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Chapter 7
External
Economies of
Scale and the
International
Location of
Production
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-2
Preview
• Types of economies of scale
• Economies of scale and market structure
• The theory of external economies
• External economies and international trade
• Dynamic increasing returns
• International trade and economic geography
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-3
Introduction
• The models of comparative advantage thus far
assumed constant returns to scale:
– When inputs to an industry increase at a certain rate, output
increases at the same rate.
– If inputs were doubled, output would double as well.
• But there may be increasing returns to scale or
economies of scale:
– This means that when inputs to an industry increase at a
certain rate, output increases at a faster rate.
– A larger scale is more efficient: the cost per unit of output falls
as a firm or industry increases output.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-4
Table 7-1: Relationship of Input to
Output for a Hypothetical Industry
For example, suppose an industry produces widgets using only one
input, labor. The presence of economies of scale may be seen from
the fact that
• doubling the input of labor more than doubles the industry’s
output.
• the average amount of labor used to produce each widget is less
when the industry produces more.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-5
Introduction
• Mutually beneficial trade can arise as a result
of economies of scale.
• International trade permits each country to
produce a limited range of goods without
sacrificing variety in consumption.
• With trade, a country can take advantage of
economies of scale to produce more efficiently
than if it tried to produce everything for itself.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-6
Economies of Scale and Market
Structure
• Economies of scale could mean either that larger firms
or a larger industry would be more efficient.
• External economies of scale occur when cost per
unit of output depends on the size of the industry.
• Internal economies of scale occur when the cost
per unit of output depends on the size of a firm.
• Both external and internal economies of scale are
important causes of international trade.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-7
Economies of Scale and Market
Structure
• External and internal economies of scale have,
however, different implications for the structure of
industries:
– An industry where economies of scale are purely external will
typically consist of many small firms and be perfectly
competitive.
– Internal economies of scale result when large firms have a cost
advantage over small firms, causing the industry to become
imperfectly competitive.
• This chapter deals with a model of external economies;
the next chapter will cover internal economies.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-8
The Theory of External Economies
• Many modern examples of industries that seem to be
powerful external economies:
– In the United States, the semiconductor industry is concentrated
in Silicon Valley, investment banking in New York, and the
entertainment industry in Hollywood.
– In developing countries such as China, external economies are
pervasive in manufacturing.
• One town in China produces most of the world’s underwear,
another nearly all cigarette lighters.
– External economies played a key role in India’s emergence as a
major exporter of information services.
• Indian information services companies are still clustered in
Bangalore.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-9
The Theory of External Economies
• There are three main reasons why concentrating
production of an industry in one or a few locations can
reduce the industry’s costs, even if the individual firms
in the industry remain small.
1. Specialized equipment or services may
be needed for the industry, but are only supplied by
other firms if the industry is large and concentrated.
– For example, Silicon Valley in California has a large
concentration of silicon chip companies, which are serviced by
companies that make special machines for manufacturing
silicon chips.
– These machines are cheaper and more easily available there
than elsewhere.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-10
The Theory of External Economies
2. Labor pooling: a large and concentrated industry
may attract a pool of workers, reducing employee
search and hiring costs for each firm.
– Workers in Sillicon Valley who can easily switch employers.
Specialized workers in Hollywoodu (make-up artists,
stuntmen,…) who would not have a job elsewhere.
3. Knowledge spillovers: workers from different firms
may more easily share ideas that benefit each firm
when a large and concentrated industry exists.
– Sillicon Valley
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-11
Fig. 7-1: External Economies and
Market Equilibrium
When there are external
economies of scale, the
average cost of producing a
good falls as the quantity
produced rises.
Given competition among
many producers, the
downward-sloping average
cost curve AC can be
interpreted as a forward-
falling supply curve.
The equilibrium level of
output is Q1, the equilibrium
price is P1.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-12
Fig. 7-2: External Economies
Before Trade
Prior to international trade, equilibrium prices and output for each
country would be at the point where the domestic supply curve intersects
the domestic demand curve. Suppose Chinese button prices in the
absence of trade would be lower than U.S. button prices.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-13
External Economies and
International Trade
• Suppose Chinese button prices in the absence of trade
would be lower than U.S. button prices.
• What will happen when the countries open up the
potential for trade in buttons?
• The Chinese button industry will expand, while the U.S.
button industry will contract.
• This process feeds on itself: As the Chinese industry’s
output rises, its costs will fall further; as the U.S.
industry’s output falls, its costs will rise.
• In the end, all button production will be in China.
• How does this concentration of production affect prices?
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-14
Fig. 7-3: Trade and Prices
Chinese button prices
were lower than U.S.
button prices before
trade.
Because China’s supply
curve is forward-falling,
increased production as a
result of trade leads to a
button price that is lower
than the price before
trade.
Trade leads to prices that
are lower than the prices
in either country before
trade!
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-15
External Economies and
International Trade
• Very different from the implications of models without
increasing returns.
• In the standard trade model relative prices converge
as a result of trade.
– If cloth is relatively cheap in the home country and relatively
expensive in the foreign country before trade opens, the effect
of trade was to raise cloth prices in Home and reduce them in
Foreign.
• With external economies, by contrast, the effect of
trade is to reduce prices everywhere.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-16
External Economies and
International Trade
• What might cause one country to have an initial
advantage from having a lower price?
• One possibility is comparative advantage due to
underlying differences in technology and resources.
– The reason why Sillicon Valley is in California and not in Mexico
is that there is higher availability of highly skilled work force in
U.S. than in Mexico (portion of college-educated workers: 40%
in USA vs 16% in Mexiku)
– The reason why button production is concentrated in China and
not in Germany is that button production is a labor-intensive
industry which is profitable in coutries where workers earn
relatively low wages.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-17
External Economies and
International Trade
• If external economies exist, however, the pattern of
trade could be due to historical accidents.
– Using comparative advantage, we are able to explain why
Sillicon Valley is in USA, rather than in Mexico. But why is
Sillicon Valley in California and not in Texas?
– Similarly, we are able to explain why button production is in
China and not in Germany. But why is it in China and not in
Vietnam?
• Countries that start as large producers in certain
industries tend to remain large producers even if
another country could potentially produce more
cheaply.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-18
Fig. 7-4: The Importance of Established
Advantage
Assume that the Vietnamese
cost curve lies below the
Chinese curve because
Vietnamese wages are lower
than Chinese wages.
At any given level of
production, Vietnam could
manufacture buttons more
cheaply than China.
One might hope that this would
always imply that Vietnam will
in fact supply the world
market.
But this need not always be the
case if China has enough of a
head start. Why?
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-19
Concentration of Industries and
Their Historical Background
• London and New York are financial centers
– GB was the dominant economic force in 19th century and that
is why London became financial center. It has retained that role
even though modern Britain is nowadays no longer the
dominant force in the world economy.
– NY owes its position to Erie Canal which connect NY with Great
Lakes. Because of that, NY became the main U.S. port and
consequently also the financial center. It has retained its role
even though the canal is currently used mainly for recreational
purposes.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-20
Concentration of Industries and
Their Historical Background
• Silicon Valley may owe its existence to two Stanford
graduates named Hewlett and Packard who started a
business in a garage there.
• A tufted blanket, crafted as a wedding gift by a 19th-
century teenager, gave rise to the cluster of carpet
manufacturers around Dalton, Georgia.
• Bangalore as a center of information services might
look differently if Texas Instruments had not chosen it
in 1984 for its investment project.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-21
Concentration of Industries and
Their Historical Background
• The most importatnt export sector in U.S. is the
entertainment industry (movies)
– External economies: specialized services and labor pooling
– USA is much larger market than Italy or France which enables to
make blockbusters with huge budgets
– “American” films are often made by foreigners.
• Hollywood is located in LA because of good weather.
Historically, movies were shot outdoors.
– Nowadays, movies are shot indoors, however, film industry is
(and will be) still located in Hollywood.
• Similar clusters in other countries
– Indian Bollywood in Bombay, African Nollywood in Nigeria, Chinese
films in Hong-Kong, Latin American telenovelas in Caracas
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-22
Concentration of Industries in
China
• Qiatou – 60% of world production of buttons and large
portion of world production of zipper
– A large number of small firms which benefit from being close to
each other.
– The origins lie in historical accident: In 1980, three brothers
spotted some discarded buttons in the street and they repaired
and sold them. Then, they decided to start the button business.
• Hang Ji – toothbrushes
• Sheng Zhou – ties
• Zhang Qi – cigarette lighters
• Wen Ling – shoes
• Yiwu - socks
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-23
External Economies and
International Trade
• No guarantee that the right country will produce a
good that is subject to external economies.
– The right country means country that is able to produce given
level of prodution with the lowest costs.
• Trade based on external economies has an ambiguous
effect on national welfare.
– There will be gains to the world economy by concentrating
production of industries with external economies.
– It’s possible that a country is worse off with trade than it would
have been without trade: a country may be better off if it
produces everything for its domestic market rather than pay for
imports, see next Fig. 7-5.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-24
Fig. 7-5: External Economies and
Losses from Trade
Imagine that Thailand could
make watches more
cheaply, but Switzerland
got there first.
The price of watches could
be lower in Thailand with
no trade.
Trade could make Thailand
worse off, creating an
incentive to protect its
potential watch industry
from foreign competition.
What if Thailand reverts to
autarky?
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-25
Fig. 7-5: External Economies and
Losses from Trade
Note, that it’s still to the
benefit of the world
economy to take advantage
of the gains from
concentrating industries
somewhere.
Each country wanting to
reap the benefits of housing
an industry with economies
of scale creates trade
conflicts.
In reality, it is hard to
identify when external
economies of scale really
exist.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-26
Dynamic Increasing Returns
• So far, we have considered cases where external
economies depend on the amount of current output at
a point in time.
• But external economies may also depend on the
amount of cumulative output over time.
• Dynamic increasing returns to scale exist if
average costs fall as cumulative output over time rises.
• Dynamic increasing returns to scale could arise if the
cost of production depends on the accumulation of
knowledge and experience, which depend on the
production process over time.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-27
Fig. 7-6: The Learning Curve
A graphical representation of
dynamic increasing returns to
scale is called a learning
curve.
The learning curve shows that
unit cost is lower the greater
the cumulative output of a
country’s industry to date.
A country that has extensive
experience in an industry (L)
may have a lower unit cost
than a country with little or no
experience, even if that second
country’s learning curve (L*) is
lower – for example, because
of lower wages.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-28
Dynamic Increasing Returns
• Like external economies of scale at a point in time,
dynamic increasing returns to scale can lock in an
initial advantage or a head start in an industry.
• Can also be used to justify protectionism.
– Temporary protection of industries enables them to gain
experience: infant industry argument.
– But temporary is often for a long time, and it is hard to identify
when external economies of scale really exist.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-29
International Trade and Economic
Geography
• External economies may also be important for
interregional trade within a country.
– Many movie producers located in Los Angeles produce movies for
consumers throughout the U.S.
– Many financial firms located in New York provide financial
services for consumers throughout the U.S.
• Some nontradable goods like veterinary services must
usually be supplied locally.
– 60% of U.S. workers are employed by industries whose output is
nontradable even within USA. The share of nontradable industries in
employment is pretty much the same across the U.S.
– On the other hand, tradable industries vary greatly in importance
across regions.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-30
Table 7-2: Some Examples of Tradable
and Nontradable Industries
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-31
International Trade and Economic
Geography
• Economic geography examines international and
interregional trade and the organization of economic
activity in metropolitan and rural areas.
• What determines the location of tradable industries?
– In some cases, natural resources play a key role. For example,
Houston is a center for the oil industry because east Texas is
where the oil is.
• In the case of interregional trade, labor and capital are
much more mobile than in the case of international trade.
– Resources tend to move where the industries are rather than the
other way round, see Sillicon Valley.
– In such case, the patterns of trade are much more influenced by
external economies and historical accidents.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-32
Summary
1. Trade need not be the result of comparative advantage.
Instead, it can result from increasing returns or economies
of scale, that is, from a tendency of unit costs to be lower
with larger output.
2. Economies of scale give countries an incentive to specialize
and trade even in the absence of differences in resources or
technology between countries.
3. Economies of scale can be internal (depending on the size
of the firm) or external (depending on the size of the
industry).
4. Economies of scale can lead to a breakdown of perfect
competition, unless they take the form of external
economies, which occur at the level of the industry instead
of the firm.
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-33
Summary
5. External economies give an important role to history
and accident in determining the pattern of
international trade.
– When external economies are important, a country starting
with a large advantage may retain that advantage even if
another country could potentially produce the same goods
more cheaply.
6. Trade based on external economies of scale may
increase or decrease national welfare, and countries
may benefit from temporary protectionism if their
industries exhibit external economies of scale either
at a point in time or over time.

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  • 1. Chapter 7 External Economies of Scale and the International Location of Production
  • 2. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-2 Preview • Types of economies of scale • Economies of scale and market structure • The theory of external economies • External economies and international trade • Dynamic increasing returns • International trade and economic geography
  • 3. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-3 Introduction • The models of comparative advantage thus far assumed constant returns to scale: – When inputs to an industry increase at a certain rate, output increases at the same rate. – If inputs were doubled, output would double as well. • But there may be increasing returns to scale or economies of scale: – This means that when inputs to an industry increase at a certain rate, output increases at a faster rate. – A larger scale is more efficient: the cost per unit of output falls as a firm or industry increases output.
  • 4. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-4 Table 7-1: Relationship of Input to Output for a Hypothetical Industry For example, suppose an industry produces widgets using only one input, labor. The presence of economies of scale may be seen from the fact that • doubling the input of labor more than doubles the industry’s output. • the average amount of labor used to produce each widget is less when the industry produces more.
  • 5. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-5 Introduction • Mutually beneficial trade can arise as a result of economies of scale. • International trade permits each country to produce a limited range of goods without sacrificing variety in consumption. • With trade, a country can take advantage of economies of scale to produce more efficiently than if it tried to produce everything for itself.
  • 6. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-6 Economies of Scale and Market Structure • Economies of scale could mean either that larger firms or a larger industry would be more efficient. • External economies of scale occur when cost per unit of output depends on the size of the industry. • Internal economies of scale occur when the cost per unit of output depends on the size of a firm. • Both external and internal economies of scale are important causes of international trade.
  • 7. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-7 Economies of Scale and Market Structure • External and internal economies of scale have, however, different implications for the structure of industries: – An industry where economies of scale are purely external will typically consist of many small firms and be perfectly competitive. – Internal economies of scale result when large firms have a cost advantage over small firms, causing the industry to become imperfectly competitive. • This chapter deals with a model of external economies; the next chapter will cover internal economies.
  • 8. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-8 The Theory of External Economies • Many modern examples of industries that seem to be powerful external economies: – In the United States, the semiconductor industry is concentrated in Silicon Valley, investment banking in New York, and the entertainment industry in Hollywood. – In developing countries such as China, external economies are pervasive in manufacturing. • One town in China produces most of the world’s underwear, another nearly all cigarette lighters. – External economies played a key role in India’s emergence as a major exporter of information services. • Indian information services companies are still clustered in Bangalore.
  • 9. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-9 The Theory of External Economies • There are three main reasons why concentrating production of an industry in one or a few locations can reduce the industry’s costs, even if the individual firms in the industry remain small. 1. Specialized equipment or services may be needed for the industry, but are only supplied by other firms if the industry is large and concentrated. – For example, Silicon Valley in California has a large concentration of silicon chip companies, which are serviced by companies that make special machines for manufacturing silicon chips. – These machines are cheaper and more easily available there than elsewhere.
  • 10. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-10 The Theory of External Economies 2. Labor pooling: a large and concentrated industry may attract a pool of workers, reducing employee search and hiring costs for each firm. – Workers in Sillicon Valley who can easily switch employers. Specialized workers in Hollywoodu (make-up artists, stuntmen,…) who would not have a job elsewhere. 3. Knowledge spillovers: workers from different firms may more easily share ideas that benefit each firm when a large and concentrated industry exists. – Sillicon Valley
  • 11. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-11 Fig. 7-1: External Economies and Market Equilibrium When there are external economies of scale, the average cost of producing a good falls as the quantity produced rises. Given competition among many producers, the downward-sloping average cost curve AC can be interpreted as a forward- falling supply curve. The equilibrium level of output is Q1, the equilibrium price is P1.
  • 12. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-12 Fig. 7-2: External Economies Before Trade Prior to international trade, equilibrium prices and output for each country would be at the point where the domestic supply curve intersects the domestic demand curve. Suppose Chinese button prices in the absence of trade would be lower than U.S. button prices.
  • 13. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-13 External Economies and International Trade • Suppose Chinese button prices in the absence of trade would be lower than U.S. button prices. • What will happen when the countries open up the potential for trade in buttons? • The Chinese button industry will expand, while the U.S. button industry will contract. • This process feeds on itself: As the Chinese industry’s output rises, its costs will fall further; as the U.S. industry’s output falls, its costs will rise. • In the end, all button production will be in China. • How does this concentration of production affect prices?
  • 14. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-14 Fig. 7-3: Trade and Prices Chinese button prices were lower than U.S. button prices before trade. Because China’s supply curve is forward-falling, increased production as a result of trade leads to a button price that is lower than the price before trade. Trade leads to prices that are lower than the prices in either country before trade!
  • 15. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-15 External Economies and International Trade • Very different from the implications of models without increasing returns. • In the standard trade model relative prices converge as a result of trade. – If cloth is relatively cheap in the home country and relatively expensive in the foreign country before trade opens, the effect of trade was to raise cloth prices in Home and reduce them in Foreign. • With external economies, by contrast, the effect of trade is to reduce prices everywhere.
  • 16. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-16 External Economies and International Trade • What might cause one country to have an initial advantage from having a lower price? • One possibility is comparative advantage due to underlying differences in technology and resources. – The reason why Sillicon Valley is in California and not in Mexico is that there is higher availability of highly skilled work force in U.S. than in Mexico (portion of college-educated workers: 40% in USA vs 16% in Mexiku) – The reason why button production is concentrated in China and not in Germany is that button production is a labor-intensive industry which is profitable in coutries where workers earn relatively low wages.
  • 17. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-17 External Economies and International Trade • If external economies exist, however, the pattern of trade could be due to historical accidents. – Using comparative advantage, we are able to explain why Sillicon Valley is in USA, rather than in Mexico. But why is Sillicon Valley in California and not in Texas? – Similarly, we are able to explain why button production is in China and not in Germany. But why is it in China and not in Vietnam? • Countries that start as large producers in certain industries tend to remain large producers even if another country could potentially produce more cheaply.
  • 18. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-18 Fig. 7-4: The Importance of Established Advantage Assume that the Vietnamese cost curve lies below the Chinese curve because Vietnamese wages are lower than Chinese wages. At any given level of production, Vietnam could manufacture buttons more cheaply than China. One might hope that this would always imply that Vietnam will in fact supply the world market. But this need not always be the case if China has enough of a head start. Why?
  • 19. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-19 Concentration of Industries and Their Historical Background • London and New York are financial centers – GB was the dominant economic force in 19th century and that is why London became financial center. It has retained that role even though modern Britain is nowadays no longer the dominant force in the world economy. – NY owes its position to Erie Canal which connect NY with Great Lakes. Because of that, NY became the main U.S. port and consequently also the financial center. It has retained its role even though the canal is currently used mainly for recreational purposes.
  • 20. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-20 Concentration of Industries and Their Historical Background • Silicon Valley may owe its existence to two Stanford graduates named Hewlett and Packard who started a business in a garage there. • A tufted blanket, crafted as a wedding gift by a 19th- century teenager, gave rise to the cluster of carpet manufacturers around Dalton, Georgia. • Bangalore as a center of information services might look differently if Texas Instruments had not chosen it in 1984 for its investment project.
  • 21. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-21 Concentration of Industries and Their Historical Background • The most importatnt export sector in U.S. is the entertainment industry (movies) – External economies: specialized services and labor pooling – USA is much larger market than Italy or France which enables to make blockbusters with huge budgets – “American” films are often made by foreigners. • Hollywood is located in LA because of good weather. Historically, movies were shot outdoors. – Nowadays, movies are shot indoors, however, film industry is (and will be) still located in Hollywood. • Similar clusters in other countries – Indian Bollywood in Bombay, African Nollywood in Nigeria, Chinese films in Hong-Kong, Latin American telenovelas in Caracas
  • 22. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-22 Concentration of Industries in China • Qiatou – 60% of world production of buttons and large portion of world production of zipper – A large number of small firms which benefit from being close to each other. – The origins lie in historical accident: In 1980, three brothers spotted some discarded buttons in the street and they repaired and sold them. Then, they decided to start the button business. • Hang Ji – toothbrushes • Sheng Zhou – ties • Zhang Qi – cigarette lighters • Wen Ling – shoes • Yiwu - socks
  • 23. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-23 External Economies and International Trade • No guarantee that the right country will produce a good that is subject to external economies. – The right country means country that is able to produce given level of prodution with the lowest costs. • Trade based on external economies has an ambiguous effect on national welfare. – There will be gains to the world economy by concentrating production of industries with external economies. – It’s possible that a country is worse off with trade than it would have been without trade: a country may be better off if it produces everything for its domestic market rather than pay for imports, see next Fig. 7-5.
  • 24. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-24 Fig. 7-5: External Economies and Losses from Trade Imagine that Thailand could make watches more cheaply, but Switzerland got there first. The price of watches could be lower in Thailand with no trade. Trade could make Thailand worse off, creating an incentive to protect its potential watch industry from foreign competition. What if Thailand reverts to autarky?
  • 25. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-25 Fig. 7-5: External Economies and Losses from Trade Note, that it’s still to the benefit of the world economy to take advantage of the gains from concentrating industries somewhere. Each country wanting to reap the benefits of housing an industry with economies of scale creates trade conflicts. In reality, it is hard to identify when external economies of scale really exist.
  • 26. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-26 Dynamic Increasing Returns • So far, we have considered cases where external economies depend on the amount of current output at a point in time. • But external economies may also depend on the amount of cumulative output over time. • Dynamic increasing returns to scale exist if average costs fall as cumulative output over time rises. • Dynamic increasing returns to scale could arise if the cost of production depends on the accumulation of knowledge and experience, which depend on the production process over time.
  • 27. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-27 Fig. 7-6: The Learning Curve A graphical representation of dynamic increasing returns to scale is called a learning curve. The learning curve shows that unit cost is lower the greater the cumulative output of a country’s industry to date. A country that has extensive experience in an industry (L) may have a lower unit cost than a country with little or no experience, even if that second country’s learning curve (L*) is lower – for example, because of lower wages.
  • 28. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-28 Dynamic Increasing Returns • Like external economies of scale at a point in time, dynamic increasing returns to scale can lock in an initial advantage or a head start in an industry. • Can also be used to justify protectionism. – Temporary protection of industries enables them to gain experience: infant industry argument. – But temporary is often for a long time, and it is hard to identify when external economies of scale really exist.
  • 29. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-29 International Trade and Economic Geography • External economies may also be important for interregional trade within a country. – Many movie producers located in Los Angeles produce movies for consumers throughout the U.S. – Many financial firms located in New York provide financial services for consumers throughout the U.S. • Some nontradable goods like veterinary services must usually be supplied locally. – 60% of U.S. workers are employed by industries whose output is nontradable even within USA. The share of nontradable industries in employment is pretty much the same across the U.S. – On the other hand, tradable industries vary greatly in importance across regions.
  • 30. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-30 Table 7-2: Some Examples of Tradable and Nontradable Industries
  • 31. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-31 International Trade and Economic Geography • Economic geography examines international and interregional trade and the organization of economic activity in metropolitan and rural areas. • What determines the location of tradable industries? – In some cases, natural resources play a key role. For example, Houston is a center for the oil industry because east Texas is where the oil is. • In the case of interregional trade, labor and capital are much more mobile than in the case of international trade. – Resources tend to move where the industries are rather than the other way round, see Sillicon Valley. – In such case, the patterns of trade are much more influenced by external economies and historical accidents.
  • 32. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-32 Summary 1. Trade need not be the result of comparative advantage. Instead, it can result from increasing returns or economies of scale, that is, from a tendency of unit costs to be lower with larger output. 2. Economies of scale give countries an incentive to specialize and trade even in the absence of differences in resources or technology between countries. 3. Economies of scale can be internal (depending on the size of the firm) or external (depending on the size of the industry). 4. Economies of scale can lead to a breakdown of perfect competition, unless they take the form of external economies, which occur at the level of the industry instead of the firm.
  • 33. Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7-33 Summary 5. External economies give an important role to history and accident in determining the pattern of international trade. – When external economies are important, a country starting with a large advantage may retain that advantage even if another country could potentially produce the same goods more cheaply. 6. Trade based on external economies of scale may increase or decrease national welfare, and countries may benefit from temporary protectionism if their industries exhibit external economies of scale either at a point in time or over time.