1. Education at a Glance 2023
Global Webinar
Andreas Schleicher
OECD Director for Education and Skills

2. Education policies to support Ukrainian
refugees
Education at a Glance 2023

3. Measures to support the enrolment of Ukrainian refugee students
in schools in OECD countries
17%
36%
68%
68%
69%
71%
72%
73%
88%
90%
91%
100%
Ukrainian-only schools
Creation of temporary classes
Creation of Ukrainian/bilingual teaching materials
Establishment of temporary reception classes to facilitate integration
Awareness and information campaigns
Recruitment of teaching assistants
Recruitment of teachers
Sessions for families to foster the integration of Ukrainian refugees
Co-operation/communication with the Ukrainian authorities
Recruitment of Ukrainian-speaking personnel (teachersassistantsother)
Language catch-up courses
Provision of information (bookletwebsites etc..)
Share of countries implementing a measure

4. Measures to help Ukrainian upper secondary students attain
vocational qualifications
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Co-operation with Ukrainian vocational institutions (double degrees/shared…
Creation of temporary classes
Mentoring system
Bridging programmes to smooth refugee students' integration
Academic guidance
Facilitation of administrative procedures
Information medium (campaignsadvertisementwebsites)
Recognition of prior learning (RPL)
Administrative support
Language courses
National Institutional
Share of countries implementing a measure

5. Measures to ease the integration of students at tertiary level
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Creation of temporary classes
Bridging programmes to smooth refugee students' integration
Mentoring system
Cooperation with Ukrainian HEI (double degrees/shared courses for instance)
Academic guidance
Socio-emotional support
Information medium (campaignsadvertisementwebsites)
Financial aid (i.e housing allowances)
Administrative support
Research grants
Fee waivers
Recognition of prior learning (RPL)
Facilitation of administrative procedures
Language courses
National Institutional
Share of countries implementing a measure

6. Vocational education and training
Education at a Glance 2023

7. Countries with a higher share of VET students have higher employment
rates among young adults with upper secondary attainment
[CELLRA
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELL
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRA
NGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLR
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
55
65
75
85
95
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Employment
rate
of
25-34
year-olds
with
upper
secondary
or
post-secondary
non-tertiary
attainment
Share of vocational students among upper secondary students

8. A third of 25-34 year-olds have a vocational degree as highest level
Share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education has a vocational orientation, by level of educational
attainment (2022)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Austria
Slovak
Republic
Romania
Slovenia
France
Poland
Germany
Hungary
Finland
Italy
EU
average
OECD
average
Switzerland
Canada
Australia
Latvia
New
Zealand
Estonia
Netherlands
Spain
Belgium
Denmark
Czech
Republic
Greece
Sweden
Bulgaria
United
Kingdom
Norway
Korea
Portugal
Chile
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Iceland
Israel
Ireland
Türkiye
Costa
Rica
United
States
Mexico
Upper secondary (vocational) Post-secondary non-tertiary (vocational) Short-cycle tertiary (vocational)

9. Improving the attractiveness and reputation of VET programmes
Improving the
quality of VET
programmes
•By focusing on
the quality of
teachers (Brazil)
Ensuring VET
leads to
employment
•Through labour-market
forecasting and regular
collaboration with
employers (Germany)
Brazil (2019) considerably
expanded the training on
offer for VET teachers and
trainers, taking advantage of
digital training solutions.
Germany has taken
steps to ensure adult
learning responds to
digitalisation and
automation.

10. VET students are less likely to complete their programme than general
upper secondary students
Upper secondary completion rates, by timeframe and programme orientation on entry (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Israel
Colombia
Slovenia
Switzerland
France
Sweden
Chile
Latvia
Portugal
Finland
Brazil
Estonia
Austria
Italy
Lithuania
Norway
Spain
Iceland
Luxembourg
Canada
Denmark
United
States
Flemish
Comm.
(Belgium)
French
Comm.
(Belgium)
Completion within the theoretical duration - vocational upper secondary Completion within the theoretical duration - general upper secondary

11. Women are underrepresented among 25-34 year-olds with
vocational attainment
Share of women among those with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary or short-cycle tertiary
attainment (2022)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Mexico
Costa
Rica
Chile
Germany
Netherlands
Switzerland
United…
Spain
France
Romania
Austria
Greece
Israel
Luxembourg
New
Zealand
Finland
Portugal
OECD
average
Lithuania
EU
average
Latvia
Belgium
Italy
Poland
Türkiye
Estonia
Hungary
Australia
Slovak
Republic
Denmark
Sweden
Czech
Republic
Norway
Slovenia
Iceland
Bulgaria
Canada
Indonesia
Ireland
Japan
Korea
South
Africa
United
States
Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary (vocational) Short-cycle tertiary

12. Reducing gender disparities within vocational fields
Career guidance
interventions
To prevent the emergence of
stereotypical perceptions of
certain educational/career paths
Financial incentives
To reduce the gender gap in some
fields and widen the talent pool in
particular sectors
In Canada, the Apprenticeship
Incentive Grant for Women helps
female apprentices pay for expenses
during their apprenticeship in a
designated trade sector where
women are under-represented.
Denmark celebrates girls’ day
for students from 5th grade by
providing information about
occupations where women are
underrepresented, namely
promoting STEM professions.

13. Earnings are lower and the earnings gap between VET and tertiary
graduates increases over the working life
Relative earnings of workers with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment compared
to those with tertiary attainment, by age group (2021)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
25-34 year-olds 45-54 year-olds

14. Workers with VET attainment are less likely to participate in non-
formal education and training
Participation in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment and programme
orientation (2022)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Sweden
Norway
Iceland
Netherlands
Switzerland
Finland
Estonia
Slovak
Republic
Portugal
Spain
Luxembourg
Denmark
Slovenia
Average
Austria
Czech
Republic
Italy
France
Romania
Hungary
Belgium
Ireland
Germany
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Croatia
Greece
Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary (vocational) Tertiary
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Australia
Canada
Surveys with a reference period of four weeks prior to the interview
Surveys with a reference period of
twelve months prior to the interview

15. Involving
employers with
VET
programmes
•Including experienced
workers in curriculum design
•Tax benefits
Liaison
with local
labour
markets
•Connect with
local employers
•Engage small
businesses and
entrepreneurs
(Germany, Italy)
Improving
skill-to-job
matching
•Tailored
training
•Hands-on
learning
experience
Strengthening employers' involvements in VET programmes is a win-win

16. Combined school and work-based programmes are still rare in many countries
Share of upper secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes (2015 and
2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Denmark
Hungary
Ireland
Latvia
Switzerland
Germany
Norway
Iceland
Austria
OECD
average
EU
average
United
Kingdom
Australia
France
Slovak
Republic
Luxembourg
Finland
Poland
Chile
Romania
Sweden
Estonia
Belgium
Bulgaria
Israel
Spain
2021 2015

17. Countries with more students in programmes that combine school and
work-based learning have higher employment rates among VET graduates
[CELLR
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELL
[CELLRA
NGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELL
[CELLRAN
GE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
65
75
85
95
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Employment
rate
of
25-34
year-olds
with
vocational
upper
secondary
or
post-secondary
non-tertiary
attainment
Share of upper secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes

18. 1 in 4 VET students is enrolled in a programme that does not provide
access to tertiary education
Distribution of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational education, by type of vocational programme (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Brazil
Canada
Colombia
Costa
Rica
Finland
Korea
Portugal
Türkiye
Japan
Chile
Mexico
Israel
Latvia
Austria
Greece
Lithuania
Switzerland
Norway
Germany
Italy
Sweden
Slovak
Republic
Poland
Denmark
OECD
average
Romania
Croatia
Slovenia
EU
average
Czech
Republic
Hungary
United…
France
Spain
Netherlands
Estonia
Luxembourg
Bulgaria
Belgium
Iceland
Ireland
Programmes giving full level completion without access to tertiary education
Programmes giving partial completion or insufficient for completion
Programmes giving full level completion with access to tertiary education

19. Investment into vocational education and
training
Education at a Glance 2023

20. Expenditure per student is higher in VET programmes than in
general upper secondary programmes
Total expenditure per full-time equivalent upper secondary education student, by programme orientation (2020)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
30 000
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Korea
Norway
Germany
Austria
United
States
Belgium
Netherlands
France
Australia
United
Kingdom
Canada
Sweden
Iceland
Japan
Czech
Republic
OECD
average
Spain
EU
average
New
Zealand
Denmark
Italy
Portugal
Ireland
Finland
Slovenia
Israel
Latvia
Slovak
Republic
Lithuania
Hungary
Poland
Croatia
Estonia
Greece
Romania
Bulgaria
Chile
Türkiye
Colombia
Mexico
General Vocational All upper secondary

21. VET teachers
Education at a Glance 2023

22. In many countries, most VET teachers are older than 50 years
Age profile of teachers in upper secondary vocational programmes (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Italy
Finland
Lithuania
Latvia
Czech
Republic
Austria
Bulgaria
Estonia
Germany
Greece
Slovak
Republic
Slovenia
Denmark
Hungary
EU
average
United
Kingdom
Netherlands
Switzerland
OECD
average
Norway
Spain
Poland
Romania
France
Croatia
Belgium
Korea
Chile
Luxembourg
Brazil
Costa
Rica
Türkiye
50 years or over From 30 to 49 years Less than 30 years

23. Other findings
Education at a Glance 2023

24. Early childhood education
Education at a Glance 2023

25. Early childhood education and care becomes common at age 2 or 3 in most countries
Enrolment rates of young children, by age (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Argentina
Colombia
France
Indonesia
Ireland
Mexico
Peru
Australia
Luxembourg
United
Kingdom
Netherlands
Hungary
Belgium
Portugal
Switzerland
Denmark
New
Zealand
Norway
Spain
Japan
Austria
Iceland
Latvia
Israel
Poland
Germany
Sweden
OECD
average
Slovenia
EU
average
Costa
Rica
Italy
Czech
Republic
Korea
Estonia
Canada
Greece
Lithuania
Finland
Chile
Brazil
Slovak
Republic
India
Romania
United
States
Bulgaria
Croatia
Türkiye
Saudi
Arabia
Under age 2 Age 2 Age 3 Age 4 Age 5

26. Investment into early childhood education has been growing
Average annual change in total expenditure on pre-primary education per child between 2015 and 2020
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Lithuania
Romania
Estonia
Iceland
Czech
Republic
Italy
Slovak
Republic
Chile
Korea
Poland
Bulgaria
Latvia
Australia
Netherlands
Colombia
EU
average
OECD
average
Germany
Belgium
Israel
Japan
United
States
Spain
Norway
Austria
Slovenia
Finland
France
Portugal
Hungary
Luxembourg
Türkiye
Sweden
Mexico
Ireland
Total expenditure per child Number of children

27. Men are a small minority among ECEC teaching staff
Share of male teachers among pre-primary teaching staff (2013 and 2021)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Netherlands
Norway
France
United
Kingdom
Iceland
Luxembourg
United
States
Spain
Denmark
Costa
Rica
India
Türkiye
Germany
Brazil
Mexico
Indonesia
OECD
average
Sweden
Belgium
Colombia
Switzerland
Japan
EU
average
Finland
Peru
New
Zealand
Austria
China
Ireland
Slovenia
Poland
Greece
Italy
Lithuania
Chile
Croatia
Korea
Portugal
Latvia
Estonia
Israel
Hungary
Bulgaria
Czech
Republic
Slovak
Republic
Romania
Saudi
Arabia
2021 2013

28. Tertiary education
Education at a Glance 2023

29. Important gender differences by field of study persist in tertiary
education
Share of female tertiary graduates in health and welfare, STEM, and all fields (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Iceland
Argentina
Poland
Latvia
South
Africa
Costa
Rica
Estonia
New
Zealand
Lithuania
Sweden
Israel
Slovak
Republic
Bulgaria
Croatia
Brazil
Finland
Czech
Republic
Slovenia
United
States
Belgium
Romania
Hungary
Greece
Indonesia
United
Kingdom
Portugal
Chile
OECD
average
EU
average
Italy
Australia
Norway
Colombia
Spain
Canada
Denmark
Netherlands
France
Mexico
Austria
Ireland
Luxembourg
Saudi
Arabia
China
Türkiye
Korea
India
Germany
Japan
Switzerland
Health and welfare STEM All fields

30. The pandemic affected the share of international students only in a few
countries
Share of international or foreign students in tertiary education in OECD countries (2019, 2020 and 2021)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Luxembourg
Australia
United
Kingdom
Austria
Switzerland
Canada
Czech
Republic
Netherlands
Hungary
Latvia
New
Zealand
Portugal
Estonia
Germany
Slovak
Republic
EU25
total
Denmark
Belgium
Ireland
Slovenia
France
Finland
Bulgaria
Iceland
Lithuania
Sweden
OECD
total
Romania
Japan
Poland
United
States
Norway
Korea
Saudi
Arabia
Spain
Italy
Israel
Greece
Türkiye
Croatia
Chile
Mexico
China
Brazil
Colombia
India
2021 2020 2019

31. Asian students are the largest group of international students in
most OECD countries
Distribution of international or foreign tertiary students studying in OECD countries, by region of origin (2021)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Japan
Korea
Indonesia
Australia
New
Zealand
United
States
Canada
Türkiye
Greece
India
Saudi
Arabia
United
Kingdom
OECD
total
Latvia
Ireland
Hungary
Germany
Finland
Norway
Lithuania
Italy
Estonia
Sweden
EU25
total
France
Poland
Israel
Iceland
Romania
Czech
Republic
Netherlands
Bulgaria
Switzerland
Luxembourg
Denmark
Brazil
Belgium
Spain
Austria
Slovak
Republic
Portugal
Croatia
Slovenia
South
Africa
Colombia
Mexico
Argentina
Chile
Asia Europe North America Latin America and Carribean Africa Oceania Area not specified

32. STEM fields are popular among internationally mobile students
Share of tertiary students enrolled in OECD countries, by field of study and mobility status (2021)
Figure B6.3.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Education Arts and humanities Social sciences,
journalism and
information
Business,
administration and
law
STEM Agriculture,
forestry, fisheries
and veterinary
Health and welfare Services
National students Mobile students

33. Higher educational attainment has many
social benefits
Education at a Glance 2023

34. Fewer adults with high educational attainment believe in conspiracy theories
Belief in conspiracy theories, by educational attainment (2020)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
A small secret group of people is responsible for
making all major decisions in world politics.
Groups of scientists manipulate, fabricate or
suppress evidence in order to deceive the public.
Coronavirus is the result of deliberate and
concealed efforts of some government or
organisation
Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Tertiary

35. Civic engagement is higher among adults with higher attainment
Share of adults who reported the following behaviour indicating civic engagement, by educational attainment and
programme orientation (2020)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Taken part in a public demonstration Posted or shared anything about politics on line, for example
on blogs, via email or on social media such as Facebook or
Twitter
Volunteered for a not-for-profit or charitable organisation
Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary (vocational) Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary (general) Tertiary

36. The funding of education systems
Education at a Glance 2023

37. Compulsory instruction time in primary and lower secondary
education differs widely
Compulsory instruction time in general education (2023)
0
2 000
4 000
6 000
8 000
10 000
12 000
Bulgaria
Croatia
Poland
Latvia
Hungary
Türkiye
Finland
Slovenia
Estonia
Korea
Austria
Slovak
Republic
Sweden
Greece
Czech
Republic
EU25
average
Brazil
Japan
Germany
Italy
Romania
Iceland
Lithuania
OECD
average
Switzerland
Portugal
Norway
Spain
Luxembourg
Ireland
France
Chile
Canada
Israel
Netherlands
United
States
Colombia
Costa
Rica
Denmark
Australia
French
Comm.
(Belgium)
Flemish
Comm.…
Total
number
of
compulsory
instruction
hours
Primary Lower secondary White separations distinguish grades in each education programme

38. Teacher salaries vary widely across countries
Upper secondary teachers’ average actual salaries compared to the statutory minimum and maximum salaries (2022)
0
40 000
80 000
120 000
160 000
Luxembourg
Germany
Switzerland
Mexico
Denmark
Spain
Austria
Netherlands
United
States
Australia
Türkiye
Sweden
Norway
Finland
Canada
OECD
average
France
Ireland
Italy
New
Zealand
Portugal
Lithuania
Korea
Slovenia
Croatia
Japan
Israel
Chile
Czech
Republic
Estonia
Colombia
Romania
Bulgaria
Greece
Brazil
Poland
Latvia
Slovak
Republic
Hungary
Costa
Rica
French
Comm.…
Scotland
(UK)
Flemish
Comm.…
England
(UK)
Actual salaries of 25-64 year-old teachers Starting salary/minimum qualifications Salary at top of scale/maximum qualifications

39. Teacher salaries are often lower than the salaries of other tertiary
educated workers
Actual salaries of upper secondary teachers and school heads (in general programmes) relative to earnings of tertiary-
educated workers (2022)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Lithuania
Portugal
Costa
Rica
Germany
Finland
Australia
Ireland
Israel
New
Zealand
OECD
average
EU25
average
Denmark
Slovenia
Austria
France
Romania
Netherlands
Estonia
Norway
Sweden
Czech
Republic
Chile
Poland
Greece
Slovak
Republic
Italy
United
States
Hungary
Flemish
Comm.
(Belgium)
French
Comm.
(Belgium)
England
(UK)
Scotland
(UK)
Teachers' salaries relative to tertiary-educated workers' earnings School heads' salaries relative to tertiary-educated workers' earnings

40. In many countries, teacher salaries declined in real terms
Change in upper secondary general teachers’ statutory salaries between 2010 and 2022
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Israel
Chile
Slovak
Republic
Poland
Türkiye
Korea
Australia
Hungary
Germany
Norway
OECD
average
France
United
States
EU25
average
Japan
Denmark
Slovenia
Finland
Austria
Ireland
Portugal
Spain
Italy
Greece
Scotland
(UK)
Flemish
Comm.
(Belgium)
French
Comm.
(Belgium)
England
(UK)
Change in index (2015 = 100)
Change between 2010 and 2015 Change between 2015 and 2022 Change between 2010 and 2022

41. Salary cost of teachers depends on several factors
Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, primary education
-2 500
-1 500
- 500
500
1 500
2 500
Contribution of teachers' salary Contribution of instruction time
Contribution of teaching time Contribution of theoretical class size
Difference of salary cost of teachers per student from OECD average
USD converted using
PPPs

42. The organisation of school education
Education at a Glance 2023

43. National assessments are often used to monitor school
performance, but rarely evaluate teacher performance
Main purposes of national/central assessments in lower secondary education (2023)
0 10 20 30 40
Student diagnostic information
for teachers
Monitoring of education system
Evaluation of school performance
Formative feedback to parents
Active engagement of students
in their own learning process
Evaluation of teacher performance
Selection or grouping students
by their achievement levels
Other purposes
Yes Yes (some cases only) No No assessment

44. The format of national assessments and examinations varies
Types of tasks students are given in national/central examinations and assessments, by level of education (2023)
0
10
20
30
National/central
assessments
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary
Multiple choice
Closed-format short answer questions
Open-ended writing tasks
Other formats (portfolio, performing a task/experiment, oral presentation, oral questions and answers, other)
Number of countries and other participants with national/central examinations or assessments
Lower secondary Upper secondary
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary
Primary
National/central assessments National/central examinations

45. Thank you