.)
Lower the Pressure (cont.)
• Create a psychologically safe learning context. 
• Keep people from emotionally flooding by keeping their moods 
positive.  
• Address any concerns in a timely way to head off misunderstandings. 
• Elicit learner understandings and sentiments.  
• Head off counter‐productive attitudes and misunderstandings with 
finesse and without causing hurt feelings.
102
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.) 
Lower the Pressure (cont.) 
• Online learning itself may cause anxiety but learner stress may be 
somewhat mitigated by high time allowance to prepare for online 
learning; clear and complete course details; supportive (facilitative, 
collaborative) instructors; a sense of online learning community 
(Conrad, 2002) 
• Use a consistent learning design (and templates).  Consistency conveys 
security and trust.  
• Use consistent naming protocols for files.  
• Enable easy referencing by using slide numbers, page numbers, section 
numbers and headers, and so on.  
103
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.) 
Watch the Social Dynamics 
• Support social cognitive endeavors by encouraging learners 
expression of their presence in online learning through shared 
messaging, tasking, and profile information sharing (based on 
constructivist theory).
• Encourage learner persistence and grit (against fragility).  
• Encourage learner resilience against challenges and stressors.  
• Control for negative dynamics such as online harassments, 
expressions of schadenfreude, rushes to judgment, vengeance‐
seeking, and other negatives.   
104
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.)
Encourage Learner Self‐awareness 
• Help learners become aware of implicit / explicit cognition during the 
learning process.  
• Help learners raise implicit cognition insights to a conscious level for 
improved awareness and performance.  
• When learners are “naïve” in a context, it is better for them to own 
that naïvete instead of assuming inaccurate or guessed‐at knowledge.  
• Learners need to acknowledge their experiential / exposure limits without the 
interference of ego.  
105
Designing for…
2 Cognition (cont.)
Encourage Learner Self‐awareness(cont.)
• Make sure that the content and messaging are correct. 
• The text and subtext should work in alignment. 
• Examples should be relevant to the learning objective. 
• There should be appropriate learning feedback to control against incorrect or 
negative learning.
• Imagery used in the online learning should contain informational value and 
should not be merely decorative.  
• Source references should be timely and appropriate.   
106
Designing for…
3 Learning 
Harness Internal Motivation and Natural Desire to Learn
• Authentically model a learning approach to the world by continuing 
to learn in an active and constructive way.  
• Capture learner attention and engage learner (intrinsic) motivation by 
showing the importance of the learning.  
• Reward and reinforce accurate learning.
• Do not use excessive extrinsic motivations because too much of the latter can 
actually be demotivating and mis‐focusing.  
• Harness social motivations for learners by encouraging constructive 
learner interactivity.  
• Support the building of “communities of practice.”
107
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Harness Internal Motivation and Natural Desire to Learn (cont.)
• Encourage learners by showing the importance of effort.  
• Do not communicate that learning depends on nature vs. nurture.  
• To assume that one’s capabilities are pre‐written by genetics is not only inaccurate but it 
shuts down human endeavors.   
• Avoid communicating sexist or discriminatory messages about inherent 
capabilities of learners.  
• Messaging matters, even highly nuanced ones (such as reminding test takers of their 
gender just prior to a high‐value assessment, in “stereotype threat” research).  
108
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.) 
Harness Internal Motivation and Natural Desire to Learn (cont.)
• Motivate learners to learn by enabling “small wins” (Weick, 1984); 
help learners get beyond the fragility of commitment.  
• Commitments to learn become much more fragile over time, over difficulty, 
over frustration, over costs...
• Avoid offense and social embarrassment and such because that will shut 
people down.  
• Increase each learner’s resilience and ability to cope with the rigor of 
learning.  
• Help learners achieve various states of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).   
• Harness learners’ own curiosity and interests to help them broaden their 
learning.  Connect learners to your own social networks and resources to 
enable their growth.  
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Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Structure the Learning
• Define the learning objectives as verb phrases, so learners know what they 
are focusing on learning.
• Create a developmental sequence which enables learning in a logical step‐
by‐step way.  
• Pace in a way that challenges but does not overly frustrate learners.  Aim for that 
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).  
• Scaffold the learning to accommodate learners with varying levels of 
knowledge, differing backgrounds, and differing capabilities.  
• Enable pre‐learning for learners to warm to the topic and refresh on necessary 
knowledge.  Enable post‐learning for learners to continue their studies beyond this 
particular learning experience.  Support all learners in their explorations.  
• Do not label learners because they are (much) more than a simple stereotype.  
110
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Structure the Learning (cont.)
• In assessments, use real‐world distractors to create a nuanced sense of 
discernment.  
• Offer schemas and models and rules to help learners understand 
interconnections.  Help learners identify relevant patterns.  Help them 
understand underlying principles and rules.  
• Offer mnemonics to enable more accurate memories of such schemas and 
interrelationships.  
• Ensure that the proper language of the domain / field is used in the online 
learning, to enhance transferability into the field.  
• “Situated cognition” is sometimes created using cases, scenarios, as well as 
full‐sensory experiences in immersive virtual worlds.  
111
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Customize to Unique Learners
• Know the learners.  Assess where they are in their learning. 
Accommodate their learning needs.  
• Encourage learner exploration and creativity.  
• Encourage learner risk‐taking by creating a psychologically safe 
learning environment.  
• Encourage learner question‐asking and hypothesizing where relevant.  
• Offer opportunities for accurate practice with sufficient feedback.  
112
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Customize to Unique Learners (cont.)
• Ensure that learning is acquired correctly the first time because 
unlearning is impossible, and learning over a mistake does take extra 
work but is doable.
• Elicit learner “mental models” and compare those against expert “conceptual 
models”.  
• Support individual learner metacognition to enhance their self‐
awareness of their learning styles and effective learning strategies 
and tactics / methods.  
• Support collective learner metacognitive moments to understand the 
collective learning and the collective dynamics.  
113
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.) 
Design Learning to the Desired Outcomes
• Enable immersive learning in contexts where 360 degrees and 24/7 
enhance the learning (such as in intensive language learning).    
• If muscle memory learning is important, ensure plenty of practice in 
real‐world scenarios.  
• In complex learning contexts, use scenarios that play out differently 
based on decision‐making and choices.  
• Mimic the uncertainty in the real world.  
• Ensure appropriate prior training before going into scenarios, proper support 
during, and an effective debriefing for the learning at the end.  
114
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Support Learner Self‐regulation
• Empirical research in student learning compares those who acquire 
particular learning vs. those who don’t and look at what is effective to 
the learning.  
• Effective learners employ particular methods that enable them to 
tackle certain types of learning and learning tasks.  
• Learners do have different preferences for how they learn, with some 
methods feeling more “natural” to the particular learner.  
• Talk‐through protocols are important for some types of learning to enable 
learner awareness of their thinking through an issue.  
• Practice matters.  To create expert skill sets, there is a foundational amount of 
actual hands‐on learning and practice required (some say 10,000 hours).
115
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Support Learner Self‐regulation (cont.)
• Learning is accumulative, like Velcro.  Prior learning is an important basis 
on which to build future learning.  It is important to set a firm and solid 
foundation at each stage of human development.
• Rote learning (memorization), while not in style, is critical for some types 
of knowledge acquisition.
• Encouragement is important because learning commitments can be fragile.  
• Giving unearned credit (kudos and affirmations) to learners to make sure 
they “pass” is detrimental to the learning and contributes to learner 
narcissism and hostility.  
• Over‐protection of learners can be negative.  Some adversities and 
challenges can strengthen learners’ resilience and adaptivity to the world.
116
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Deploy Learner Study Skills
• Study skills matter; these include the following:  
• Knowing the different types of reading (skimming, scanning, and academic)  and how 
to apply the different types for different learning contexts 
• Increasing comprehension (meaning, tone, voice, genre, relevant patterns, and other aspects)
• Increasing efficiency (accuracy with speed) 
• Knowing how to take notes (with words, with drawings) for comprehension and 
memory enhancement 
• Knowing and applying test‐taking strategies 
• Knowing how to write originally and effectively 
• Applying numeracy effectively 
• Applying geospatial knowledge effectively 
117
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.)
Deploy Learner Study Skills (cont.)
• Study skills include…
• Knowing how to conduct effective research and evaluate source information for 
validity 
• Understanding data and data visualizations 
• Applying logical thinking 
• Engaging abstractions 
• Understanding and applying technologies strategically and tactically 
• Maintaining a healthy lifestyle to enable effective learning, balancing life, work, and 
study   
• Maintaining effective social relationships to enable effective learning, and others  
• Learners benefit from knowing the particular necessary study skills for their 
respective fields (and related peripheral domains).  
118
Designing for…
3 Learning (cont.) 
Provide Access to Learning Resources 
• Expose learners to contexts where they may be supported in the 
learning on the particular topic beyond the course or training.  
119
Designing for…
4 Memory
Call Attention
• To move learning from short‐term memory to long‐term memory, encode 
the learning by calling attention to what learners should remember with…
• Callouts, key terms, key concepts, and mnemonics
• Visualizations 
• Simulations
• Stories 
• Characters
• Models and schemas 
• Principles
• Enable learners to “reflect,” so that they can encode the new learning to 
memory.  Avoid interferences that may interrupt the learning.  
120
(En)coding to different types of memories 
Non‐declarative implicit procedural 
memory
• Some memories may be encoded 
implicitly and latently to the individual.  
These implicit memories may affect 
thoughts and behaviors without the 
person being aware of the influence.  
• Once learned, bicycle riding is an action 
taken in an automatic way without need for 
much conscious thought.  
• Such memories may be acquired through 
practice and muscle memory.  To encode 
that, learners have to go through plenty 
of practice and develop the embodied 
approach.
Declarative / explicit memory 
• Explicit memory is divided into two 
types:  episodic memory (personal 
experiences) and semantic memory 
(factual information) 
• For conscious declarative memory 
learning and recollection, the 
executive function has to be 
engaged… to code to the explicit 
memory system.
121
(En)coding to different types of memories (cont.)
Work with Multi‐memory Systems
• Some learning taps into both non‐declarative and declarative memory 
systems.  
• Humans function with a multi‐memory system. 
• To tap both systems, enable plenty of (the right kind of) practice to 
reinforce the learning and the encoding to long‐term memory. 
122
Designing for…
4 Memory (cont.) 
Support Memory Systems
• Because short‐term and working memory can hold just a few 
elements at a time, complex information should be conveyed in an 
understandable way.  Excessive information and complexity may be 
too overwhelming.  
• Make sure that the learning delivered and the learning received is 
accurate before learners encode to memory.
• Elicit learner impressions to improve the designed online learning.
123
Designing for…
4 Memory (cont.) 
Support Memory Systems (cont.)
• Encourage early practice after new learning (usually within three 
hours after the learning and then again within the first 48 hours after 
the first learning), so that the information doesn’t get forgotten.  
• Also, people may get intimidated by the new learning and simply not commit 
to the work.
• Offer formative assessments and other types of feedback loops to 
enhance the learning and encoding into memory.
124
Designing for…
4 Memory (cont.) 
Promote Psychological Safety for Learning
• Support people’s self‐awareness of their own memory strengths and 
weaknesses through the study of meta‐memory.  This may help 
people to more consciously deploy their memory resources.  
• Use proper emotional touchpoints to encode important points.  
Emotional salience enhances encoding to long‐term memory.  
• Avoid undue stress / discomfort / distraction in the learning.
125
Designing for…
4 Memory (cont.)
Consider the Social
• People often prefer to learn socially in a constructivist way.  Support 
the creation of “communities of practice.”  
• Given human over‐confidence (often certitude) in their own 
capabilities and their need for social face‐saving, offer summative 
assessments as well for clear awareness of actual knowledge and 
capabilities (vs. social performance of artificial knowledge).  
• Offer a variety of assessments to capture actual knowledge and capabilities 
that take into account preferred learning approaches.  
126
Designing for…
4 Memory (cont.) 
Work Against Memory Decay
• Encourage learner creation of learning journals and other artifacts 
that enhance their memory and access to the learning.  
• Offer regular trainings and practice so that people stay fresh with the 
relevant knowledge and skills.  
• Help learners stave off memory decay / forgetting through refresher 
learning resources and downloadables.  
• Ensure the availability of continuous practice in order to enhance 
memory and to slow memory waning.  
127
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making
Build to Human Intelligence
• Offer different types of learning that tap into multi‐faceted human 
intelligence:  
• Communicating through language, audio, imagery, video, and other elements 
• Enabling experiential learning (and re‐learning) 
• Enabling a broad range of review of the knowledge and practice of the skill 
128
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making
Build Human Intelligence
• Help learners understand different types of intelligences, what their 
own intelligence makeup may be, and how to harness the different 
types of intelligences for their particular work.  
• Help learners extend beyond their own known intelligence and 
develop their capabilities.  
129
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Engage Learner Self‐awareness and Executive Control
• Support learner development of meta‐cognition, so they know when the 
default System 1 is at play and when System 2 should be brought into play 
for assessment and decision‐making.  
• Learners should also be aware of what it is that they want to believe because that is 
shown to have an outsized biasing effect in what they perceive and how they act in a 
context.  
• Learners should train to make decisions based on available facts and actual 
probabilities (such as through Bayesian analysis based on conditional 
probabilities, built on informed “priors”), not impressions, not emotions, 
not naïve stereotypes, not uninformed intuitions, and not senses of truth 
based on availability heuristics (a common cognitive bias).  
• Probabilities are probabilities, and they should not be seen as deterministic.  
Assuming “fatedness” is too going too far.
130
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Support Learner Adaptivity
• Encourage adaptivity in learners:  
• Take time to think through decisions. Test ideas particularly those that one deeply 
wants to be true. Consider counterintuitive concepts. 
• Create systems for decision‐making that encapsulate known and relevant facts and 
enable heightened application of rationality in decision‐making. 
• Consider first, second, and third (and other) degrees of effects and intended and 
unintended consequences.  
• Surface assumptions, and explore those assumptions using facts and probabilities.
• Objectively evaluate the outcomes of decision‐making. Be ready to reassess, identify 
and own errors (even at a cost to ego), and come to accurate conclusions. 
• Make decisions from a personal place of strength and agency, not mental or 
emotional depletion.
• Verify before trusting, and trust sparingly.  This applies to other people but also the 
self.
131
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Encourage Creativity
• Over a lifetime, there seem to be periods of increased productivity and 
creativity, but there are also outliers who are able to maintain high 
creativity over a full lifetime and into old age.  
• Historical research in human creativity suggests that childhood to early 
adulthood crucibles and challenges may enable people to deeply think 
about particular issues and to develop “creative genius” skill sets that 
would not be developed otherwise.  
• Creativity is linked to practice.  It is based on a broad knowledge not only in 
fields of expertise but also in other fields, for a cross‐fertilization of ideas.  
• While it is important not to fall into “habits of mind,” creativity has to build on 
expertise.  So thinkers have to learn their fields well but not in a rigid way that 
constrains their thinking.  
132
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Encourage Creativity (cont.)
• Socializing in heterophilous ways may benefit creative thinking, such as per 
Annalee Saxenian’s idea of “regional advantage” 
• People of various backgrounds being physically or geographically co‐located and 
being able to share ideas and benefit each other’s work… enhances competitive 
advantage through technological innovation.  
• People tend to socialize homophilously (with others like themselves); expanding that 
to reach outside of traditional socializing has benefits.  
• There may be causal relationships between periods of negative emotions 
(like sadness) and negative moods and “artistic brilliance” in composers 
(Borowiecki, as cited in Swanson, July 25, 2016)
• Also, “getting a permanent, tenured position and being married or cohabiting were 
associated with less productivity and less creative output” (ibid) 
133
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Encourage Creativity (cont.)
• Instructors and trainers should not be off‐put by the unexpected.  
• Design learning to enable unanticipated outcomes.  
• Enable the acceptance of a variety of project‐based learning outcomes even if 
the methods and outcomes are not anticipated and unforeseen / 
unforeseeable.  
• Build learning incentive structures to reward creativity and innovation.  
Ensure that the learners who come up with the original ideas and plans are 
the ones to benefit.  (Trainers who piggy‐back on their trainees’ ideas are 
creating large disincentives for creative thinking and work.  Those who are too 
rigid in terms of expected outcomes will also discourage creative work.)  
134
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making(cont.) 
Employ Situated Decision‐making
• Create learning cases and scenarios where learners may practice 
decision‐making (as individuals and as parts of groups), and ensure 
that their decisions have repercussions and outcomes, so learners 
may visualize the various causes‐and‐effects (and other complexities).  
• Help learners identify real‐world decision junctures.  
• Build scenarios with sufficient noise and distractors to emulate the world.  
• Build in real‐world pressures—such as time, other actors, budgetary 
constraints, leadership hierarchies, and others.  
• Build learning off of real‐world cases for credibility and authenticity.  
135
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Employ Situated Decision‐making (cont.) 
• In terms of decision‐making, learners have to have a sense of the 
actual context, their own agency and role in the context, and the 
“choice space” (what decisions are before them that are actionable 
and reasonable).
136
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.)
Provide Clear Rules for Decision‐making
• Support learner awareness of the rules of decision‐making, especially the 
critical ones.  
• Provide strategies for appropriate information seeking.
• Provide strategies for appropriate intercommunications with others in the problem‐
solving environment.  
• Share methods for how to work through various decision junctures.
• Help learners see the mental boxes they are working within, and help them “think 
outside the box.”
• Show non‐action as a decision, which leaves the world to continue with other agents 
and actors.
• Help learners under the principles behind the rules, so they can improvise when 
there are no rules.  (There’s the north star, so…here’s how I’ll navigate.)  
137
Designing for…
5 Decision‐making (cont.) 
Focus on Group Dynamics in Decision‐making
• In a group setting, work should be designed to head off cognitive 
skews, so that the best decision‐making may be applied. 
• Selected courses of action should be studied for actual outcomes and 
ways to improve future performance.  
• Heterogeneous groups may benefit decision‐making because of the 
richness of different types of expertise and domain knowledge.  
• Through brainstorming, groups should encourage divergent thinking 
and approaches and not automatically dismiss ideas.  
138
Designing for…
6 Action‐taking
Assigned Roles in Action‐taking
• Assign clear roles to learners to take on particular roles in a context (to 
avoid the “bystander effect,” which may lead to a dilution of sense of 
personal responsibility).  
• Some individuals should take on the role of the 10th (wo)man and the red cell.  
• Cross‐train for a range of decision‐making and action‐taking skills.  
• Define the expected actions and the triggers for the respective actions.  
• Delimit the range of proper actions.  Show what makes sense for a particular context, 
but bound the range of practically allowable actions.  
• Support understandings of implications of actions taken and not taken.  
Help learners assess the efficacy / inefficacy of taking certain actions.  
139
Designing for…
6 Action‐taking (cont.)
Watch for Go‐to Habits in Decision‐making and Action‐taking
• Help learners be aware of their personality‐based tendencies and 
what that may / may not say about their action‐taking tendencies.  
• The idea is to avoid non‐thinking non‐conscious automated decisions 
and actions.  
• Support learners to train into the necessary action‐taking.  (Personality is not 
destiny.)  
• Help learners understand their “go to” habits in terms of decision‐
making and to change their abilities to respond in a constructive way.  
• The cue‐response‐reward cycle can be trained for appropriate responses to 
different contexts.  
140
Designing for…
6 Action‐taking (cont.)
Get Real
• Set realistic expectations.  
• If people tend not to be hyper‐attentive to details (as in software coding), 
then enable the uses of augmentation tools to enable the proper work or 
enable revisiting the work iteratively to correct mistakes.  
• Some simple tools—pro‐con tables, checklists, decision trees—may enhance 
human decision‐making many‐fold particularly in complex contexts.  
• Design the learning against the real limits.  
• In the same way that you would not design physical tests against the limits of 
survival physics, you would not create impossible tasks (except for other 
purposes). 
• Support learners in their learning endeavors.  
141
Key Takeaways
…in three slides…  
142
Summary:  Online learning should be 
designed to actual human capabilities…
• with limited and changing perceptual systems (sight, smell, taste, touch, hearing, 
and proprioception) through which people engage the world; 
• with sensory signals from the world and from the person’s body and mind;  
• with cognition directed by the frontal lobe to what is seen as important but 
implicit cognition at work even pre‐attentively and unattentively; 
• with the need for history and context to understand the sensory signals;  
• with learning occurring based on different preferences…
• and informed by prior knowledge but decaying (forgetting) over time…
• and limited by split attention…
• and not able to apply unlearning but having to learn over prior learning in some cases…but 
building new learning over old learning in some cases; 
143
Summary:  Online learning should be 
designed to actual human capabilities… (cont.)
• with memory that is generally fairly limited in terms of what may be held in the 
short term; 
• with built‐in conscious, subconscious, and unconscious decision‐making about what to forget 
vs. what to encode into long‐term memory; 
• with memory that is malleable and reinterpreted over time;  
• with decision‐making marred by individual cognitive biases, intuitions, prior 
beliefs and attitudes; 
• with the default influence of the automatic and speedy System 1 (which often occurs in an 
unconscious way); 
• with a tendency towards over‐confidence; 
• with the influence of  “noisy” social group dynamics; 
144
Summary:  Online learning should be 
designed to actual human capabilities… (cont.)
• with potential action‐taking affected by unthinking application of go‐to 
habits…and difficulty adapting to unexpected or surprise events; 
• with the application of inaccurate and irrational cost‐benefit calculations (skewed by ego); 
• with not seeking better ways of solving problems by assuming that current methods are best; 
• with not considering creative solutions “outside the box” from not seeing the proverbial box 
or buying into erroneous myths about creativity; 
• with the lack of self‐efficacy to propose new ideas (even at small risk of embarrassment)
• and so on…   
145
Summary:  New technological affordances 
enable better designs…to human capabilities
• Authoring tools with built‐in accessibility features (timed text integrations for 
video and audio, alt‐texting for imagery, digital learning object players to 
allow user control, screen captures for note‐taking, and others)   
• Automated voice‐to‐text transcription of video and audio files (trained on 
real‐world data but with only about 60% accuracy currently)
• Auto‐translation of web sites between languages; transliteration from 
pronunciation to spelling on the Web 
• Persistent online learning contexts like learning management systems 
(LMSes), virtual worlds, online labs, smart digital book systems, and others
146
Summary:  New technological affordances enable 
better designs…to human capabilities (cont.)
• Smart learning platforms with learner profiling, learner behavioral tracking, 
and learning customizations
• Machine learning algorithms enable the observation of optimized learning sequences for 
particular domain knowledge 
• ‘Bot (robot) co‐learners with natural language capabilities and human‐based 
personalities 
• Badging and credentialing across platforms per individual user 
• Natural language programming (the uses of plain English to code programs) 
• High quality online learning resources, information, and references, and 
others 
147
Summary:  New technological affordances enable 
better designs…to human capabilities (cont.)
• Learning Management System (LMS) data portals and dashboards 
• Informatization of online learning 
148
References
• Augusto, L.M. (2016).  Lost in dissociation:  The main paradigms in unconscious cognition.  
Consciousness and Cognition: 42(2016), 293 – 310.  
• Byrne, K.A., Silasi‐Mansat, C.D., & Worthy, D.A. (2015).  Who chokes under pressure?  The Big Five 
personality traits and decision‐making under pressure.  Personality and Individual Differences:
74(February 2015), 22 – 28.  Retrieved July 1, 2016, from 
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886914005595.  
• Catmull, E. (with A. Wallace).  (2014).  Creativity, Inc.:  Overcoming the Unseen Forces that Stand 
in the Way of True Inspiration. New York: Random House.  178.  
• Conrad, D.L. (2002).  Engagement, excitement, anxiety, and fear:  Learners’ experiences of starting 
an online course.  The American Journal of Distance Education: 16(4), 205 – 226.  
• Dirkx, J.M. (2006).  Engaging emotions in adult learning:  A Jungian perspective on emotion and 
transformative learning.  New Directions for Adult and Continuing  Education:  109(Spring 2006), 
pp. 15 – 26.  Wiley Periodicals.  
149
References (cont.) 
• Duhigg, C. (2012). The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business.  New York: 
Random House.
• Hirsch, E.D. (1996).  The Schools We Need:  And Why We Don’t Have Them.  New York:  First 
Anchor Books, Random House.  44.  
• Kahneman, D. (2011).  Thinking Fast and Slow. New York:   Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 
• Mezirow, J. (1990).  Fostering critical reflection in adulthood:  A guide to transformative and 
emancipatory learning.  San Francisco:  Jossey‐Bass Publishers.
• Middleton, J., Buboltz, W., & Sopon, B. (2015).  The relationship between psychological reactance 
and emotional intelligence.  The Social Science Journal: 52(2015), 542‐549.  
• Ripley, A. (2008).  The Unthinkable:  Who Survives When Disaster Strikes—and Why.  New York:  
Crown Publishers.  
• Schreiner, T. & Rasch, B. (2016).  The beneficial role of memory reactivation for language learning 
during sleep:  A review.  Brain & Language. In press.  1 – 12. 
150
References (cont.) 
• Scutti, S. (2016, July 20).  New brain map identifies 97 previously unknown regions.  CNN.  
Retrieved July 22, 2016 from http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/20/health/new‐brain‐
map/?iid=ob_homepage_showcase_pool‐test.  
• Swanson, A. (2016, July 25).  Wonkblog: The downside of being happy.  The Washington Post.
Retrieved July 25, 206, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/07/25/why‐
happiness‐might‐be‐getting‐in‐the‐way‐of‐your‐artistic‐brilliance/.  
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