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Prepared by: Samuel C. Brillo, MSc-Biology (cand.)
MODULE 1B
ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY:
ANIMAL BIOLOGY
Animal Biology consists of three subtopics:
• Module 1B.1 Animal Form and Function
• Module 1B.2 Animal Nutrition and Transport
• Module 1B.3 Feedback Mechanisms in Animals
MODULE 1B.1
Animal Form and Function
• define animal anatomy, animal morphology, and animal
physiology
• describe diversity of animal forms
• illustrate different nervous and immune functions essential for
animals’ survival
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Animal Morphoanatomy
Morphoanatomy - The study of
anatomical forms and structures
with emphasis on characteristics
useful in distinguishing the species.
Animal Body Plans
Bilateral Symmetry -Divides an organism into mirror image
halves
Saturnia pavonia
Felis domesticus
Radial Symmetry -the organism can be divided into similar
halves by passing a plane at any angle along a central axis
Tripneustes ventricosus
Linckia laevigata
Asymmetry-not identical on both sides of a central line; unsymmetrical;
lacking symmetry
Leucosolenida botryoides
Clathrina clathrus
Anatomical
terms of
direction
(Anterior) (Posterior)
MAJOR ANIMAL
GROUPS
Phylum Porifera = Sponges
• Marine
• Body is made up of tiny pores
• 3 main parts: ostia, osculum, spongocoel.
• Asymmetrical
A spongocoel is the
large, central cavity of
sponges. Water enters
the spongocoel
through hundreds of
tiny pores called ostia
and exits through the
larger opening called
osculum.
General poriferan body plan
Spicules- each of the small needlelike or sharp-pointed structures of
calcite or silica that make up the skeleton of a sponge. It comes in
different sizes: Megascleres and microscleres.
Spongilla lacustris
Spicules come in
different shapes as
well. Each shape
has its own name.
Class Demospongiae
Most diverse; spicules are made
of spongin (a protein) or silica (a
mineral) or both.
Niphates digitalis
Class Sclerospongiae
Soft body covered by skeleton
made of calcium carbonate,
either aragonite or calcite.
Ceratoporella nicholsoni
Class Hexactinellida
Commonly known as glass
sponges, spicules are made of
silica.
Euplectella aspergillum
Class Calcarea
Calcareous sponges,
characterized by spicules made
out of calcium carbonate).
Clathrina clathrus
Animal Biology.pdf
Phylum Cnidaria
• 10,000 species of animals found
exclusively in aquatic (freshwater and
marine) environments
• Cnidarians include true jellyfish, box
jellyfish, hydras, corals, sea anemones.
• They have radial symmetry.
Cnidarians undergo two life
stages: the polyp form, and
the medusa form.
Their body consists of three
layers: ectoderm,
endoderm, and mesoglea.
Ectoderm is called the
epidermis which covers
their body.
Mesoderm is called the
mesoglea; which is
nonliving, contains
water and fluids.
Endoderm is the innermost
layer, which is called
gastrodermis.
Gastrovascular cavity is
the space in their body
which the food is being
digested.
Tentacle is a slender flexible limb or appendage in an
animal, especially around the mouth of an invertebrate,
used for grasping, moving about, or bearing sense
organs.
Mouth is an opening where food and waste exits.
Basal disc is where
the polyp attaches its
body to a substrate.
Cnidocytes – are specialized cells in Cnidarians, also called “stinging
cells” which contains toxins. These cells are used to stun and capture
prey. Cnidocytes are contained in tentacles.
Cnidarians are grouped into 4 classes:
Animal Biology.pdf
WORM PHYLA – large group of worms
1. Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
2. Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
3. Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms
• Body is flattened
• Has definitive head and tail region;
eyespots in head and has thick
cuticle outside the body.
• May be free-living or parasitic
Pseudobiceros hancockanus
Planaria sp.
Parasitic worms of Phylum Platyhelminthes
Fasciola hepatica
Liver fluke
Taenia solium
Pig tapeworm
Phylum Nematoda = roundworms
• Body is long, smooth, and
unsegmented.
• Cylindrical bodies are tapered at
both ends.
• Free-living or parasitic
Ascaris lumbricoides
Caenorhabditis elegans
Phylum Annelida = segmented worms; earthworm, leech
• Body is segmented internally and
externally;
• they have complete digestive system;
• tube within a tube body plan.
• Most are free-living
Hirudo medicinalis
Lumbricus terrestris
Spirobranchus giganteus
Christmas tree worm
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Phylum Mollusca = snails, shellfish, oysters, clams, octopus, squids,
cuttlefish
• Body is soft, unsegmented and has
strong muscular foot (in snail). Shell
can be external (in snails and
shellfish) or internal (in octopus).
Loligo vulgaris
Hapalochlaena lunulata
(blue ringed octopus)
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
General molluscan body plan “Golden apple snail”
Pomacea canaliculata
General body plan of bivalves
Animal Biology.pdf
Phylum Echinodermata = sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, brittle stars, sea lilies
• Body is covered with spiny surface, with an internal skeleton inside
their body. These provide support and protection to the animal.
• They use their “tube feet” to move from one place to another.
tube feet
Class Echinoidea (sea urchins)
Mesocentrotus franciscanus
Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
Class Crinoidea (sea lilies)
Class Asteroidea (sea stars)
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Phylum Arthropoda = insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions,
millipedes, centipedes
• The phylum Arthropoda is by far
the largest of the phyla of the
kingdom Animalia, containing,
for example, insects,
crustaceans, and arachnids,
centipedes, millipedes.
SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA (chelicerates: arthropods without jaws)
SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA (multi-segmented, and each segment bears a pair of legs)
SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA (body segmented, covered with carapace)
SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA, Class Insecta (insects) Divided into 2 subclasses:
Apterygota (wingless insects) and Pterygota (winged insects)
General insect body plan
Wasp Grasshopper
CHARACTERISTICS
• Have legs and some have wings
• Found in all environments
• 3 main parts: Head, Thorax, Abdomen
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Phylum Chordata
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Single, hollow nerve cord beneath dorsal surface; in vertebrates, it differentiates into brain and
spinal cord.
2. Notochord: flexible rod on the dorsal side of gut, present at one stage in all chordates; displaced
in vertebrates by vertebral column that forms around the nerve cord.
3. Pharyngeal slits (pouches) connect pharynx (between mouth and esophagus) with outside gills in
sharks, fish; present in terrestrial animal embryos but disappear later except Eustachian tube
(connecting throat and middle ear)
4. Postanal tail extends beyond anus; present at least in embryo; regresses into tail bone in humans
5. Segmentation: reflected in arrangement of muscles (somites) and in vertebral column (both
mesoderm)
Anatomy of a primitive chordate. All animals belonging to Phylum Chordata
possesses these characteristics. However, during the course of development,
these parts begin to modify or change.
Class Chondrichthyes
(cartilaginous fish)
This group of animals include
sharks and rays.
Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)
This group of animals include the
usual marine and freshwater fish.
General body plan of a fish
Class Amphibia (amphibians)
This group of animals include salamanders,
newts, frogs, toads, and caecilians.
• Many amphibians, such as frogs, undergo
a metamorphosis, meaning they begin life
in the water and live on land as adults.
• Defining characteristics of these creatures
include moist, scaleless skin and the fact
that they are cold-blooded.
Animal Biology.pdf
General body plan of amphibians
(Class Amphibia)
Caecilian
Class Reptilia (reptiles)
This group of animals include alligators,
crocodiles, lizards, iguanas, chameleons,
turtles, tortoises, snakes, cobras, and vipers.
• The first and foremost characteristic of the
reptiles is that are cold blooded.
• They are able to regulate their inner body
temperature to the temperature of the
environment.
• They have scaly skins but absence of hair
or fur. The scales of the reptiles develop
as a surface cells filled with Keratin.
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Class Aves (birds)
This group of animals include flying and non-
flying birds.
All birds have the same characteristics:
• Feathers that covers the body, which grow
in their skin.
• Wings
• Lightweight skeleton
• Endothermic (warm blooded)
• Lungs with air sacs
• Beak
Animal Biology.pdf
Class Mammalia
(mammals)
All mammals share the following
characteristics:
• Mammary Glands
• Hair
• Jaw and ear bones
• 4-chambered heart and
diaphragm
• Complex brain functions
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
AND
DEVELOPMENT
Asexual reproduction –
individuals are exact
clones of the parent with
identical genetic makeup.
Sexual reproduction –
individuals are formed
from the combination of n
gametes to form a
genetically unique
offspring (variety)
Asexual vs. Sexual reproduction
Donax variabilis
Hydra sp.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
•Regeneration
•Budding
•Parthenogenesis
Regeneration
• Involves the production and
differentiation of new tissues to
replace missing and damaged
parts of the body.
• Cellular replication by mitosis,
followed by differentiation
Animal Biology.pdf
Fragmentation in Planaria, a flatworm.
(Phylum Platyhelminthes)
Budding
• Involves forming of new individual
from an outgrowth or ‘bud’ on the
parent’s body.
• It doesn’t involve any sex organs.
• Common in Hydra and polyps
• If not detached from parent’s
body, it might grow into a colony.
Hydra (Phylum Cnidaria)
• Involves an activated unfertilized
egg that undergoes mitosis in the
absence of cytokinesis
• Two nuclei fuse together to form
2n nucleus then further develop
as if it had been fertilized.
• E.g., aphids (Aphididae), bees
(Apidae), wasps (Vespidae) and
ants (Formicidae),
few species of vertebrates e.g.,
Bynoe’s gecko (Heteronotia binoei)
Parthenogenesis
Animal Biology.pdf
Structurally similar gametes Different gametes; smaller one is male
gamete
Animal Biology.pdf
Monoecious vs. Dioecious Organisms
• Monoecious:
Also called Monoecism,
Having male and female sex
organs in the same
individual (also called
hermaphroditic)
• Dioecious:
Also called Dioecism, Having
male reproductive organs in
one individual and female in
another
Self-Fertilization vs. Cross-Fertilization
• Self-Fertilization:
Fertilization effected by union
of egg cell and sperm cell
from the same individual.
• Cross-Fertilization:
Fertilization in which gametes
are produced by separate
individuals or sometimes by
individuals of different kinds
Animal Reproductive Development
• Protandry (male to female) vs.
Protogyny (female to male)
e.g. Amphiprion ocellaris
Sequential hermaphroditism
occurs when the individual
changes sex at some point in its
life.
Animal Reproductive Development
Indirect development
• Involves one or more
intermediate larval forms
before the adult form is
attained.
• Occurs mostly in
invertebrates
• Metamorphosis present
Direct development
• Offspring hatch or are born in
miniature adult form.
• Occurs mostly in vertebrates
• Metamorphosis absent
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Gonads
• Sex organs
• Produce hormones that regulate the development of
gametes and 2ndary sex organs act as pheromones and
produce sexual differences in appearance and behavior.
Gametic development
Spermatogenesis
• Testes; testosterone
• Spermatogenesis is the
process in which an animal
produces spermatozoa from
PGC by way of mitosis and
meiosis.
Oogenesis
• Ovaries; estrogen
• Oogenesis is the process in
which an animal produces
oogonia from PGC by way of
mitosis and meiosis.
What is PGC?
The primordial germ cells are the
common origins of spermatozoa
and oocytes and thus represent
the ancestors of the germline.
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• The nervous system allows body to respond
quickly to changes in the environment by
gathering information, transmitting, and
processing information to determine the best
response, and sending information to muscles,
glands, and organs so they can respond correctly.
102
The nervous system
on all organisms
varies.
Nervous system of Hydra
In Hydra, nerve nets are
diffused all over the body
to control the contraction
of the gastrovascular
cavity or the gastrocoel.
• CEPHALIZATION- the onset
of cephalization marks a more
complex nervous system.
In simple cephalized animals (ex:
Planaria) a simple central
nervous system or CNS with a
small brain and longitudinal
nerve cords is present.
Nervous system of Planaria
Remember that Planaria is a flatworm (Platyhelminth)
• In more complex invertebrates like
annelids and arthropods, the
nervous system is divided into two
regions: the CNS and PNS.
• CNS or Central Nervous System
is composed of brain and ventral
nerve cords with clusters of
neurons called ganglia.
• The rest of the nerves in animal’s
body is the PNS or peripheral
nervous system.
Nervous system of Annelids and Arthropods
Animal Biology.pdf
The Human Nervous System
109
110
1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)
• Relays information from skin, sense organs &
skeletal muscles to CNS
• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for
voluntary responses
2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)
• Regulates bodies involuntary responses
• Relays information to internal organs
• Two divisions:
A. Sympathetic nervous system – in times of
stress
➢ Emergency response
➢ Fight or flight
B. Parasympathetic nervous system – when
body is at rest or with normal functions; Normal
everyday conditions
111
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113
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“stimulus”
-is done by sensory neuron
-is done by motor neuron
“response”
-is done by
interneurons in
CNS
IMMUNE
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• Immune system is responsible for defending
organisms from pathogens such as:
✓ Viruses: Ebola, rabies, HIV, HPV
✓ Bacteria: E. coli, Salmonella, Staphylococci
✓ Fungi: Trichophyton, Candida
✓ Systemic: cancer cells
117
• There are two major lines
of defense: innate
immunity and
acquired/adaptive
immunity.
118
How does our body defend
ourselves against diseases?
119
Innate immunity
• Nonspecific response to a broad range of microbes
• Formed by skin and mucous membrane accompanied by
macrophages and other phagocytic cells
Innate immunity
There are two lines of defense under innate
immunity:
First line Second line
Skin and mucous membrane,
Acts as barrier on invading
pathogens
Chemical defense, done
through phagocytosis
Lines the digestive tract,
respiratory and genitourinary
tract
Inner lining of organs / tracts
First line of defense
➢ Skin is acidic: pH ~3.5 – kills pathogenic
microorganisms
Sweat, tears, saliva
contain lysozyme, an
enzyme that kills bacteria.
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
Minor abrasion can cause
pathogens to enter the body,
which is in the inner linings of
organs or tracts (eg. Digestion,
respiration) -> leads to
secondary line of
defense
➢ Once the pathogen invade
the lining of organisms,
chemical defense
mechanism occurs ->
which is done through
phagocytosis.
Phagocytes, the cells responsible for phagocytosis
attach to their opponent (pathogen) via surface receptor
of pathogens then engulf it, forming a vacuole that fuses
with lysosome.
Lysosomes contain chemicals and enzymes which
destroys the pathogen.
SECONDARY LINE OF DEFENSE
Secondary line of defense
➢ However, some pathogens have polysaccharide
capsule which is resistant to lytic enzymes or to
phagocytes.
➢ They can escape the first and second line of
innate immunity – which can trigger the next line
which is INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE.
Inflammatory response
➢ Triggers many responses such as:
➢ Dilation of blood vessel: which allows more
blood to flow in. Affected cells in the area
release hormone called histamine.
✓ What is the use of histamine?: to relax
blood vessel to allow more blood flow.
➢ Fever: high blood temp. can occur which can
hinder bacterial growth. Lymphatic system is
activated at this moment.
Dilation of blood vessel
Acquired immunity
How does it work?
• Lymphocyte provides specific defense against
pathogens.
• The body detects antigen, which is either: a
foreign object, molecule or invading
pathogens.
• The immune system now will produce
antibodies: which will attach to the antigens.
Acquired immunity
How does it work?
• Our body produces two types of cells for
acquired immunity to work. These are:
1. B cells
2. T cells
Acquired immunity
• B cells: produces antibodies, if there is
an antigen, it triggers the production of B cells
in our body.
• Only B cells that produce the antigen-
antibody response is selected for future
propagation when similar invader is
present!
Acquired immunity
Animal Biology.pdf
Acquired immunity
• B cells: are produced by lymphatic system,
which stores B cells and memory B cells.
Acquired immunity
• T cells: attacks infected cells through
phagocytosis or by injecting chemicals called
perforins to break down and kill the pathogen.
Acquired immunity
• There are three types of T cells:
1. Killer T cells: injects chemicals to
pathogens
2. Helper T cells: attracts and assists B
cells in antibody production
3. Suppressor T cells: stop B and T
cells after infection
Animal Biology.pdf
B and T cells
are produced
in the bone
marrow, and
site of
maturation
dictates the
fate of cell.
cell.
Example: maturation in bone marrow forms B cells and
maturation in lymph forms T cell
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Antibodies
• The antibodies
produced in
response to
antigen consists
of Y shape
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
MUSCULO-
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• A skeletal system is necessary to support the
body, protect internal organs, and allow for the
movement of an organism. There are three
different skeleton designs that provide
organisms these functions: hydrostatic skeleton,
exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.
147
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
• A hydrostatic skeleton is one formed by a fluid-filled
compartment within the body: the coelom. The organs of the
coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists
external compression.
• This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the
fluid and supports the other organs of the organism.
• This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such
as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates.
148
149
Hydrostatic skeleton: The skeleton of the red-knobbed
sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of a
hydrostatic skeleton.
EXOSKELETON
• An exoskeleton is an external, hard, encasement on the surface of an
organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons.
• This skeleton type provides defense against predators, supports the body,
and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles.
• Arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters, have exoskeletons that consist of
30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a
strong-but-flexible material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells.
• The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium
carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is
acellular and does not grow as the organism grows, arthropods must
periodically shed their exoskeletons.
150
151
Exoskeletons: Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween
crab (Gecarcinus quadratus) allow it to move.
152
ENDOSKELETON
• An endoskeleton consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft
tissue of organisms.
• The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true
tissues.
• Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow
for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.
153
154
Endoskeletons: The skeletons of humans and horses
are examples of endoskeletons. They provide bodies
with support, protection of organs, and aid in movement.
155
• The human skeleton is an endoskeleton
that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It
has five main functions: supporting the
body, storing minerals and lipids,
producing blood cells, protecting internal
organs, and allowing for movement.
• The skeletal system in vertebrates is
divided into the axial skeleton (which
consists of the skull, vertebral column, and
rib cage = total of 80 bones), and the
appendicular skeleton (which consists of
the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral
girdle, and the pelvic girdle = total of 126
bones).
156
157
158
159
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is
composed of the bones of the pectoral limbs (arm, forearm,
hand), the pelvic limbs (thigh, leg, foot), the pectoral girdle,
and the pelvic girdle.
160
161
162
NOTE:
• The muscular system controls numerous
functions, which is possible with the significant
differentiation of muscle tissue morphology and
ability.
163
164
Types of Muscle
165
166
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal muscle mainly attaches to the skeletal system via tendons to
maintain posture and control movement. For example, contraction of the
biceps muscle, attached to the scapula and radius, will raise the forearm.
Some skeletal muscle can attach directly to other muscles or to the skin,
as seen in
the face where numerous muscles control facial expression.
• Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, although this can be
subconscious when maintaining posture or balance. Morphologically
skeletal myocytes are elongated and tubular and appear striated with
multiple peripheral nuclei.
167
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where cardiac
contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood
pressure.
• As with skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated; however it is not
consciously controlled and so is classified as involuntary. Cardiac
muscle can be further differentiated from skeletal muscle by the
presence of intercalated discs that control the synchronized
contraction of cardiac tissues. Cardiac myocytes are shorter than
skeletal equivalents and contain only one or two centrally located
nuclei.
168
Smooth Muscle Tissue
• Smooth muscle tissue is associated with numerous organs and tissue
systems, such as the digestive system and respiratory system. It plays an
important role in the regulation of flow in such systems, such as aiding the
movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis.
• Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle myocytes
are spindle shaped with a single centrally located nucleus.
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
MODULE 1B.2
Animal Nutrition and Transport
• define plant nutrition and transport
• describe the structure of organs and tissues involved in plant
transport
• illustrate pathways of nutrients throughout plants
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• Animals are heterotrophic; meaning, they cannot
make their own food.
• In order to survive, animals must bring nutrients
from the food to the body cells.
• It is the job of digestive system to break down
large, complex molecules to small, simpler
molecules absorbable by cells.
173
“Animals can be classified
into two: invertebrates and
vertebrates. These two
have different ways of
digesting their food.”
174
Invertebrate
Digestive
Systems
Invertebrates can be classified as
those having gastrovascular cavities
and those having alimentary canals.
175
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY (GVC)
• Animals having gastrovascular cavity include Platyhelminthes
and Cnidaria.
• They digest their food a tube or cavity with only one opening
that serves as both mouth and anus.
• Ingested materials enter the mouth and pass through the
cavity, where digestive enzymes are secreted to break down
the food.
• The cells lining the cavity engulf the food particles.
176
177
Hydra vulgaris,
a cnidarian
Daphnia sp.
General Mechanism of GVC
178
Digestive System of Cnidaria
Polyp form
Medusa form
179
Digestive System of Cnidaria
180
Hydra viridissima Aurelia aurita
Porites porites Phacellophora camtschatica
Examples of Cnidarians (Cnidaria)
181
Digestive System of Flatworm
Planaria sp.
182
Dugesia tigrina Pseudobiceros hancockanus
Fasciola hepatica Planaria torva
Examples of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
ALIMENTARY CANAL
• Some invertebrates like earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta)
and insects (Arthropoda: Insecta) have alimentary canal.
• Alimentary canal is a pathway which receives food through
mouth on one end and eliminates wastes through the anus on
another.
• It consists of the mouth, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestines,
and anus.
183
Lumbricus terrestris
Periplaneta americana
184
Digestive System of Insect (Insecta)
Tettigonia viridissima
The insect’s body is
divided into three major
divisions:
head, thorax, and
abdomen.
185
Digestive System of Earthworm (Oligochaeta)
The earthworm is made of
about 100-150 segments.
Segmented body parts provide
important structural functions.
Megascolides australis
Vertebrate
Digestive
Systems
There are four types of digestive
systems among vertebrates, namely:
monogastric, avian, ruminant, and
pseudo-ruminant.
186
MONOGASTRIC DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Consists of single stomach chamber.
• Physical and chemical digestion begins in mouth.
• A monogastric digestive system works as soon as the food enters the mouth.
• Examples of animals with monogastric digestive system are humans (omnivore),
cats (carnivore), and rabbits (herbivore).
187
Homo sapiens Oryctolagus cuniculus
Felis catus
Mastication – (chewing) process by
which food is broken down in mouth,
mechanically.
Ingestion – process by which
animals take in food using their
mouth.
189
Mouth must be moistened with
saliva.
Saliva contains ptyalin, an
enzyme which helps break down
carbohydrates in food.
1. Enzymes in saliva hasten
chemical reactions in the mouth;
breaking down complex substances
into simpler ones.
2. Tongue will push the food, (process of gulping) to esophagus.
Food moves down in this tube to the stomach through peristalsis
(contraction of smooth muscles). Epiglottis must close the throat when
gulping to avoid food or liquid from entering the lungs.
3. In the stomach, food
continues to be digested by
HCl, enzymes and
digestive juices. Stomach
carry out peristalsis. In 3-4
hours, the food will become
a chyme before going to
SI.
4. The villi in SI lining
(called epithelia), absorb
the nutrients in food. Along
with the bile from the liver
and pancreatic juices,
they help break down fats,
proteins and starches.
5. Remaining water, nutrients and
undigested food will be stored in
large intestine.
Through process of defecation,
undigested food called feces will
be excreted. (rectum to anus)
The Process of Digestion
The main job of liver is to filter the
blood coming from the digestive
tract, before passing it to the rest of
the body. The liver detoxifies
chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As
it does so, the liver secretes bile that
ends up back in the intestines.
AVIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Birds (Aves) do not have teeth. Their beak/bill/rostrum serves as their
mouth.
• Birds do not masticate their food.
• Crop, proventriculus, and gizzard.
191
Lonchura atricapilla
Pithecophaga jefferyi
Struthio camelus
Cacatua haematuropygia
Anas luzonica
192
Digestive System of Chicken (Aves)
Gallus gallus domesticus
Food is stored in
crop.
Gastric juices
are secreted
to digest the
food.
Where the food is
mechanically
ground.
Absorption
Absorption
Exits waste
Flightless birds are heavier
than birds that can fly. This is
because flying birds have
higher metabolism.
RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Polygastric, meaning the stomach has multiple compartments:
rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
• Diet of ruminants (herbivores) consists largely of roughage or
fiber, their digestive system enables them to break down
cellulose (main component or rigid cell wall in plants).
193
Capra aegagrus hircus
Bos taurus Ovis aries
194
Digestive System of Cow (Ruminantia)
1st: RUMEN. Largest chamber,
contains bacteria that promote
fermentation, and break down food.
2nd: RETICULUM.
Small pouch that
traps foreign
materials which the
ruminant animal
may have
swallowed.
3rd: OMASUM. Grinds the
food and removes water
from it.
4th: ABOMASMUM. Serves as “true”
stomach in that it functions similarly
as the stomach of monogastric
animals.
Bacteria found in rumen of most
ruminants are Cellulomonas,
which secretes cellulases which
breaks down cellulose.
Some bacteria also exist are:
Fibrobacteres, Klebsiella,
Bacteroides, and Oxalobacter.
PSEUDO-RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Stomach has three chambers: reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
• Diet: roughage, fiber, forages, grains (mainly herbivorous)
• Has enlarge cecum where food is fermented and digested.
• Also relies on microbial support for digestion.
• Camels, horses, rabbits, guinea pigs
195
Cavia porcellus
guinea pig
Camelus dromedarius
Arabian camel
Equus caballus
horse
196
Digestive System of Rabbit (Lagomorpha)
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• Respiratory system consists of organs that allow
gas exchange. It brings oxygen in the body cells of
animals and eliminates carbon dioxide, which is a
waste product of cells.
198
• Respiration occurs
through respiratory
organs of animals which
include skin, gills,
tracheal system, and
lungs.
199
Have you ever wondered why
earthworms are red?
Have you ever wondered why
can they survive below the
ground?
200
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH SKIN
• Animals using integumentary system (or their skin) include amphibians and
earthworms.
• It allows gas exchange between the external environment and circulatory
system due to the network of capillaries that lie below the skin.
201
Limnonectes magnus (formerly
Rana magna)
Giant Philippine frog
Bufo marinus
Marine toad
Alcalus mariae
Palawan Eastern frog
Ichthyopis mindanaoensis
Mindanao island caecilian
202
Gas Exchange in Earthworms (Oligochaeta)
Earthworms (Lumbricus
terrestris) are able to survive
below the soil. In the environment,
from air or water, oxygen moves
through a thin, moist body wall of
vessels
203
Gas Exchange in Frogs
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH GILLS
• Fish and other aquatic organisms use their gills to take up
oxygen dissolved in the water and diffuse CO2 out of the
bloodstream.
204
Decapterus macarellus
Galunggong
Chanos chanos
Milkfish
Oreochromis niloticus
Nile tilapia
Sardinella tawilis
Tawilis (only in Taal lake)
Carassius auratus
Goldfish Rhincodon typus
Butanding
205
Gas Exchange in Fish
Gills
Animals with this type of respiration
uses their gills to breathe.
Dissolved oxygen in water is
readily diffused into the gill
membranes and allows carbon
dioxide to be expelled to the water.
2 types of gills:
(1) Internal
(2) External
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH TRACHEA
Instead of lungs, insects breathe with a network of tiny tubes
called tracheae. Air enters the tubes through a row of holes along
an insect's abdomen called spiracles. The air then diffuses down
the blind-ended tracheae. The tracheoles are the sites of gas
exchange.
• Lungs- pair of organs divided into small chambers filled
with capillaries.
• When inhaling, there is a decrease in pressure around
lungs, causing air to breathe in. The ribcage expands, and
moves diaphragm downward.
• When exhaling, there is an increase in pressure around
lungs and force air out of respiratory tract. The ribcage
contracts and moves diaphragm upward.
GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH LUNGS
In humans, chest cavity is bisected by
the trachea, a tube that connects the
nose and mouth to the lungs.
Bronchi is subdivided into
bronchioles Under the lungs is the dome
shaped muscle called the
diaphragm.
Lungs are enclosed in rib cage,
which serves to protect both lungs
and heart.
General Mechanism of Respiration
Air enters the body through
the nasal cavity.
In the tip of bronchioles are
alveoli (also called air sacs)
Alveoli are the main sites of gas
exchange; it contains pulmonary
capillaries which diffuses in
oxygen and CO2 out.
Trachea
divides into
two main
bronchi; left
and right
bronchus.
Animal Biology.pdf
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
• Circulatory system is
composed of heart,
blood vessels, and blood.
212
Do animals have the same
number of heart, heart
chambers, and number of
circuits through which blood
flows?
213
SINGLE-LOOP CIRCUIT
• Two-chambered heart pumps the blood to the gills to be re-
oxygenated (via gill circulation), then blood flows to the rest of the
body and back to the heart (via systemic capillaries)
214
Amphiprion ocellaris
Ocellaris clownfish
Selar crumenophthalmus
Matang-baka
Caesio cuning
Dalagang bukid
Pterigoplichthys pardalis
Janitor fish (Amazon sailfin
catfish)
DOUBLE-LOOP CIRCUIT
• In amphibians, reptiles, birds,
and mammals blood flow is
directed into two circuits: one
through the lungs and one
back to the heart (via
pulmonary circulation) and the
other throughout the rest of
the body and its organs, which
also includes the brain (via
systemic circulation).
215
216
Two Types of Double-Loop Circuit:
1. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 3-Chambered Heart
2. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 4-Chambered Heart
217
Naja philippinensis
Philippine cobra
Manis culionensis
Philippine pangolin
218
219
220
Human Circulatory System 221
EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• Excretory system provides a mechanism for the
elimination of various wastes from the body.
223
• The wastes such as
excess water and salts,
carbon dioxide, and urea
are removed from the
body by the organs of the
excretory system.
224
How do animals remove
excess waste inside their
body?
225
EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:
• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules
226
FLAME CELLS
Planaria (flatworms) live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a
highly-branched duct system that leads to pores located all along the sides of the body. The filtrate is
secreted through these pores (called protonephridial pores). The cells in the tubules are called flame
cells (or protonephridia) because they have cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when
viewed under the microscope.
EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:
• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules
227
NEPHRIDIA
In earthworms (Lumbricus),
nephridia are more evolved than
flame cells because they can
reabsorb useful metabolites before
excretion of waste. These are called
metanephridia. A pair of
metanephridia is present on each
segment. They are similar to flame
cells, in that they have tubules with
cilia and function like a kidney to
remove wastes.
EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES
There are three common ways
invertebrates remove waste.
These are through their:
• Protonephridia (flame
cells)
• Nephridia
• Malpighian Tubules
228
MALPIGHIAN TUBULES
The Malpighian tubules remove
wastes from insects (Class Insecta)
by producing urine and solid
nitrogenous wastes, which are then
excreted from the body.
Paraponera clavata
Bullet ant
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
MODULE 1B.3
Feedback Mechanisms in
Animals
• define feedback mechanisms and homeostasis
• differentiate positive and feedback mechanisms
• illustrate different feedback mechanisms required for animal’s
survival, such as thermoregulation and osmoregulation
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
NOTE:
• The endocrine system is the collection of glands
that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue
function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep,
and mood, among other things.
233
• Hormones are chemical
substances produced by
endocrine gland. They are
transported into the circulatory
system to target organs where
they exert their functions.
234
Hormones play a vital role in regulating bodily functions.
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
Regulating blood
sugar levels
Glucagon: low glucose
(hypoglycemia)
Insulin: high glucose
(hyperglycemia)
Animal Biology.pdf
Animal Biology.pdf
Giving birth: homeostasis
(oxytocin)
Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017.
Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014.
Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016.
Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf
https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and%
201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf

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Animal Biology.pdf

  • 1. Prepared by: Samuel C. Brillo, MSc-Biology (cand.) MODULE 1B ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY: ANIMAL BIOLOGY
  • 2. Animal Biology consists of three subtopics: • Module 1B.1 Animal Form and Function • Module 1B.2 Animal Nutrition and Transport • Module 1B.3 Feedback Mechanisms in Animals
  • 3. MODULE 1B.1 Animal Form and Function
  • 4. • define animal anatomy, animal morphology, and animal physiology • describe diversity of animal forms • illustrate different nervous and immune functions essential for animals’ survival
  • 6. Animal Morphoanatomy Morphoanatomy - The study of anatomical forms and structures with emphasis on characteristics useful in distinguishing the species.
  • 8. Bilateral Symmetry -Divides an organism into mirror image halves Saturnia pavonia Felis domesticus
  • 9. Radial Symmetry -the organism can be divided into similar halves by passing a plane at any angle along a central axis Tripneustes ventricosus Linckia laevigata
  • 10. Asymmetry-not identical on both sides of a central line; unsymmetrical; lacking symmetry Leucosolenida botryoides Clathrina clathrus
  • 13. Phylum Porifera = Sponges • Marine • Body is made up of tiny pores • 3 main parts: ostia, osculum, spongocoel. • Asymmetrical
  • 14. A spongocoel is the large, central cavity of sponges. Water enters the spongocoel through hundreds of tiny pores called ostia and exits through the larger opening called osculum. General poriferan body plan
  • 15. Spicules- each of the small needlelike or sharp-pointed structures of calcite or silica that make up the skeleton of a sponge. It comes in different sizes: Megascleres and microscleres. Spongilla lacustris
  • 16. Spicules come in different shapes as well. Each shape has its own name.
  • 17. Class Demospongiae Most diverse; spicules are made of spongin (a protein) or silica (a mineral) or both. Niphates digitalis Class Sclerospongiae Soft body covered by skeleton made of calcium carbonate, either aragonite or calcite. Ceratoporella nicholsoni
  • 18. Class Hexactinellida Commonly known as glass sponges, spicules are made of silica. Euplectella aspergillum Class Calcarea Calcareous sponges, characterized by spicules made out of calcium carbonate). Clathrina clathrus
  • 20. Phylum Cnidaria • 10,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic (freshwater and marine) environments • Cnidarians include true jellyfish, box jellyfish, hydras, corals, sea anemones. • They have radial symmetry.
  • 21. Cnidarians undergo two life stages: the polyp form, and the medusa form. Their body consists of three layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoglea. Ectoderm is called the epidermis which covers their body. Mesoderm is called the mesoglea; which is nonliving, contains water and fluids. Endoderm is the innermost layer, which is called gastrodermis. Gastrovascular cavity is the space in their body which the food is being digested. Tentacle is a slender flexible limb or appendage in an animal, especially around the mouth of an invertebrate, used for grasping, moving about, or bearing sense organs. Mouth is an opening where food and waste exits. Basal disc is where the polyp attaches its body to a substrate.
  • 22. Cnidocytes – are specialized cells in Cnidarians, also called “stinging cells” which contains toxins. These cells are used to stun and capture prey. Cnidocytes are contained in tentacles.
  • 23. Cnidarians are grouped into 4 classes:
  • 25. WORM PHYLA – large group of worms 1. Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) 2. Phylum Nematoda (roundworms) 3. Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)
  • 26. Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms • Body is flattened • Has definitive head and tail region; eyespots in head and has thick cuticle outside the body. • May be free-living or parasitic Pseudobiceros hancockanus Planaria sp.
  • 27. Parasitic worms of Phylum Platyhelminthes Fasciola hepatica Liver fluke Taenia solium Pig tapeworm
  • 28. Phylum Nematoda = roundworms • Body is long, smooth, and unsegmented. • Cylindrical bodies are tapered at both ends. • Free-living or parasitic Ascaris lumbricoides Caenorhabditis elegans
  • 29. Phylum Annelida = segmented worms; earthworm, leech • Body is segmented internally and externally; • they have complete digestive system; • tube within a tube body plan. • Most are free-living Hirudo medicinalis Lumbricus terrestris
  • 33. Phylum Mollusca = snails, shellfish, oysters, clams, octopus, squids, cuttlefish • Body is soft, unsegmented and has strong muscular foot (in snail). Shell can be external (in snails and shellfish) or internal (in octopus). Loligo vulgaris Hapalochlaena lunulata (blue ringed octopus)
  • 36. General molluscan body plan “Golden apple snail” Pomacea canaliculata
  • 37. General body plan of bivalves
  • 39. Phylum Echinodermata = sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea lilies • Body is covered with spiny surface, with an internal skeleton inside their body. These provide support and protection to the animal. • They use their “tube feet” to move from one place to another.
  • 41. Class Echinoidea (sea urchins) Mesocentrotus franciscanus
  • 47. Phylum Arthropoda = insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, millipedes, centipedes • The phylum Arthropoda is by far the largest of the phyla of the kingdom Animalia, containing, for example, insects, crustaceans, and arachnids, centipedes, millipedes.
  • 48. SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA (chelicerates: arthropods without jaws)
  • 49. SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA (multi-segmented, and each segment bears a pair of legs)
  • 50. SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA (body segmented, covered with carapace)
  • 51. SUBPHYLUM HEXAPODA, Class Insecta (insects) Divided into 2 subclasses: Apterygota (wingless insects) and Pterygota (winged insects)
  • 52. General insect body plan Wasp Grasshopper CHARACTERISTICS • Have legs and some have wings • Found in all environments • 3 main parts: Head, Thorax, Abdomen
  • 55. Phylum Chordata CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Single, hollow nerve cord beneath dorsal surface; in vertebrates, it differentiates into brain and spinal cord. 2. Notochord: flexible rod on the dorsal side of gut, present at one stage in all chordates; displaced in vertebrates by vertebral column that forms around the nerve cord. 3. Pharyngeal slits (pouches) connect pharynx (between mouth and esophagus) with outside gills in sharks, fish; present in terrestrial animal embryos but disappear later except Eustachian tube (connecting throat and middle ear) 4. Postanal tail extends beyond anus; present at least in embryo; regresses into tail bone in humans 5. Segmentation: reflected in arrangement of muscles (somites) and in vertebral column (both mesoderm)
  • 56. Anatomy of a primitive chordate. All animals belonging to Phylum Chordata possesses these characteristics. However, during the course of development, these parts begin to modify or change.
  • 57. Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) This group of animals include sharks and rays.
  • 58. Class Osteichthyes (bony fish) This group of animals include the usual marine and freshwater fish.
  • 59. General body plan of a fish
  • 60. Class Amphibia (amphibians) This group of animals include salamanders, newts, frogs, toads, and caecilians. • Many amphibians, such as frogs, undergo a metamorphosis, meaning they begin life in the water and live on land as adults. • Defining characteristics of these creatures include moist, scaleless skin and the fact that they are cold-blooded.
  • 62. General body plan of amphibians (Class Amphibia)
  • 64. Class Reptilia (reptiles) This group of animals include alligators, crocodiles, lizards, iguanas, chameleons, turtles, tortoises, snakes, cobras, and vipers. • The first and foremost characteristic of the reptiles is that are cold blooded. • They are able to regulate their inner body temperature to the temperature of the environment. • They have scaly skins but absence of hair or fur. The scales of the reptiles develop as a surface cells filled with Keratin.
  • 69. Class Aves (birds) This group of animals include flying and non- flying birds. All birds have the same characteristics: • Feathers that covers the body, which grow in their skin. • Wings • Lightweight skeleton • Endothermic (warm blooded) • Lungs with air sacs • Beak
  • 71. Class Mammalia (mammals) All mammals share the following characteristics: • Mammary Glands • Hair • Jaw and ear bones • 4-chambered heart and diaphragm • Complex brain functions
  • 75. Asexual reproduction – individuals are exact clones of the parent with identical genetic makeup. Sexual reproduction – individuals are formed from the combination of n gametes to form a genetically unique offspring (variety) Asexual vs. Sexual reproduction
  • 77. Types of Asexual Reproduction •Regeneration •Budding •Parthenogenesis
  • 78. Regeneration • Involves the production and differentiation of new tissues to replace missing and damaged parts of the body. • Cellular replication by mitosis, followed by differentiation
  • 80. Fragmentation in Planaria, a flatworm. (Phylum Platyhelminthes)
  • 81. Budding • Involves forming of new individual from an outgrowth or ‘bud’ on the parent’s body. • It doesn’t involve any sex organs. • Common in Hydra and polyps • If not detached from parent’s body, it might grow into a colony.
  • 83. • Involves an activated unfertilized egg that undergoes mitosis in the absence of cytokinesis • Two nuclei fuse together to form 2n nucleus then further develop as if it had been fertilized. • E.g., aphids (Aphididae), bees (Apidae), wasps (Vespidae) and ants (Formicidae), few species of vertebrates e.g., Bynoe’s gecko (Heteronotia binoei) Parthenogenesis
  • 85. Structurally similar gametes Different gametes; smaller one is male gamete
  • 87. Monoecious vs. Dioecious Organisms • Monoecious: Also called Monoecism, Having male and female sex organs in the same individual (also called hermaphroditic) • Dioecious: Also called Dioecism, Having male reproductive organs in one individual and female in another
  • 88. Self-Fertilization vs. Cross-Fertilization • Self-Fertilization: Fertilization effected by union of egg cell and sperm cell from the same individual. • Cross-Fertilization: Fertilization in which gametes are produced by separate individuals or sometimes by individuals of different kinds
  • 89. Animal Reproductive Development • Protandry (male to female) vs. Protogyny (female to male) e.g. Amphiprion ocellaris Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when the individual changes sex at some point in its life.
  • 90. Animal Reproductive Development Indirect development • Involves one or more intermediate larval forms before the adult form is attained. • Occurs mostly in invertebrates • Metamorphosis present Direct development • Offspring hatch or are born in miniature adult form. • Occurs mostly in vertebrates • Metamorphosis absent
  • 95. Gonads • Sex organs • Produce hormones that regulate the development of gametes and 2ndary sex organs act as pheromones and produce sexual differences in appearance and behavior.
  • 96. Gametic development Spermatogenesis • Testes; testosterone • Spermatogenesis is the process in which an animal produces spermatozoa from PGC by way of mitosis and meiosis. Oogenesis • Ovaries; estrogen • Oogenesis is the process in which an animal produces oogonia from PGC by way of mitosis and meiosis. What is PGC? The primordial germ cells are the common origins of spermatozoa and oocytes and thus represent the ancestors of the germline.
  • 102. NOTE: • The nervous system allows body to respond quickly to changes in the environment by gathering information, transmitting, and processing information to determine the best response, and sending information to muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond correctly. 102
  • 103. The nervous system on all organisms varies.
  • 104. Nervous system of Hydra In Hydra, nerve nets are diffused all over the body to control the contraction of the gastrovascular cavity or the gastrocoel.
  • 105. • CEPHALIZATION- the onset of cephalization marks a more complex nervous system. In simple cephalized animals (ex: Planaria) a simple central nervous system or CNS with a small brain and longitudinal nerve cords is present. Nervous system of Planaria Remember that Planaria is a flatworm (Platyhelminth)
  • 106. • In more complex invertebrates like annelids and arthropods, the nervous system is divided into two regions: the CNS and PNS. • CNS or Central Nervous System is composed of brain and ventral nerve cords with clusters of neurons called ganglia. • The rest of the nerves in animal’s body is the PNS or peripheral nervous system. Nervous system of Annelids and Arthropods
  • 108. The Human Nervous System
  • 109. 109
  • 110. 110 1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary) • Relays information from skin, sense organs & skeletal muscles to CNS • Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for voluntary responses 2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary) • Regulates bodies involuntary responses • Relays information to internal organs • Two divisions: A. Sympathetic nervous system – in times of stress ➢ Emergency response ➢ Fight or flight B. Parasympathetic nervous system – when body is at rest or with normal functions; Normal everyday conditions
  • 111. 111
  • 112. 112
  • 113. 113
  • 114. 114
  • 115. “stimulus” -is done by sensory neuron -is done by motor neuron “response” -is done by interneurons in CNS
  • 117. NOTE: • Immune system is responsible for defending organisms from pathogens such as: ✓ Viruses: Ebola, rabies, HIV, HPV ✓ Bacteria: E. coli, Salmonella, Staphylococci ✓ Fungi: Trichophyton, Candida ✓ Systemic: cancer cells 117
  • 118. • There are two major lines of defense: innate immunity and acquired/adaptive immunity. 118
  • 119. How does our body defend ourselves against diseases? 119
  • 120. Innate immunity • Nonspecific response to a broad range of microbes • Formed by skin and mucous membrane accompanied by macrophages and other phagocytic cells
  • 121. Innate immunity There are two lines of defense under innate immunity: First line Second line Skin and mucous membrane, Acts as barrier on invading pathogens Chemical defense, done through phagocytosis Lines the digestive tract, respiratory and genitourinary tract Inner lining of organs / tracts
  • 122. First line of defense ➢ Skin is acidic: pH ~3.5 – kills pathogenic microorganisms
  • 123. Sweat, tears, saliva contain lysozyme, an enzyme that kills bacteria. FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE Minor abrasion can cause pathogens to enter the body, which is in the inner linings of organs or tracts (eg. Digestion, respiration) -> leads to secondary line of defense
  • 124. ➢ Once the pathogen invade the lining of organisms, chemical defense mechanism occurs -> which is done through phagocytosis. Phagocytes, the cells responsible for phagocytosis attach to their opponent (pathogen) via surface receptor of pathogens then engulf it, forming a vacuole that fuses with lysosome. Lysosomes contain chemicals and enzymes which destroys the pathogen. SECONDARY LINE OF DEFENSE
  • 125. Secondary line of defense ➢ However, some pathogens have polysaccharide capsule which is resistant to lytic enzymes or to phagocytes. ➢ They can escape the first and second line of innate immunity – which can trigger the next line which is INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE.
  • 126. Inflammatory response ➢ Triggers many responses such as: ➢ Dilation of blood vessel: which allows more blood to flow in. Affected cells in the area release hormone called histamine. ✓ What is the use of histamine?: to relax blood vessel to allow more blood flow. ➢ Fever: high blood temp. can occur which can hinder bacterial growth. Lymphatic system is activated at this moment.
  • 127. Dilation of blood vessel
  • 128. Acquired immunity How does it work? • Lymphocyte provides specific defense against pathogens. • The body detects antigen, which is either: a foreign object, molecule or invading pathogens. • The immune system now will produce antibodies: which will attach to the antigens.
  • 129. Acquired immunity How does it work? • Our body produces two types of cells for acquired immunity to work. These are: 1. B cells 2. T cells
  • 130. Acquired immunity • B cells: produces antibodies, if there is an antigen, it triggers the production of B cells in our body. • Only B cells that produce the antigen- antibody response is selected for future propagation when similar invader is present!
  • 133. Acquired immunity • B cells: are produced by lymphatic system, which stores B cells and memory B cells.
  • 134. Acquired immunity • T cells: attacks infected cells through phagocytosis or by injecting chemicals called perforins to break down and kill the pathogen.
  • 135. Acquired immunity • There are three types of T cells: 1. Killer T cells: injects chemicals to pathogens 2. Helper T cells: attracts and assists B cells in antibody production 3. Suppressor T cells: stop B and T cells after infection
  • 137. B and T cells are produced in the bone marrow, and site of maturation dictates the fate of cell. cell. Example: maturation in bone marrow forms B cells and maturation in lymph forms T cell
  • 140. Antibodies • The antibodies produced in response to antigen consists of Y shape
  • 147. NOTE: • A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement of an organism. There are three different skeleton designs that provide organisms these functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton. 147
  • 148. HYDROSTATIC SKELETON • A hydrostatic skeleton is one formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body: the coelom. The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression. • This compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism. • This type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other invertebrates. 148
  • 149. 149 Hydrostatic skeleton: The skeleton of the red-knobbed sea star (Protoreaster linckii) is an example of a hydrostatic skeleton.
  • 150. EXOSKELETON • An exoskeleton is an external, hard, encasement on the surface of an organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons. • This skeleton type provides defense against predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles. • Arthropods, such as crabs and lobsters, have exoskeletons that consist of 30–50 percent chitin, a polysaccharide derivative of glucose that is a strong-but-flexible material. Chitin is secreted by the epidermal cells. • The exoskeleton is further strengthened by the addition of calcium carbonate in organisms such as the lobster. Because the exoskeleton is acellular and does not grow as the organism grows, arthropods must periodically shed their exoskeletons. 150
  • 151. 151 Exoskeletons: Muscles attached to the exoskeleton of the Halloween crab (Gecarcinus quadratus) allow it to move.
  • 152. 152
  • 153. ENDOSKELETON • An endoskeleton consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of organisms. • The bones of vertebrates are composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues. • Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton. 153
  • 154. 154 Endoskeletons: The skeletons of humans and horses are examples of endoskeletons. They provide bodies with support, protection of organs, and aid in movement.
  • 155. 155 • The human skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main functions: supporting the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting internal organs, and allowing for movement. • The skeletal system in vertebrates is divided into the axial skeleton (which consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage = total of 80 bones), and the appendicular skeleton (which consists of the shoulders, limb bones, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle = total of 126 bones).
  • 156. 156
  • 157. 157
  • 158. 158
  • 159. 159 Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the pectoral limbs (arm, forearm, hand), the pelvic limbs (thigh, leg, foot), the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle.
  • 160. 160
  • 161. 161
  • 162. 162
  • 163. NOTE: • The muscular system controls numerous functions, which is possible with the significant differentiation of muscle tissue morphology and ability. 163
  • 165. 165
  • 166. 166 Skeletal Muscle Tissue • Skeletal muscle mainly attaches to the skeletal system via tendons to maintain posture and control movement. For example, contraction of the biceps muscle, attached to the scapula and radius, will raise the forearm. Some skeletal muscle can attach directly to other muscles or to the skin, as seen in the face where numerous muscles control facial expression. • Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, although this can be subconscious when maintaining posture or balance. Morphologically skeletal myocytes are elongated and tubular and appear striated with multiple peripheral nuclei.
  • 167. 167 Cardiac Muscle Tissue • Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where cardiac contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood pressure. • As with skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated; however it is not consciously controlled and so is classified as involuntary. Cardiac muscle can be further differentiated from skeletal muscle by the presence of intercalated discs that control the synchronized contraction of cardiac tissues. Cardiac myocytes are shorter than skeletal equivalents and contain only one or two centrally located nuclei.
  • 168. 168 Smooth Muscle Tissue • Smooth muscle tissue is associated with numerous organs and tissue systems, such as the digestive system and respiratory system. It plays an important role in the regulation of flow in such systems, such as aiding the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis. • Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle myocytes are spindle shaped with a single centrally located nucleus.
  • 169. Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017. Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014. Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016. Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and% 201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
  • 171. • define plant nutrition and transport • describe the structure of organs and tissues involved in plant transport • illustrate pathways of nutrients throughout plants
  • 173. NOTE: • Animals are heterotrophic; meaning, they cannot make their own food. • In order to survive, animals must bring nutrients from the food to the body cells. • It is the job of digestive system to break down large, complex molecules to small, simpler molecules absorbable by cells. 173
  • 174. “Animals can be classified into two: invertebrates and vertebrates. These two have different ways of digesting their food.” 174
  • 175. Invertebrate Digestive Systems Invertebrates can be classified as those having gastrovascular cavities and those having alimentary canals. 175
  • 176. GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY (GVC) • Animals having gastrovascular cavity include Platyhelminthes and Cnidaria. • They digest their food a tube or cavity with only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. • Ingested materials enter the mouth and pass through the cavity, where digestive enzymes are secreted to break down the food. • The cells lining the cavity engulf the food particles. 176
  • 177. 177 Hydra vulgaris, a cnidarian Daphnia sp. General Mechanism of GVC
  • 178. 178 Digestive System of Cnidaria Polyp form Medusa form
  • 180. 180 Hydra viridissima Aurelia aurita Porites porites Phacellophora camtschatica Examples of Cnidarians (Cnidaria)
  • 181. 181 Digestive System of Flatworm Planaria sp.
  • 182. 182 Dugesia tigrina Pseudobiceros hancockanus Fasciola hepatica Planaria torva Examples of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
  • 183. ALIMENTARY CANAL • Some invertebrates like earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta) and insects (Arthropoda: Insecta) have alimentary canal. • Alimentary canal is a pathway which receives food through mouth on one end and eliminates wastes through the anus on another. • It consists of the mouth, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestines, and anus. 183 Lumbricus terrestris Periplaneta americana
  • 184. 184 Digestive System of Insect (Insecta) Tettigonia viridissima The insect’s body is divided into three major divisions: head, thorax, and abdomen.
  • 185. 185 Digestive System of Earthworm (Oligochaeta) The earthworm is made of about 100-150 segments. Segmented body parts provide important structural functions. Megascolides australis
  • 186. Vertebrate Digestive Systems There are four types of digestive systems among vertebrates, namely: monogastric, avian, ruminant, and pseudo-ruminant. 186
  • 187. MONOGASTRIC DIGESTIVE SYSTEM • Consists of single stomach chamber. • Physical and chemical digestion begins in mouth. • A monogastric digestive system works as soon as the food enters the mouth. • Examples of animals with monogastric digestive system are humans (omnivore), cats (carnivore), and rabbits (herbivore). 187 Homo sapiens Oryctolagus cuniculus Felis catus
  • 188. Mastication – (chewing) process by which food is broken down in mouth, mechanically. Ingestion – process by which animals take in food using their mouth.
  • 189. 189 Mouth must be moistened with saliva. Saliva contains ptyalin, an enzyme which helps break down carbohydrates in food.
  • 190. 1. Enzymes in saliva hasten chemical reactions in the mouth; breaking down complex substances into simpler ones. 2. Tongue will push the food, (process of gulping) to esophagus. Food moves down in this tube to the stomach through peristalsis (contraction of smooth muscles). Epiglottis must close the throat when gulping to avoid food or liquid from entering the lungs. 3. In the stomach, food continues to be digested by HCl, enzymes and digestive juices. Stomach carry out peristalsis. In 3-4 hours, the food will become a chyme before going to SI. 4. The villi in SI lining (called epithelia), absorb the nutrients in food. Along with the bile from the liver and pancreatic juices, they help break down fats, proteins and starches. 5. Remaining water, nutrients and undigested food will be stored in large intestine. Through process of defecation, undigested food called feces will be excreted. (rectum to anus) The Process of Digestion The main job of liver is to filter the blood coming from the digestive tract, before passing it to the rest of the body. The liver detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As it does so, the liver secretes bile that ends up back in the intestines.
  • 191. AVIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM • Birds (Aves) do not have teeth. Their beak/bill/rostrum serves as their mouth. • Birds do not masticate their food. • Crop, proventriculus, and gizzard. 191 Lonchura atricapilla Pithecophaga jefferyi Struthio camelus Cacatua haematuropygia Anas luzonica
  • 192. 192 Digestive System of Chicken (Aves) Gallus gallus domesticus Food is stored in crop. Gastric juices are secreted to digest the food. Where the food is mechanically ground. Absorption Absorption Exits waste Flightless birds are heavier than birds that can fly. This is because flying birds have higher metabolism.
  • 193. RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM • Polygastric, meaning the stomach has multiple compartments: rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. • Diet of ruminants (herbivores) consists largely of roughage or fiber, their digestive system enables them to break down cellulose (main component or rigid cell wall in plants). 193 Capra aegagrus hircus Bos taurus Ovis aries
  • 194. 194 Digestive System of Cow (Ruminantia) 1st: RUMEN. Largest chamber, contains bacteria that promote fermentation, and break down food. 2nd: RETICULUM. Small pouch that traps foreign materials which the ruminant animal may have swallowed. 3rd: OMASUM. Grinds the food and removes water from it. 4th: ABOMASMUM. Serves as “true” stomach in that it functions similarly as the stomach of monogastric animals. Bacteria found in rumen of most ruminants are Cellulomonas, which secretes cellulases which breaks down cellulose. Some bacteria also exist are: Fibrobacteres, Klebsiella, Bacteroides, and Oxalobacter.
  • 195. PSEUDO-RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM • Stomach has three chambers: reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. • Diet: roughage, fiber, forages, grains (mainly herbivorous) • Has enlarge cecum where food is fermented and digested. • Also relies on microbial support for digestion. • Camels, horses, rabbits, guinea pigs 195 Cavia porcellus guinea pig Camelus dromedarius Arabian camel Equus caballus horse
  • 196. 196 Digestive System of Rabbit (Lagomorpha)
  • 198. NOTE: • Respiratory system consists of organs that allow gas exchange. It brings oxygen in the body cells of animals and eliminates carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of cells. 198
  • 199. • Respiration occurs through respiratory organs of animals which include skin, gills, tracheal system, and lungs. 199
  • 200. Have you ever wondered why earthworms are red? Have you ever wondered why can they survive below the ground? 200
  • 201. GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH SKIN • Animals using integumentary system (or their skin) include amphibians and earthworms. • It allows gas exchange between the external environment and circulatory system due to the network of capillaries that lie below the skin. 201 Limnonectes magnus (formerly Rana magna) Giant Philippine frog Bufo marinus Marine toad Alcalus mariae Palawan Eastern frog Ichthyopis mindanaoensis Mindanao island caecilian
  • 202. 202 Gas Exchange in Earthworms (Oligochaeta) Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) are able to survive below the soil. In the environment, from air or water, oxygen moves through a thin, moist body wall of vessels
  • 204. GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH GILLS • Fish and other aquatic organisms use their gills to take up oxygen dissolved in the water and diffuse CO2 out of the bloodstream. 204 Decapterus macarellus Galunggong Chanos chanos Milkfish Oreochromis niloticus Nile tilapia Sardinella tawilis Tawilis (only in Taal lake) Carassius auratus Goldfish Rhincodon typus Butanding
  • 206. Gills Animals with this type of respiration uses their gills to breathe. Dissolved oxygen in water is readily diffused into the gill membranes and allows carbon dioxide to be expelled to the water. 2 types of gills: (1) Internal (2) External
  • 207. GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH TRACHEA Instead of lungs, insects breathe with a network of tiny tubes called tracheae. Air enters the tubes through a row of holes along an insect's abdomen called spiracles. The air then diffuses down the blind-ended tracheae. The tracheoles are the sites of gas exchange.
  • 208. • Lungs- pair of organs divided into small chambers filled with capillaries. • When inhaling, there is a decrease in pressure around lungs, causing air to breathe in. The ribcage expands, and moves diaphragm downward. • When exhaling, there is an increase in pressure around lungs and force air out of respiratory tract. The ribcage contracts and moves diaphragm upward. GAS EXCHANGE THROUGH LUNGS
  • 209. In humans, chest cavity is bisected by the trachea, a tube that connects the nose and mouth to the lungs. Bronchi is subdivided into bronchioles Under the lungs is the dome shaped muscle called the diaphragm. Lungs are enclosed in rib cage, which serves to protect both lungs and heart. General Mechanism of Respiration Air enters the body through the nasal cavity. In the tip of bronchioles are alveoli (also called air sacs) Alveoli are the main sites of gas exchange; it contains pulmonary capillaries which diffuses in oxygen and CO2 out. Trachea divides into two main bronchi; left and right bronchus.
  • 212. • Circulatory system is composed of heart, blood vessels, and blood. 212
  • 213. Do animals have the same number of heart, heart chambers, and number of circuits through which blood flows? 213
  • 214. SINGLE-LOOP CIRCUIT • Two-chambered heart pumps the blood to the gills to be re- oxygenated (via gill circulation), then blood flows to the rest of the body and back to the heart (via systemic capillaries) 214 Amphiprion ocellaris Ocellaris clownfish Selar crumenophthalmus Matang-baka Caesio cuning Dalagang bukid Pterigoplichthys pardalis Janitor fish (Amazon sailfin catfish)
  • 215. DOUBLE-LOOP CIRCUIT • In amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals blood flow is directed into two circuits: one through the lungs and one back to the heart (via pulmonary circulation) and the other throughout the rest of the body and its organs, which also includes the brain (via systemic circulation). 215
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  • 217. Two Types of Double-Loop Circuit: 1. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 3-Chambered Heart 2. Double-Loop Circulatory System with 4-Chambered Heart 217 Naja philippinensis Philippine cobra Manis culionensis Philippine pangolin
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  • 223. NOTE: • Excretory system provides a mechanism for the elimination of various wastes from the body. 223
  • 224. • The wastes such as excess water and salts, carbon dioxide, and urea are removed from the body by the organs of the excretory system. 224
  • 225. How do animals remove excess waste inside their body? 225
  • 226. EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES There are three common ways invertebrates remove waste. These are through their: • Protonephridia (flame cells) • Nephridia • Malpighian Tubules 226 FLAME CELLS Planaria (flatworms) live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a highly-branched duct system that leads to pores located all along the sides of the body. The filtrate is secreted through these pores (called protonephridial pores). The cells in the tubules are called flame cells (or protonephridia) because they have cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when viewed under the microscope.
  • 227. EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES There are three common ways invertebrates remove waste. These are through their: • Protonephridia (flame cells) • Nephridia • Malpighian Tubules 227 NEPHRIDIA In earthworms (Lumbricus), nephridia are more evolved than flame cells because they can reabsorb useful metabolites before excretion of waste. These are called metanephridia. A pair of metanephridia is present on each segment. They are similar to flame cells, in that they have tubules with cilia and function like a kidney to remove wastes.
  • 228. EXCRETORY SYSTEMS OF INVERTEBRATES There are three common ways invertebrates remove waste. These are through their: • Protonephridia (flame cells) • Nephridia • Malpighian Tubules 228 MALPIGHIAN TUBULES The Malpighian tubules remove wastes from insects (Class Insecta) by producing urine and solid nitrogenous wastes, which are then excreted from the body. Paraponera clavata Bullet ant
  • 229. Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017. Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014. Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016. Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and% 201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf
  • 231. • define feedback mechanisms and homeostasis • differentiate positive and feedback mechanisms • illustrate different feedback mechanisms required for animal’s survival, such as thermoregulation and osmoregulation
  • 233. NOTE: • The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things. 233
  • 234. • Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine gland. They are transported into the circulatory system to target organs where they exert their functions. 234 Hormones play a vital role in regulating bodily functions.
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  • 249. Regulating blood sugar levels Glucagon: low glucose (hypoglycemia) Insulin: high glucose (hyperglycemia)
  • 253. Hoefenagels, M. Biology: Concepts and Investigations. McGraw-Hill, 2017. Mader, S.S. Concepts of Biology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2014. Miller, S. & Harley, J. Zoology 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2016. Rea, M.A. & Dagamac, N.H. General Biology 2. REX Book Store, 2017. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299542613_An_Introduction_to_Zoology https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://www.academia.edu/36439722/Hickman_-_Zoology_14th_ed.pdf https://web.duke.edu/histology/MBS/Videos/Phys/Phys%201.2%20Homeo%20Reg/Phys%201.2%20and% 201.2%20Homeo%20Fluid%20Compartments%20and%20Reg%20NOTES.pdf