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PRESENTED BY:-STEFFI THOMAS
Assistant Professor
School of Pharmacy, LNCTU
BHOPAL
 Substance which lowers the surface tension of
water is known as Surface active agents.
 Classification of Surface Active agent :-
Cationic
Anionic
Zwitterionic
Non-ionic
 Classification of Surface Active agent:-
(1)Cationic
A positive charge head
Cationic agent --N(CH3)3
+.
(2)Anionic
Anion functional group --OSO3
-
(3)Zwitterionic
It has both anionic and cationic agent --
N+
(CH3)2CH2COO
(4)Non-ionic
There is no charge on such groups --
(OCH2CH2)nOH
Soap and syndet bars evolution and skin benefits
 Sodium or Potassium salt of higher fatty acid.
 Saponification is a process that involves
conversion of fat, oil or lipid into soap and alcohol
by the action of heat in the presence of aqueous
alkali (e.g. NaOH)
 Classification of Soap
Hard soap
Soft soap
Insoluble soap
 Hard soap –
- Na- salt
- Moderately soluble in water
- Example- Aleppo soap, Castile soap, and Marseille
soap
 Soft soap –
- Potassium salt
- First dissolve in water
- Example- Shampoo and Liquid hand wash
 Insoluble soap -
- Ca/Mg-salt
- Use as lubricants and dries in paint industry
-
Soap and syndet bars evolution and skin benefits
 Cleaning with water alone has little effect when stains
contain non-polar substances, such as grease and sweat.
 The structure of soaps allow fats and oils to break away
from the fabric and disperse in water.
 During cleaning, the hydrophobic tails dissolve in the
droplet of oil or grease
 Soap on mixing with water forms a concentrated solution
and leads to foaming.
 The long non-polar end of soap gravitates towards and
surrounds the dirt and absorbs the dust in it.
 The short polar end with the carboxylate ion turns the
water away from the dirt.
 In water sodium soap dissolves to form soap
anions and sodium cations. For e.g. following
chemical equation shows the ionisation of sodium
palmitate
 Hydrophilic heads faces out in the surrounding
water resulting in ball-like structure
 With vigorous agitation or scrubbing the grease
becomes dislodged from the surface and further
soap ions attach themselves.
 The non-polar substance like oil and grease are
held inside the ball and are suspended in water.
Soap and syndet bars evolution and skin benefits
 Soap or detergent reduces the surface tension
 So, the surface of the cloth is wetted thoroughly
 Repulsion between the droplets causes the droplets
to remain suspended in water, forming an
emulsion.
 Thus the drops don’t coagulate or redeposit on the
cloth.
 Rosin
 Glyceride
 Caustic soda
 Sodium chloride or common salt
 Binding material
 Fillers
 Coloring material
 Perfume
 Super fatting agent
 Disinfectants
 Germicide
 According to a Roman legend, soap got its name,
from Mount Sapo, where animals were sacrificed
in the fire to the Roman Gods.
 Rain washed a mixture of melted animal fat, or
tallow, and wood ashes down into the clay soil
along the Tiber River. Women found out that this
clay mixture (fats and alkaline caustic ash)
resulting in the formation of soap made their wash
cleaner with much less effort.
 The soap making can be dated back to 2800 B.C.,
with the evidence of Babylonians mastering in the
art of soap making. They made soap from fats
boiled with ashes. Soap was used in cleaning wool
and cotton used in textile manufacture and was
used medicinally for at least 5000 years.
 The soap making can be dated back to 2800 B.C.,
with the evidence Ancient Egyptians mixed animal
and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to produce a
soap-like substance.
 The Phoenicians used goat’s tallow and wood
ashes to create soap in 600BC.
 Early Romans made soaps in the first century A.D.
 It wasn't until the 17th century that cleanliness and
bathing started to come back into fashion in much
of Europe.
 Soap-making was an established craft in Europe by
the seventh century.
 Vegetable and animal oils were used with ashes of
plants, along with fragrance.
 Italy, Spain and France were early centers of soap
manufacturing, due to their ready supply of raw
materials such as oil from olive trees.
 Alkali Material –NaOH, KOH
 Fat (Tallow with 20% Grease)
 Oil (Coconut 15%)
 FAT OR TALLOW:Tallow is obtained from suet and used in
making soap.
-Tallow is the fat obtained by rendering beef or mutton.
-Tallow is the harder and less fusible fat in animals and vegetables.
-Tallow is the white (nearly tasteless) solid rendered fat of cattle and
sheep used for making candles, soap, and pet foods.
 The ALKALI most commonly used today is NaOH.
-KOH can also be used.
-Potassium based soap creates a more water soluble product than
sodium based soap, and so it is called “Soft soap”.
-Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium based soap in
commonly used in Shaving products.
 OIL:
-Almond Oil , extracted from the seeds of sweet
almonds is used as an emollient in high quality soap.
-Almond oil prevents dehydration of skin.
-Palm oil, coconut oil, produced by processing of
palm fruit and coconut can be used in soap.
-Soap from coconut frim and lather well, Coconut
reduce hardness to increase solubility
-Coconut contain large proportion of lauric and
myristic acid (saturated fatty acids) as well as small
quantity of oleic, stearic, palmitic etc .
-Fish oil can also be used and better in processing of
soap
 Sodium stearate (Chemical formula: C17H35COO-Na+)
 Sodium palmitate (Chemical formula: C15H31COO-Na+)
 Sodium oleate (Chemical formula: C17H33COO-Na+)
 Laundry Soap
 Toilet Soap
 Laundry soaps, or washing soaps are made from
cheaper materials such as expired materials,
residue from edible oil refineries and caustic soda.
 Used only for washing of clothes.
 Can not be used for bathing due to excess of alkali.
 It is cheaper in rate.
 Made from best quality animal or vegetable fats.
 The higher the fatty material in soap, the better the
cleansing ability.
 Toilet soaps contains more fatty material than laundry
soap (i.e. 60- 80% )
 Mostly KOH is used in toilet soaps.
 Some colors , additives and perfumes are used in toilet
soaps.
 Do not harm the skin.
 Most of the toilet soaps present in the market (Lux,
Liril, Lifebuoy, Dettol, Margo etc).
 Batch process
1) Preparation of raw materials
2) Saponification
3) Glycerin removal and soap purification
4) Finishing
 The calculated amount of raw materials is selected in
order to get desired product.
 Exact amount of raw materials is determined by
determining the saponification value.
 Saponification value is the number of milligrams of
alkalis required to completely saponify the one gram of
specific fat.
 Imported tallow contains mixed glycerides has low
melting point and solidify at room temperature so the
ships and storage tanks have heating system in which
steam is circulating in pipes.
 Liquid tallow fed to settling tank and then filter press
where unwanted materials are settled down and
removed.
 Solid alkalis are diluted by adding water according to
required concentration (40-50%).
 After that pure tallow and alkali fed to the soap kettle.
 In soap kettle triglycerides in fats/oil react with
aqueous NaOH/KOH and converted into soap and
glycerol.
 Reaction is exothermic and heat is controlled by
gradual addition of NaOH/KOH.
 Helical pipe agitator is used in soap kettle which is
circular pipe having perforations and steam is used
for mixing.
 Rosins are added in order to create transparency
 Free Fatty acid react with Alkali metal to produce soap
and Glycerin.
 Glycerin is a by product of soap making.
 Chemical Reaction:-
TRIGLYCERIDE+NaOH GLYCERINE+METAL
SOAP
 Metallic salt of fatty acid, is a chemical name of soap.
 Laundry Soap-Harsh Alkali NaOH is used.
 Toilet Soap uses KOH
 Glycerin is more valuable than soap so it must be
removed from soap and some of glycerin is left in
soap to help make it soft and to avoid the
shrinkage of skin.
 Salt is added to the wet soap causing it to separate
out into soap and spent lye and to avoid bunch
formation.
 The product is washed with water in order to
remove all unwanted materials.
 Spent lye (Alkaline glycerin) and solid soap are
withdrawn from soap kettle.
 The solid soap from the pan is blended with
builders and additives in a special machine called
crutcher.
 Sodium silicate is added in laundry soap which
acts as a inhibitor which is then shaped into bars
and cutting is carried out.
 Soap still contains little quantity of water which is
evaporated by dry air.
 After drying, specific perfumes and colors are used
for toilet soap and after that final packing is carried
out.
 Soaps are eco friendly and biodegradable because
are of natural origins.
 Soaps are not effective in hard water because when
it reacts with the magnesium or calcium salts
which makes water hard to produce insoluble
precipitate called scum.
 When we use soap and hard water , the amount of
lather produced is very small.
 They have weak cleaning properties than
detergents because no specific additives and
builders are used in soap.
 The word “syndet” is derived from “synthetic”
combined with “detergent”.
 Technically it refers to the binding that occurs
between different detergents, also called
surfactants or tensioactive agents.
 Syndet soap surfactants are derived from oils, fats,
or petroleum products that are processed in a wide
range of chemical processes other than traditional
saponification.
 E.g. Dove, Cetaphil
 Sodium cocoyl isethionate (the most widely used)
 Sulfosuccinates
 Alpha olefin sulfonates
 Alkyl glyceryl ether sulfonate
 Sodium cocoyl monoglyceride sulfate
 Betaines
 Soap is extremely effective in cleansing the skin. It
strips away everything, including our skin’s natural oils.
Soaps are known to be harsh and its use can damage skin
layers that regulate the hydration of our skin.. Soap bars
also have a pH ranging from 9 to 10, making it more
alkaline in comparison to our skin which has a slightly
acidic pH from 5 to 6.
 Syndet bars are mild and cause less damage to our skin.
The pH of syndet bars are usually around 5.5, which is
very similar to the natural pH of our skin. These bars are
effective cleansers, cause minimal damage to skin
layers, and do not have the harsh stripping effects of
regular soap.
 Antioxidants: Used to Stabilize the soap against
rancidity. E.g. sodium silicate, sodium hyposulphite,
sodium thiosulphate.
 Whiteners: Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used
to improve whiteness.
 Perfumes: The pH of the soap is around 10.0. The
selected perfume should be stable in this pH range.
 Soap is manufacture by three type of processes
namely are as
1) Semi- boiled
2)Cold Process.
3) Full- boiled Process.
4) Continuous saponification
 Semi boiled and cold processes are the simplest processes
of soap making.
 In these processes, fat is reacted with strong alkali and
strong alkali is nearly equal to that just required for
saponification.
 The semi boiled process differs from the cold process in
the fact that the saponification.
 Mixture is heated to 70-90ºC . Using a steam heated coil to
accelerate and complete the saponification reaction.
 After the saponification is complete other ingredients like
dyes, perfumes and additives are added to prevent them
from drying.
 It also allows manufacturing waste to be recycled, better
incorporation of additives and a wider choice of materials.
 Cold process, mixing of fat and strong alkali is carried
out substantially at room temp.
 Mixture of fats and alkali is kept under vigorous
agitation for approximately 2 hours and the dyes,
perfumes and additives are added at this stage.
 The process does not include the removal of impurities
or separation of the glycerin which is produced.
 Crude soap is drawn off as the bulk of the mixture
thickens and is poured as it is into the cooling frames,
where the saponification process is carried for one or
more days.
 Crude soap is then removed from the frame and cut
into the blocks and sent for finishing.
 In this process, large cylindrical kettles with cone
bottoms equipped with open and sometimes with closed
coils for steam are used.
 Saponification reaction:- This is carried out by boiling
fat with aqueous alkali together with open steam at
100ºC allowing a wider range of fatty raw materials to
be used.
 After saponification takes place, the mass is subjected to
several washes using brine.
 The more intensely the glycerin is washed, lower is the
glycerin content of the soap.
 Graining out & washing :- After saponification , the
soap is grained out by the addition of salt to the boiling
mass. Dry salt as well as brine may be used. The soap
rises to the top of kettle in form of rough mass as soap
which is called ‘kettle wax’ . The washings are carried
out by adding water to the kettle mass .
 Finishing or Fitting operation :- The final operation in
soap boiling is fitting operation. Here, the soap is boiled
with water & upon standing , the batch will separate into
upper layers consisting of neat soap and lower layer
consisting of niger which retains most of the colouring
materials, metallic salts & other impurities
 These processes are used when the production is on
very large scale.
 Fats are first converted into fatty acids and glycerin
using high pressure at 500ºC in continuous fat splitting
process and fatty acids are reacted with alkali to form
soap
 This includes counter-current washing and separation
INGREDIENTS QUANTITY
SOAP BASE 99.3-98.6%
TITANIUM DIOXIDE 0.2-0.4%
PERFUME 0.5-1%
COLOR q.s.
INGREDIENTS QUANTITY
SODIUM GLYCERYL MONOLAURATE
SULPHATE
78%
GLYCERYL MONOSTEARATE 10%
CETYL ALCOHOL 9%
LANOLIN DERIVATIVE 1%
CORN STARCH 2%
PERFUME q.s.
COLOUR q.s.
ANTI-OXIDANT q.s.
1) Determination of clarity, colour & odour :-
Clarity & colour was checked by naked eyes against
white background , odour was smelled.
2) Determination of pH :- The formulation were
dissolved in 100ml of distilled water & stored for
2hrs. The measurement of pH of the formulation was
done in previously calibrated pH meter.
3) Determination of foam height :- 0.5g of sample
of soap was taken, dispersed in 25ml distilled water.
Then transferred it into 100ml measuring cylinder.
Volume was adjusted to 50ml with water. Shaken the
above sample solution 25 times and measured the
foam height .
4) Determination of percentage of free alkali :-
About 5g of sample was taken in a conical flask and
added it into 50ml of neutralized alcohol. It was
boiled under reflux on a water bath for 30min ,cooled
& 1ml of phenolphthalein solution was added. It was
then titrated immediately with 0.1N HCl.
5) Determination of alcohol insoluble matter :- 5g
of sample was taken in a conical flask, added it to
50ml of warm ethanol & shaken vigorously to
dissolve . The solution was filtered through a filter
paper with 20ml warm ethanol and dried it at 105ºC
for 1hr.
% Alcohol insoluble matter = wt of residue × 100
wt of sample
 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library
THANKS

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Soap and syndet bars evolution and skin benefits

  • 1. PRESENTED BY:-STEFFI THOMAS Assistant Professor School of Pharmacy, LNCTU BHOPAL
  • 2.  Substance which lowers the surface tension of water is known as Surface active agents.  Classification of Surface Active agent :- Cationic Anionic Zwitterionic Non-ionic
  • 3.  Classification of Surface Active agent:- (1)Cationic A positive charge head Cationic agent --N(CH3)3 +. (2)Anionic Anion functional group --OSO3 - (3)Zwitterionic It has both anionic and cationic agent -- N+ (CH3)2CH2COO (4)Non-ionic There is no charge on such groups -- (OCH2CH2)nOH
  • 5.  Sodium or Potassium salt of higher fatty acid.  Saponification is a process that involves conversion of fat, oil or lipid into soap and alcohol by the action of heat in the presence of aqueous alkali (e.g. NaOH)  Classification of Soap Hard soap Soft soap Insoluble soap
  • 6.  Hard soap – - Na- salt - Moderately soluble in water - Example- Aleppo soap, Castile soap, and Marseille soap  Soft soap – - Potassium salt - First dissolve in water - Example- Shampoo and Liquid hand wash  Insoluble soap - - Ca/Mg-salt - Use as lubricants and dries in paint industry -
  • 8.  Cleaning with water alone has little effect when stains contain non-polar substances, such as grease and sweat.  The structure of soaps allow fats and oils to break away from the fabric and disperse in water.  During cleaning, the hydrophobic tails dissolve in the droplet of oil or grease  Soap on mixing with water forms a concentrated solution and leads to foaming.  The long non-polar end of soap gravitates towards and surrounds the dirt and absorbs the dust in it.  The short polar end with the carboxylate ion turns the water away from the dirt.
  • 9.  In water sodium soap dissolves to form soap anions and sodium cations. For e.g. following chemical equation shows the ionisation of sodium palmitate  Hydrophilic heads faces out in the surrounding water resulting in ball-like structure  With vigorous agitation or scrubbing the grease becomes dislodged from the surface and further soap ions attach themselves.  The non-polar substance like oil and grease are held inside the ball and are suspended in water.
  • 11.  Soap or detergent reduces the surface tension  So, the surface of the cloth is wetted thoroughly  Repulsion between the droplets causes the droplets to remain suspended in water, forming an emulsion.  Thus the drops don’t coagulate or redeposit on the cloth.
  • 12.  Rosin  Glyceride  Caustic soda  Sodium chloride or common salt  Binding material  Fillers  Coloring material  Perfume  Super fatting agent  Disinfectants  Germicide
  • 13.  According to a Roman legend, soap got its name, from Mount Sapo, where animals were sacrificed in the fire to the Roman Gods.  Rain washed a mixture of melted animal fat, or tallow, and wood ashes down into the clay soil along the Tiber River. Women found out that this clay mixture (fats and alkaline caustic ash) resulting in the formation of soap made their wash cleaner with much less effort.
  • 14.  The soap making can be dated back to 2800 B.C., with the evidence of Babylonians mastering in the art of soap making. They made soap from fats boiled with ashes. Soap was used in cleaning wool and cotton used in textile manufacture and was used medicinally for at least 5000 years.  The soap making can be dated back to 2800 B.C., with the evidence Ancient Egyptians mixed animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to produce a soap-like substance.  The Phoenicians used goat’s tallow and wood ashes to create soap in 600BC.
  • 15.  Early Romans made soaps in the first century A.D.  It wasn't until the 17th century that cleanliness and bathing started to come back into fashion in much of Europe.  Soap-making was an established craft in Europe by the seventh century.  Vegetable and animal oils were used with ashes of plants, along with fragrance.  Italy, Spain and France were early centers of soap manufacturing, due to their ready supply of raw materials such as oil from olive trees.
  • 16.  Alkali Material –NaOH, KOH  Fat (Tallow with 20% Grease)  Oil (Coconut 15%)  FAT OR TALLOW:Tallow is obtained from suet and used in making soap. -Tallow is the fat obtained by rendering beef or mutton. -Tallow is the harder and less fusible fat in animals and vegetables. -Tallow is the white (nearly tasteless) solid rendered fat of cattle and sheep used for making candles, soap, and pet foods.  The ALKALI most commonly used today is NaOH. -KOH can also be used. -Potassium based soap creates a more water soluble product than sodium based soap, and so it is called “Soft soap”. -Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium based soap in commonly used in Shaving products.
  • 17.  OIL: -Almond Oil , extracted from the seeds of sweet almonds is used as an emollient in high quality soap. -Almond oil prevents dehydration of skin. -Palm oil, coconut oil, produced by processing of palm fruit and coconut can be used in soap. -Soap from coconut frim and lather well, Coconut reduce hardness to increase solubility -Coconut contain large proportion of lauric and myristic acid (saturated fatty acids) as well as small quantity of oleic, stearic, palmitic etc . -Fish oil can also be used and better in processing of soap
  • 18.  Sodium stearate (Chemical formula: C17H35COO-Na+)  Sodium palmitate (Chemical formula: C15H31COO-Na+)  Sodium oleate (Chemical formula: C17H33COO-Na+)
  • 19.  Laundry Soap  Toilet Soap
  • 20.  Laundry soaps, or washing soaps are made from cheaper materials such as expired materials, residue from edible oil refineries and caustic soda.  Used only for washing of clothes.  Can not be used for bathing due to excess of alkali.  It is cheaper in rate.
  • 21.  Made from best quality animal or vegetable fats.  The higher the fatty material in soap, the better the cleansing ability.  Toilet soaps contains more fatty material than laundry soap (i.e. 60- 80% )  Mostly KOH is used in toilet soaps.  Some colors , additives and perfumes are used in toilet soaps.  Do not harm the skin.  Most of the toilet soaps present in the market (Lux, Liril, Lifebuoy, Dettol, Margo etc).
  • 22.  Batch process 1) Preparation of raw materials 2) Saponification 3) Glycerin removal and soap purification 4) Finishing
  • 23.  The calculated amount of raw materials is selected in order to get desired product.  Exact amount of raw materials is determined by determining the saponification value.  Saponification value is the number of milligrams of alkalis required to completely saponify the one gram of specific fat.
  • 24.  Imported tallow contains mixed glycerides has low melting point and solidify at room temperature so the ships and storage tanks have heating system in which steam is circulating in pipes.  Liquid tallow fed to settling tank and then filter press where unwanted materials are settled down and removed.  Solid alkalis are diluted by adding water according to required concentration (40-50%).  After that pure tallow and alkali fed to the soap kettle.
  • 25.  In soap kettle triglycerides in fats/oil react with aqueous NaOH/KOH and converted into soap and glycerol.  Reaction is exothermic and heat is controlled by gradual addition of NaOH/KOH.  Helical pipe agitator is used in soap kettle which is circular pipe having perforations and steam is used for mixing.  Rosins are added in order to create transparency
  • 26.  Free Fatty acid react with Alkali metal to produce soap and Glycerin.  Glycerin is a by product of soap making.  Chemical Reaction:- TRIGLYCERIDE+NaOH GLYCERINE+METAL SOAP  Metallic salt of fatty acid, is a chemical name of soap.  Laundry Soap-Harsh Alkali NaOH is used.  Toilet Soap uses KOH
  • 27.  Glycerin is more valuable than soap so it must be removed from soap and some of glycerin is left in soap to help make it soft and to avoid the shrinkage of skin.  Salt is added to the wet soap causing it to separate out into soap and spent lye and to avoid bunch formation.  The product is washed with water in order to remove all unwanted materials.  Spent lye (Alkaline glycerin) and solid soap are withdrawn from soap kettle.
  • 28.  The solid soap from the pan is blended with builders and additives in a special machine called crutcher.  Sodium silicate is added in laundry soap which acts as a inhibitor which is then shaped into bars and cutting is carried out.  Soap still contains little quantity of water which is evaporated by dry air.  After drying, specific perfumes and colors are used for toilet soap and after that final packing is carried out.
  • 29.  Soaps are eco friendly and biodegradable because are of natural origins.  Soaps are not effective in hard water because when it reacts with the magnesium or calcium salts which makes water hard to produce insoluble precipitate called scum.  When we use soap and hard water , the amount of lather produced is very small.  They have weak cleaning properties than detergents because no specific additives and builders are used in soap.
  • 30.  The word “syndet” is derived from “synthetic” combined with “detergent”.  Technically it refers to the binding that occurs between different detergents, also called surfactants or tensioactive agents.  Syndet soap surfactants are derived from oils, fats, or petroleum products that are processed in a wide range of chemical processes other than traditional saponification.  E.g. Dove, Cetaphil
  • 31.  Sodium cocoyl isethionate (the most widely used)  Sulfosuccinates  Alpha olefin sulfonates  Alkyl glyceryl ether sulfonate  Sodium cocoyl monoglyceride sulfate  Betaines
  • 32.  Soap is extremely effective in cleansing the skin. It strips away everything, including our skin’s natural oils. Soaps are known to be harsh and its use can damage skin layers that regulate the hydration of our skin.. Soap bars also have a pH ranging from 9 to 10, making it more alkaline in comparison to our skin which has a slightly acidic pH from 5 to 6.  Syndet bars are mild and cause less damage to our skin. The pH of syndet bars are usually around 5.5, which is very similar to the natural pH of our skin. These bars are effective cleansers, cause minimal damage to skin layers, and do not have the harsh stripping effects of regular soap.
  • 33.  Antioxidants: Used to Stabilize the soap against rancidity. E.g. sodium silicate, sodium hyposulphite, sodium thiosulphate.  Whiteners: Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used to improve whiteness.  Perfumes: The pH of the soap is around 10.0. The selected perfume should be stable in this pH range.
  • 34.  Soap is manufacture by three type of processes namely are as 1) Semi- boiled 2)Cold Process. 3) Full- boiled Process. 4) Continuous saponification
  • 35.  Semi boiled and cold processes are the simplest processes of soap making.  In these processes, fat is reacted with strong alkali and strong alkali is nearly equal to that just required for saponification.  The semi boiled process differs from the cold process in the fact that the saponification.  Mixture is heated to 70-90ºC . Using a steam heated coil to accelerate and complete the saponification reaction.  After the saponification is complete other ingredients like dyes, perfumes and additives are added to prevent them from drying.  It also allows manufacturing waste to be recycled, better incorporation of additives and a wider choice of materials.
  • 36.  Cold process, mixing of fat and strong alkali is carried out substantially at room temp.  Mixture of fats and alkali is kept under vigorous agitation for approximately 2 hours and the dyes, perfumes and additives are added at this stage.  The process does not include the removal of impurities or separation of the glycerin which is produced.  Crude soap is drawn off as the bulk of the mixture thickens and is poured as it is into the cooling frames, where the saponification process is carried for one or more days.  Crude soap is then removed from the frame and cut into the blocks and sent for finishing.
  • 37.  In this process, large cylindrical kettles with cone bottoms equipped with open and sometimes with closed coils for steam are used.  Saponification reaction:- This is carried out by boiling fat with aqueous alkali together with open steam at 100ºC allowing a wider range of fatty raw materials to be used.  After saponification takes place, the mass is subjected to several washes using brine.  The more intensely the glycerin is washed, lower is the glycerin content of the soap.
  • 38.  Graining out & washing :- After saponification , the soap is grained out by the addition of salt to the boiling mass. Dry salt as well as brine may be used. The soap rises to the top of kettle in form of rough mass as soap which is called ‘kettle wax’ . The washings are carried out by adding water to the kettle mass .  Finishing or Fitting operation :- The final operation in soap boiling is fitting operation. Here, the soap is boiled with water & upon standing , the batch will separate into upper layers consisting of neat soap and lower layer consisting of niger which retains most of the colouring materials, metallic salts & other impurities
  • 39.  These processes are used when the production is on very large scale.  Fats are first converted into fatty acids and glycerin using high pressure at 500ºC in continuous fat splitting process and fatty acids are reacted with alkali to form soap  This includes counter-current washing and separation
  • 40. INGREDIENTS QUANTITY SOAP BASE 99.3-98.6% TITANIUM DIOXIDE 0.2-0.4% PERFUME 0.5-1% COLOR q.s.
  • 41. INGREDIENTS QUANTITY SODIUM GLYCERYL MONOLAURATE SULPHATE 78% GLYCERYL MONOSTEARATE 10% CETYL ALCOHOL 9% LANOLIN DERIVATIVE 1% CORN STARCH 2% PERFUME q.s. COLOUR q.s. ANTI-OXIDANT q.s.
  • 42. 1) Determination of clarity, colour & odour :- Clarity & colour was checked by naked eyes against white background , odour was smelled. 2) Determination of pH :- The formulation were dissolved in 100ml of distilled water & stored for 2hrs. The measurement of pH of the formulation was done in previously calibrated pH meter. 3) Determination of foam height :- 0.5g of sample of soap was taken, dispersed in 25ml distilled water. Then transferred it into 100ml measuring cylinder. Volume was adjusted to 50ml with water. Shaken the above sample solution 25 times and measured the foam height .
  • 43. 4) Determination of percentage of free alkali :- About 5g of sample was taken in a conical flask and added it into 50ml of neutralized alcohol. It was boiled under reflux on a water bath for 30min ,cooled & 1ml of phenolphthalein solution was added. It was then titrated immediately with 0.1N HCl. 5) Determination of alcohol insoluble matter :- 5g of sample was taken in a conical flask, added it to 50ml of warm ethanol & shaken vigorously to dissolve . The solution was filtered through a filter paper with 20ml warm ethanol and dried it at 105ºC for 1hr. % Alcohol insoluble matter = wt of residue × 100 wt of sample