3. MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD
AND DISASTER
Hazard :
Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures or economic assets and
which may cause a disaster.
They could be either man made or naturally occurring in our environment.
Disaster
The occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune that disrupts the basic fabric
and normal functioning of a society.
It is an event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and / or damage
or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood
on a scale that is beyond the normal capacity of the affected communities
to cope with unaided.
4. Typology of disaster-
A disaster can be either natural [rain, flood, cyclone, storm,
land slides, earthquake, volcanoes] or man made [war
including biological, arson, sabotage, riots, accident (train, air,
ship), industrial accidents, fires (forest fires), bomb
explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters].
Pre-Independence, droughts and famines were the biggest
killers in India.
The situation has changed due to a combination of factors like
irrigation development, food security measures.
Floods, cyclones, droughts, landslides, avalanches and
earthquakes are some of the major natural disasters that
repeatedly and increasingly affect the country.
5. Hazards
Hazard is defined as a perceived natural event
which threatens both life and property.
There are two types of hazards:
1. Natural hazard.
2. Manmade hazard.
6. Natural hazard
Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of
natural phenomena (hazards with meteorological, geological or
even biological origin).
Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earth-
quake and volcanic eruption which are exclusively of natural
origin.
Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural hazards
since their causes are both natural and man made.
For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains,
landslide or blocking of drains with human waste.
7. Types of Natural Hazards
Natural hazards can be classified by the types of geophysical
processes involved in their occurrence. The four types of
natural hazards are:
Meteorological (hurricanes, tropical storms, typhoons,
tornadoes, snow and ice storms, thunderstorms, etc.).
Geological (earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, landslides,
subsidence, etc.).
Hydrological (floods, droughts, wildfire, etc.).
Extra terrestrial (meteorites impacting the earth’s surface)
8. Manmade hazards
Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to
human negligence.
Manmade hazards are associated with industries or
energy generation facilities and include explosions,
leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or
civil strife etc.
The list of hazards is very long. Many occur
frequently while others take place occasionally.
9. Types of Manmade Hazards
In general terms, there are two major classifications of man-
made hazards: technological hazards and terrorism.
Technological hazards are usually caused by accident—either
through incompetence, poor planning, faulty equipment, bad
weather, or some other mishap; no one intended the hazard to
occur.
Terrorism, on the other hand, infers an intentional act; that is,
some individual or group means to cause harm in order to
further a political agenda; a social, economic or religious
mission; or because they are delusional or misguided in some
way.
Intentional man-made hazards (such as a bombing) almost
always have humans as their ultimate targets.
Unintentional or accidental hazards (such as an oil spill or a
train derailment) are more like natural hazards because they do
not occur as a result of a malicious plot or an organized
activity that is designed to cause damage or injury.
10. Types of disaster
Disasters are often classified according to
their:
a) Causes – Natural disaster and Manmade
disaster
b) Speed of onset – Sudden and Slow
11. Natural Disasters
These types of disaster naturally occur in proximity
to, and pose a threat to, people, structures or
economic assets. They are caused by biological,
geological, seismic, hydrologic, or meteorological
conditions or processes in the natural environment.
Examples of natural disaster is as follows:
Wind related - Storm, Cyclone, Tornado, Storm
surge, Tidal waves,
Water related - Flood, Cloudburst, Flash flood,
Excssive rains,.Drought.
Earth related - Earthquake, Tsunamis, Avalanches,
Landslides,Volcilnic eruptions.
12. Manmade Disasters
Accidents: Road, Rail, Air, Sea, Building collapse.
Industrial Mishaps: Gas leak, Explosion, Sabotage, Safety.
Fire: Building, Coal, Oil.
Forest Fire (In tropical counters, forest fires are often
manmade)
Contamination /poisoning: Food, Water, IIIiatliquor,
Epidemics.
Terrorist activities.
Ecological: Pollution (Air, Water, Noise), Soil degrading,
Loss of Biodiversity, Global Warming, Sea level rise, Toxic
Wastes, Nuclear accidents.
Warfare: Conventional, Chemical, Nuclear.
13. Speed of onset
1 Sudden onset: little or no warning, minimal time to
prepare. For example, an earthquake, tsunami,
cyclone, volcano, etc.
2 Slow onset: adverse event slow to develop; first the
situation develops; the second level is an emergency;
the third level is a disaster.
For example, drought, civil strife, epidemic, etc.
14. MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such
as noise, crowding, heat, air pollution and pressure from work
or surroundings.
Identifying these environmental stresses and learning to avoid
them or deal with them will help lower your stress level.
For example noise more than 90dB ,unpredictable noise
exposure elevates our blood pressure and increases heart rate
and skin conductance so that the stress level is increased.
Crowding is a physical measure of the number of persons per
unit of space.
Crowding is a psychological state that occurs when needs for
space exceeds the available supply.
This also create a bad stress on human being.
15. Definitions
Emergency: Emergency is a state in which normal procedures are
suspended and extra-ordinary measures are taken in order to avert a
disaster.
An emergency can be defined in the context of the social, political and
epidemiological circumstances in which it occurs.
Mitigation: is permanent reduction of the risk of a disaster.
Primary mitigation refers to reducing the resistance of the hazard and
reducing vulnerability.
Secondary mitigation refers to reducing the effects of the hazard
(preparedness).
Mitigation includes recognizing that disasters will occur; attempts are made
to reduce the harmful effects of a disaster, and to limit their impact on
human suffering and economic assets.
16. Preparedness: Preparedness are the measures that ensure the
organized mobilization of personnel, funds, equipments, and
supplies within a safe environment for effective relief.
Disaster preparedness is building up of capacities before a
disaster situation prevails inorder to reduce impacts. Its
measures include inter alia, availability of food reserve,
emergency reserve fund, seed reserve, health facilities,
warning systems, logistical infrastructure, relief manual, and
shelves of projects.
Vulnerability: Vulnerability is the degree of loss resulting
from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
It is the susceptibility of a population to specific type of event.
Vulnerability is also associated with the degree of possible or
potential loss from a risk that results from a hazard at a given
intensity.
The factors that influence intensity include demographics, the
age, and resilience of the environment, technology, social
differentiation and diversity as well as regional and global
economics and politics.
17. Risk
Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons
injured, damages to property and disruption of
economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is
the product of hazard and vulnerability. Risk is the
probability that a person will experience an event in a
specified period of time.
Risk as a function of hazard and vulnerability, a
relationship that is frequently illustrated with the
following formula, although the association is not
strictly arthematic:
Risk = hazard x vulnerability.
18. Distinction between Hazard and Disaster
A hazard is a natural event while the disaster is its consequence.
A hazard is a perceived natural event which threatens both life and
property. A disaster is the culmination of such hazard.
A hazard is a potential for a disaster.
A hazard becomes a disaster when it hits an area affecting the normal life
system. If a hazard like a cyclone hits an unpopulated area, say an
unpopulated coast, it need not be considered as a disaster.
However, it will be considered a disaster if life and property are seriously
damaged. A hazard may be regarded as pre-disaster situation, in which
some risk of disaster exists, because the human population has placed itself
in a situation of risk.
Disasters are extreme events which cause great loss of life and/or property
and create severe disruptions to human activities.
They can be created by human actions, e.g., transport accidents and
industrial explosions or natural processes like earthquakes.
A hazard is when extreme events or process occur in an area of human
settlement and could cause loss of life and damage to existing constructed
resources or infrastructure.
19. The occurrence of a natural hazard can debilitate an entire
community for many years following the event, and some
communities never recover fully from a particularly severe
disaster. The formula for a natural disaster is
Natural hazard + Human environment = Disaster
In other words, it is only when people are injured and property
is damaged by a hazard that we experience a disaster.
For example, a hurricane is a natural hazard, but if it happens
far out to sea, it cannot harm anyone.
In the middle of the ocean there are no buildings to be
damaged and no people to be injured or killed.
Even when a hurricane reaches land, if it makes landfall in an
unpopulated area, then no disaster occurs.
20. Earthquake
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard.
They may occur at any time of the year, day or night, with
sudden impact and little warning.
They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds,
killing or injuring the inhabitants.
Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may de-
stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the
country.
But what is an earthquake?
An earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on earth surface
with the sudden release of tremendous energy stored in rocks
under the earth’s crust.
It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust.
The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any
warning, making it impossible to predict.
27. Cause of Earthquake
In general, we can say that the reasons for earth
quake is as follows::
1. Disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust
2. Underground nuclear testing
3. Decrease of underground water level
28. Adverse effects or consequences of
earthquake
Damage the settlements and transport systems
Collapses houses and their structures
Deformation of ground surface
Tsunami.
29. Earthquake Hazard Mitigation
(i) Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for
regular monitoring and fast dissemination of information among the people
in the vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can
be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates.
(ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of
vulnerability risk information among the people and educating them about
the ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of disasters.
(iii) Modifying the house types and building- designs in the vulnerable areas
and discouraging construction of high-rise buildings, large industrial
establishments and big urban centres in such areas.
(iv) Finally, making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use
light materials in major construction activities in the vulnerable areas.
30. Tsunami
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu
meaning 'harbor' and nami meaning 'waves'.
Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they actually
have nothing to do with the tides.
A Tsunami is a large wave that is generated in a water body
when the seafloor is deformed by seismic activity.
This activity displaces the overlying water in the ocean.
These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by
rapid displacement of water from the lake or the sea either by
seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large
meteoroid impacts.
What ever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a
violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land
with great destructive power.
31. The causes of Tsunami
Seismic activities like earthquakes, landslides,
volcanic eruptions, explosions, can generate
tsunami.
Deformation of the sea floor due to the
movement of plates.
32. Adverse effects of Tsunami
Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing
devastating property, damage and loss of life.
Tsunami can kill lot of human beings,
livestock’s.
Tsunami may also spread lot of water borne
diseases.
33. Ordinary wave and Tsunami
Wind wave
Wave length 100Km.
Duration 5 to 20 Seconds
Heights 0.5 Meters
Tsunami
Wave length 500Km.
Duration 10 Min to 2 hours
Heights 30 to 80 Meters
39. Cyclone
It is a meteorological process, intense depressions forming
over the open oceans and moving towards the land...
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded
by high atmospheric pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric
disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in
anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in the
clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world.
Cyclones are called by various names in different parts of the
world .Cyclone is measured by Saffir-Simpson scale
40. Adverse effect of cyclone
i)Physical damage – structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind
force, flooding and storm surge.
ii) Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements,
contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and
malaria.
iii)Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by
flood waters.
iv)Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and
food stock lying in low lying areas. Plantation type crops such as banana
and coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea water may get
deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The loss of the
crop may lead to acute food shortage.
v)Communication – severe disruption in the communication links
41. Flood
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that
leads to inundation of land, which is not usually submerged.
Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen
suddenly without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over,
heavy rains etc.
There are different types of floods namely: flash flood, riverine flood,
urban flood, etc.
Flash floods can be defined as floods which occur within six hours of the
beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with cloud bursts,
storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized warnings and immediate
response to reduce damage.
Wireless network and telephone connections are used to monitor flood
conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings for timely evacuation may not
always be possible.
42. Causes of flood
Heavy rainfall
Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water
carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
Construction of dams and reservoirs
In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied
by heavy down pour along with storm surge leads to
flooding.
43. Adverse Effects of flood
The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property.
Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing
water, landslides triggered on account of water getting saturated, boats and
fishing nets get damaged. T
here is huge loss to life and livestock caused by drowning. Lack of proper
drinking water facilities, contamination of water (well, ground water, piped
water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection,
malaria and many other infectious diseases.
Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as
a result there is a huge crop loss.
This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder.
Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The land may be rendered
infertile due to erosion of top layer or may turn saline if sea water floods
the area.
44. Drought
It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to demarcate the time
of its onset and the end.
Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful
water.
Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is
expected to show some aberrations and drought is just a part of
it.
Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and
space, and not just by its amount.
Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water
use (through evaporation, transpiration by plants, domestic and
industrial uses etc) in a geographical region.
The effects of drought accumulate slowly over a considerable
period of time.
45. Causes of Drought
Though drought is basically caused by deficit rainfall, which is
a meteorological phenomenon, it manifests into different
spheres because of various vulnerability factors associated
with them .
Some of these factors are human induced.
Though drought is a natural disaster, its effects are made worst
in developing countries by over population, over grazing,
deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground and surface
water for growing crops, loss of biodiversity.
As discussed the draught may be due to the lack of rainfall. or
it could be a lack of snowfall from mountains far away (not in
India but in colder regions of the world); or It could be caused
when water suppleis are not sufficient to meet every body's
needs.
46. Can you believe it !
Cherapunji in Meghalaya, which was said to
receive highest rainfall in the world, is now
reeling under acute drinking water problem.
This is because of water runoff, denudation
and no storage facilities.
47. Adverse effects of drought
Economic
Loss of national economic growth, slowing down of economic development
Damage to crop quality, less food production
Increase in food prices
Increased importation of food (higher costs)
Insect infestation
Plant disease
Loss from dairy and livestock production
Unavailability of water and feed for livestock which leads to high livestock mortality
rates
Disruption of reproduction cycles (breeding delays or unfilled pregnancies)
Increased predation
Range fires and Wildland fires
Damage to fish habitat, loss from fishery production
Income loss for farmers and others affected
Unemployment from production declines
Loss to recreational and tourism industry
Loss of hydroelectric power
Loss of navigability of rivers and canals.
48. Environmental
Increased desertification - Damage to animal species
Reduction and degradation of fish and wildlife habitat
Lack of feed and drinking water
Disease
Increased predation.
loss of wildlife in some areas and too many in others
Increased stress to endangered species
Damage to plant species
Increased number and severity of fires
Wind and water erosion of soils
49. Social
Food shortages
Loss of human life from food shortages, heat, suicides, violence
Mental and physical stress
Water user conflicts
Political conflicts
Social unrest
Public dissatisfaction with government regarding drought
response
Inequity in the distribution of drought relief
Loss of cultural sites
Reduced quality of life which leads to changes in lifestyle
increased poverty
Population migrations
50. landslide
The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements
of hill slopes and can be defined as the downward and outward
movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks,
soils, artificial fills or combination of all these materials along
surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either
slowly or quickly from one place to another.
Although the landslides are primarily associated with
mountainous terrains, these can also occur in areas where an
activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings
and open pit mines takes place. They often take place in
conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes.
At times, prolonged rainfall causing landslide may block the
flow of river for quite some time.
51. Types of landslides in Kerala
Debris flow (Urul pottal)
Slump (Malayidichil)
Rock fall (Sila pathanam)
56. Causes of Landslide
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of
rock or soil may also cause landslides.
2.Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction
of roads might increase the vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as
several hours or have a more moderate intensity lasting several days have
triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting of snow in the hilly terrains
also results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in
reservoir, mining, deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage
from services.
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic
and geologic settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep
slopes involving relatively thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or
both have been the most abundant types of landslides triggered by
historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly
is followed by accelerated erosion and frequent mud or debris flows
triggered by intense rainfall.
57. Adverse effects of land slides
The most common elements at risk are the
settlements built on the steep slopes, built at
the toe and those built at the mouth of the
streams emerging from the mountain valley.
All those buildings constructed without
appropriate foundation for a given soil and in
sloppy areas are also at risk.
Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.
58. Volcanic Eruption
A volcano is actually an opening or a fissure,
in the earth' crust , through which lava or
molten rocks, ash and toxic gases present
below the surface of earth, are discharged by a
sudden, violent eruption. Sometimes, it can be
a mountain like structure with a bowl shaped
depression at the top, through which these
substances are expelled.
The term volcano, is derived from the name of
the Roman God of fire, Vulcan.
59. Effects of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are notorious for their devastating
effects, not only on human life but also on the
global environment.
Lava, emission of toxic gases, ash fall, lahars
and landslides are some of the most dangerous
hazards of volcanic eruptions.
60. lightning
A lightning strike is essentially a high amplitude
direct-current pulse with a well-defined waveform.
While there are several types of lightning, the type
that concerns us is cloud to ground lightning.
Most lightning that reaches the ground (75% to 90%)
is negatively charged.
It begins to intercept the ground by lowering a
stepped leader - a precursor to the actual lightning
discharge.
61. Damaging effects of Lightning
(i) Direct strike :- A direct lightning attachment to an unprotected structure
usually causes fire and electrical damage.
Occasionally, explosive damage will occur if lightning attaches to a
chimney or other porous structural component.
Typically, an attachment will be to a roof or protrusion, and arcing within
the structure will cause ignition of structural materials.
Since lightning prefers the path of least impedance once it attaches to a
structure, it will often flow to the electrical system and thence to earth,
causing severe damage to the wiring.
(ii) Indirect Electrical Effects:- Several damaging effects can occur from
lightning other than the effects from the direct strike.
Flashover occurs when lightning attaches to something that has a relatively
high impedance path to ground.
A good example of such an event is lightning striking a tree.
62. Lightning: Social and Economic Impact
Costs and losses to agricultural and livestock producers
Loss of livestock.
Damage to houses, barns, and other farm buildings.
Damage to farm machinery.
Damage to fences.
Loss of timber production
Loss of trees due to lightning strikes.
Forest fires ignited by lightning strikes.
Urban, residential, and commercial impacts
Damage to and destruction of buildings by lightning strikes and fires.
Electrical appliances damaged or destroyed by power surges.
Loss of trees and landscaping.
Disruption of services
Power
Communications
Health
Injuries
Fatalities
Mental and physical stress associated with loss of family, friends, and property.
General economic effects
Revenue loss from lost production in business and industry.
Negative impact of economic multipliers.
Costs to repair damaged infrastructure.
63. Chemical hazards/disasters
You may remember that Bhopal Chemical Gas leak
Disaster (2-3 December 1984) one of the worst
industrial disasters of all time occurred in Bhopal.
The tragedy was a technological accident in which
45Tonnes of highly poisonous methyl isocyanate
(MIC) gas along with Hydrogen Cyanide and other
reaction products leaked out of the pesticide factory
of Union Carbide into the night air of Bhopal at
around 12.30 a.m.
The official death toll reached 3,598 in 1989.
Thousands, who survived, however, face a fate
worse than death.
64. Consequences of release of toxic chemicals
The effects of toxic chemicals on a person may be severe, such as serious birth defects or cancer.
Other effects may be harder to see, such as difficulty learning, slow growth, allergies, difficulty
having children, and more frequent illness .
It is often difficult to know whether a certain health problem was caused or was made worse by
toxic chemicals .
Although toxic chemicals have been proven to cause many different illnesses, because we are
exposed to so many chemicals at so many different times, proving that one particular
exposure was responsible for an illness is difficult .
But many illnesses are more common in places where people are regularly exposed to toxic
chemicals.
When the body is growing and changing quickly — during infancy, childhood, and adolescence
— even very small amounts of chemicals can cause long-lasting and harmful changes in
children’s bodies.
If the reproductive systems or genes of the mother or father are harmed by chemicals, babies can
be affected even if the exposure happened before the baby was conceived.
Chemicals already in the mother’s body can be passed to a developing baby during pregnancy .
Cancer, Chronic bronchitis, Asthma and nerves disorder are some of the harmful effects.
65. Causes of nuclear explosion
i) An accident taking place in any nuclear facility of the
nuclear fuel cycle including the nuclear reactor, or in a
facility using radioactive sources, leading to a large scale
release of radioactivity in the environment.
ii) A ‘criticality’ accident in a nuclear fuel cycle facility where
an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction takes place
advertently, leading to bursts of neutrons and gamma
radiations.
iii) An accident during the transportation of radioactive material.
iv)The use of radioactive material as a Radiological Dispersal
Device by terrorists for dispersing radioactive material in the
environment.
v) A large-scale nuclear disaster, resulting from a nuclear weapon
attack (as had happened at Hiroshima and Nagasaki) which
would lead to mass casualties and destruction of large areas
and property
66. Effects of nuclear explosion
Nuclear explosions produce both immediate and
delayed destructive effects.
Immediate effects (blast, thermal radiation, prompt
ionizing radiation) are produced and cause significant
destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear
detonation.
The delayed effects (radioactive fallout and other
possible environmental effects) inflict damage over
an extended period ranging from hours to centuries,
and can cause adverse effects in locations very distant
from the site of the detonation.
67. CASE STUDIES
1 Minamata tragedy :-In 1900, Minamata Bay was a sleepy fishing village, located on the west
coast of the Japanese island of Kyushu about 560 miles southwest of Tokyo.
The bay was nature’s bounty.
The ocean served up a rich variety of seafood, and its tidal shallows were a veritable sea garden
filled with clams, oysters, and sea cucumbers.
The rituals and rhythms of fishing—the building of small boats and weaving of nets,—created a
community based on an intensely intimate relationship with the natural world.
It was a low-tech venture: mostly wood and thread spun, shaped, and hewed into various fishing
implements.
Identity in the fishing community of Minamata emerged from labor in the natural world and from
working with natural materials to harvest the waters. Life was hard and poverty endemic, to
be sure, but the waters, at least, provided a livelihood and a way of life.
However, a newer community soon came to Minamata, an industrial community funded and
employed by the Chisso Corporation.
From 1932 to 1968, Chisso Corporation, dumped an estimated 27 tons of mercury compounds into
Minamata Bay.
When Chisso Corporation dumped this massive amount of mercury into the bay, thousands of
people whose normal diet included fish from the bay, unexpectedly developed symptoms of
methyl mercury poisoning.
The illness became known as the "Minamata Disease".
The mercury poisoning resulted from years of environmental destruction and neglect from Chisso
Corporation.
68. Not until the mid-1950's did people begin to notice a "strange
disease".
Victims were diagnosed as having a degeneration of their
nervous systems.
Numbness occurred in their limbs and lips.
Their speech became slurred, and their vision constricted.
Some people had serious brain damage, while others lapsed
into unconsciousness or suffered from involuntary movements.
Furthermore, some victims were thought to be crazy when
they began to uncontrollably shout.
People thought the cats were going insane when they
witnessed "suicides" by the cats.
Finally, birds were strangely dropping from the sky.
Series of these unexplainable occurrences were bringing panic
to Minamata.
69. In short, over 3,000 victims have been recognized as having
"Minamata Disease".
It has taken some of these people over thirty years to receive
compensation for this inconceivable event.
In 1993, nearly forty years later, the Japanese courts were still
resolving suitable compensation for the victims.
Many people have lost their lives, suffered from physical
deformities, or have had to live with the physical and
emotional pain of "Minamata Disease".
This suffering is all a result of the very wrongful and negligent
acts of the Chisso Corporation who dumped mercury into the
sea water and poisoned the people of Japan.
70. Bhopal disaster
The Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was
one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes.
It occurred on the night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union
Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
A leak of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals from the
plant resulted in the exposure of hundreds of thousands of
people. Estimates vary on the death toll.
The official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the
government of Madhya Pradesh has confirmed a total of 3,787
deaths related to the gas release.
Others estimate 3,000 died within weeks and another 8,000
have since died from gas-related diseases.
A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused
558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial and
approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling
injuries.
71. Chernobyl disaster
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred
on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in
Ukraine, which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central
Moscow's authorities.
An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive
contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of
Western USSR and Europe.
It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in
history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on
the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster).
The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater
involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18
billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy.
72. The disaster began during a systems test on Saturday, 26 April 1986 at
reactor number four of the Chernobyl plant, which is near the city of
Prypiat and within a close proximity to the inistrative border with Belarus
and Dnieper river.
There was a sudden power output surge, and when an emergency
shutdown was attempted, a more extreme spike in power output occurred,
which led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of explosions.
These events exposed the graphite moderator of the reactor to air, causing it
to ignite.
The resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive smoke fallout into the
atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area, including Pripyat.
The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe.
From 1986 to 2000, 350,400 people were evacuated and resettled from the
most severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine.
73. Emerging approaches to disaster
management
Disaster management in a region basically
comprises of three stages i.e.,
1.Pre-disaster stage
2. Emergency stage and
3. Post-disaster stage.
74. Pre-disaster stage
This stage includes preparedness and mitigation
for the disaster. The preparedness for disaster
in general consists of :
Preparing hazard zonation maps,
predictability/forecasting and warning.
Preparing disaster preparedness plan
Land use zoning.
Preparedness through IEC
75. Hazard Zonation maps
Disaster mapping is a tool for. assessing, storing and conveying
information on the geographical location of a disaster occurrence and
spread of the effects or probable effects of disasters..
Every year in a country like India, natural disasters like floods and cyclones
are fairly frequent.
Earthquake also occur time and again.
The occurrence of such disasters, their intensity, the area /region of their
occurrences and their impacts has to be assessed, so as to have information
/data about the damages caused by them to the area /population specific or
probable damages or impact likely to be caused.
Proper mapping will be helpful not only for pre-disaster preparedness but
also in rescue and relief operations with greater accuracy and speed.
With the data / information collection, storage, retrieval becoming highly
technological and scientific, new specialized techniques like Geographical
Information System (GIS) are increasingly used for disaster mapping and
these are proving to be very useful.
76. Predictability, forecasting and warning
For natural disasters that have a fair amount of inherent
predictability, forecasting is the next step in disaster management.
Forecasting has to be based on sound scientific principles and
operationally proven techniques.
It has to be done by authorized agency or individual who, besides
being competent, responsible and accountable, is conscious of the end-
use of the forecast and the dependence of the success of disaster
management on the forecast.
In order to be effective, the forecast has to be clearly worded and it
should be transmitted quickly to the user.
Once a forecast is available regarding an anticipated disaster event it
has to be converted quickly into an area-specific and time-specific
warning,
Furthermore, the warnings also need to be user-specific because the
capacity of different users to withstand the impacts of a disaster are
different.
77. Disaster preparedness plan
A disaster preparedness plan essentially contains measures to be taken
before, during and after disaster strikes.
It contains an inventory of what materials are available where and with
whom, and the delegation of responsibilities and coordination mechanisms
among various government officials and departments,
It gives location of temporary shelters and guidelines about partnerships
with other bodies like NGOs, social workers and international agencies.
Thus in an emergency situation, authorities have a ready guide at hand and
are fully aware of the steps to be taken.
Creating awareness among the people and preparing the communities to
deal with anticipated situations are the most important objective of a
disaster preparedness plan.
Disaster Preparedness Plans also contain certain long term wide ranging
measures to be carried out.
It includes measures like construction of embankments along rivers,
retrofitting of houses, periodic inspection of critical river stretches,
establishing a system of communication, construction of relief centers, and
land use measures.
78. Land use zoning
The rapid growth and spread of population in harardous areas is a matter of
increasing concern because it leads to mounting costs of disasters in terms
of lives lost and damage to property and investments.
Besides, the high residential densities add to the problems in hazardous areas.
The risk is further increased by the dramatic increase in infrastructural
investments and development assets that get destroyed by disasters.
There land-use has to be decided keeping in view the vulnerability to disasters.
In other words, land-use zoning has to be done so that different land zones can
be earmarked for major activities in accordance with the risks that they are
likely to withstand
79. The major elements of land-use planning may be
summarized as follows::
i) Land-use policies and plans setting out the social,
economic and environmental goals of comprehensive
land development and their stages of development;
ii)Land ownership and land tenure patterns identifying
the legal, social and economic basis of ownership and
tenure;
iii)Land values and prices, reflecting the forces of
supply and demand for land; and
iv) Land-use controls which may be subdivided into
three broad categories, i.e., legal, fiscal and directive.
80. Preparedness through IEC
Each of the three components of IEC, i.e.
information, education and communication,
has its own distinct significance, origin,
perspective and focus area.
These aspects are discussed below:
81. Information
Preparing the community for disaster management through
information means the transfer of basic knowledge by means
of facts, figures and processes to the community so as to
increase their awareness.
The key issue here is the availability of data to the people,
based on which they may form more realistic perspectives, and
be better prepared to anticipate and face the disaster.
It is useful for the administration and other agencies for
planning purposes, and useful to the community for
development of internal coping mechanisms.
Adequate information provides correct answers to the
questions of What ?, When?, Where ?, How ? and How Much?
with respect to the expected disaster.
It also addresses the issue of probability of the occurrence of
the disaster, more easily understandable in terms of extent of
risk; risk being the cumulative effect of hazards and
vulnerabilities.
82. Education
Education goes a step beyond information and aims at an awakening of the
people rather than just awareness.
It sensitizes the people in the community and besides making them aware
of the risks, it enlightens them about their individual and collective stake,
the actions needed to be taken and their roles, and it also motivates them to
act.
Education conveys to the people an idea of the mechanism of the
occurrence of disasters.
It tells them what to do and what not to do for preventing or mitigating
disasters.
It tells them how to manage situations, and provides them with the
possibility of alternatives.
Many a times people are seen to be having a fatalistic attitude towards
disasters.
They treat disasters as unavoidable acts of nature and express total
helplessness to do anything against them, thereby surrendering to them.
Education eradicates this kind of attitude by informing communities of best
available alternatives and means of achieving them, makes them more
motivated to take counter-disaster measures.
83. Communication
Communication is the process of information exchange between two or
more groups/individuals.
It could be applied to both, education as well as emergency management.
In terms or education and preparedness, communication is a process of
knowledge transfer to the community regarding disaster risks and
mitigation measures to be taken.
In this process, the system is of flow of information from a knowledgeable
source to the mass group, i.e. the community.
Another manifestation of the same process is in times of anticipated
disasters when the communication relates to hazard forecasts.
At such times warnings has to be issued to the community regarding the
impending disaster in a clear understandable mariner.
This is a very critical and final stage of pre-disaster communication that
gives the community a chance to take evasive action, or move away from
the scene to a safer place in order to avoid or lessen the disaster impact.
84. Disaster mitigation
Disaster mitigation embraces actions taken in advance of a
disaster to reduce its effects on a community.
When used in this sense, mitigation includes those actions,
which are often categorized as being preparedness measures,
which means, preparedness is a part of mitigation.
However, a distinction is often made between mitigation and
preparedness whereby:
Mitigation refers to long-term risk reduction measures, which
are intended to minimize the effects of a hazard; for example,
dam construction is considered an activity that mitigates the
effects of droughts.
Hence, “Mitigation involves not only saving lives and injury
and reducing property losses, but also reducing the adverse
consequences of natural hazards to economic activities and
social institutions.”
85. Non-Structural Mitigation
Non-structural mitigation measures relate to those
activities and decision-making systems, which
provide the context within which disaster
management and planning operates and is organized.
They include measures such as:
Training and education
Public education
Evacuation planning
Institution building
Warning systems
86. Structural Mitigation
However, efficient non-structural mitigation measures may be,
they need to be complemented by structural measures for risk
reduction to both engineered and non-engineered structures.
These include, constructing or retrofitting buildings and
infrastructure to suitable safety levels, using suitable materials
and the incorporation of proper workmanship under correct
supervision.
Non-engineered structures are those built by their owners or
by builders lacking formal training.
A typical structural measure is an earthquake resistant building
whilst a typical nonstructural element is a seismic building
code, training and education, building safety codes, physical
measures, land use planning, public awareness programs, etc.
87. Examples of Mitigation Measures
Strengthening buildings to render them more resistant
against cyclones, floods or earthquakes.
The incorporation of hazard resistance in structures or
procedures to be followed in new development projects.
Planning certain kinds or varieties of crops that are less
affected by specific kinds of disasters.
Changing crop cycles so that crops mature and are harvested
before the onset of the flood or cyclone season.
The adoption of land-use planning and controls to restrict
activities in high-risk areas.
Economic diversification to allow losses in one sector to be
offset by increased output in other sectors.
88. Disaster resistant house construction
1. Be sure that proper structural design and
engineering practices are followed while
constructing a house/ building.
2.Frequently evaluate the structural soundness of
the buildings; strengthen / retrofit if necessary.
The mitigation strategy for disaster resistant
house/ building construction can be listed as
follws:
89. Mitigation strategy for Earthquake disaster
Building configuration
The building should have a simple rectangular plan.
Long walls should be supported by Reinforced Concrete
columns.
Large buildings having plans with shapes like T, L, U and X
should preferably be separated into rectangular blocks by
providing gaps in between.
Foundation
Buildings which are structurally strong to withstand
earthquakes sometimes fail due to inadequate foundation
design.
Control on openings in walls
Door and window openings in walls should preferably be
small and more centrally located. Too many or large openings
will make the wall vulnerable to collapse during earthquakes
90. Mitigation strategy for cyclonic disaster
Engineering structures to withstand cyclonic wind forces.
Suitable building codes for the area having wind load
requirement,
Better architectural design of buildings, taking winds speed
and wind direction into account,
Planting wind breaker trees in upwind of towns and on coasts,
Community participation in construction of wind-resistant or
easily rebuilt houses. Proper fixing of elements (like metal
sheets, rods, angle iron, etc.) that could blow away and cause
damage elsewhere.
Construction of strong wind resistant shelters for the
community
91. Mitigation strategy for flood disaster
1. Avoid residing on river banks and slopes on river sides and the
sides of gorges.
2. Build at least 250 meters away from the sea coast/river banks
3 Build proper drainage system in all flood prone areas, so that
the water can be drained off quickly to prevent accumulation.
4. Construct the building with a plinth level higher than the
known high flood level.
5. Construct the whole village or settlement on a raised platform
higher than the high flood level.
6. Construct buildings on stilts or columns with wall-free space at
ground level permitting free flow of water (inundation or
flowing), provided that columns are circular and strong. In dry
weather condition the ground area could be fenced and used
for cattle, sheep poultry farming, or storage etc.
92. Population reduction in vulnerable
areas
In order to have an effective mitigation
strategy, we have to identify the vulnerable
areas as discussed earlier.
Then try to reduce urban densities in high
seismic zones, coastal areas, volcanic eruption
zones, flood areas by giving other residential
plots to the community living there.
93. Awareness
We know that the specific aims of disaster mitigation are to
creating awareness of risk at community level, and to promote
local actions through community participation to reduce such
risks.
Training of the public officials at different levels in an
essential part of disaster management.
Separate training for technical people, and NGOs is also
required for specific disaster mitigation.
The general public should be made aware and kept informed
about the nature of hazards to which they are exposed, their
vulnerability and protection measures available.
Awareness campaigns should be mounted in the vulnerable
communities and schools and colleges.
For such campaigns in rural areas, assistance of NGOs and
local Panchayaths will be very useful..
94. Emergency stage
This stage of disaster management comprises of rescue and evacuations,
shelter for victims, relief for livestock, disposal of dead and finally damage
assessment survey.
The stage requires a "Rapid Action Task Force", that is aware of the
contextual social norms and conditions and is psychologically attuned to
face the abnormal human conditions.
The team should have the concern and technical knowledge and skills to
conduct such operations.
The contextual findings of the region of disaster reveal that during
emergency stage the major role is played by administration alone.
With the limited resources, the administration can hardly perform these
operations effectively.
To deal with this, it is required that local people are trained to handle the
emergency situation.
The formulation of disaster management committees at local level may be
another alternative. If various NGOs, local bodies (Panchayaths),
National Social Service Core, and other voluntary organizations are given
adequate responsibility and resources to tackle emergency situation, the
result will be better and satisfactory.
For assessment of damages, there is no scientific method used for this
process.
95. Training for search and rescue operation
It is strongly felt that during rescue and relief at the
time of disaster, there is an urgent need for a
specialized national facility to provide professional
training in Search and Rescue.
It is proposed that a centre for training in search and
rescue operation be immediately created
.Organization like Army, Para Military Forces, BSF,
CISF, Scouts, NCC cadets, Teachers ,Postmen,
Village, panchayath, NGOs, Community leaders need
to be trained for this purpose.
The centre may be developed at centrally located
areas so that trained people can move quickly to the
affected areas.
96. Immediate relief operations to be carried out
Emergency relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid
and emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve human lives.
It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and health
care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare
food).
Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the
days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster.
Emergency relief may need to be provided for extended periods in the case
of neglected or deteriorated slow-onset emergency situations and
population displacements (refugees, internally and externally displaced
people).
The impact of the disaster may be mitigated for these populations through
additional assistance to the host community as well.
97. Search and Rescue
Search, rescue and evacuation processes need to be carried out
immediately after a disaster strikes a certain area or building.
These are the most immediate critical operations that are
usually performed by the local volunteers, voluntary
organisations and the emergency agencies.
Light Search and Rescue is a procedure carried out at primary
stages, initially to find out persons with injuries in lightly
damaged buildings, or even without any injuries and needing
assistance, and to help them exit.
If the condition worsens and the local groups are not able to
control the situation, then the specialist groups within
emergency agencies have to be called in for professional help,
and at times even the Defence Forces including the Army, the
Navy, the Air Force and the Coast Guard are called on for
help.
98. Primarily, Search and Rescue Operations are
undertaken to save the maximum possible number of
victims who are trapped in an area affected by a
disaster.
The basic aim of all such operations is to ensure the
survival of the maximum possible number of affected
people.
A plan is worked out with the help of local people
through surveys and then appropriate steps are taken
by the various teams involved to carry out the
operations.
Besides physical rescue, the aim is also a systematic
and organized approach in a post -disaster situation
riddled with chaos and confusion.
99. Assessment surveys.
Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a
disaster on a society.
The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate
emergency measures to save and sustain the lives of survivors.
The second priority is to identify the possibilities for
facilitating and expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in
phases and involving on-the-spot surveys and the collation,
evaluation and interpretation of information from various
sources.
These surveys concern both direct and indirect losses as well
as the short- and long-term effects.
Assessment involves determining not only what has happened
and what assistance might be needed, but also defines
objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be
provided to the victims.
100. Post Disaster stage
1. Rehabilitation and reconstruction
Specifically, rehabilitation is the actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster
to enable basic services to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help
efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and facilitate the
revival of economic activities (including agriculture).
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and
local communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of
life.
It may be considered as a transitional phase between
(i) immediate relief and
(ii) more major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing
development.
Reconstruction refers to the full restoration of all services, and local
infrastructure, replacement of damaged physical structures, the
revitalization of economy and the restoration of social and cultural life.
101. 2. Political administrative Aspect
Recovery from major disaster events necessitate large quantities
of material and human resources and good
organizational/institutional capacity.
Although there may be various national and international
organizations to support the local population in recovering
from the impact of the event much of the responsibility for
rehabilitation and reconstruction will fall on the government of
the country concerned.
Besides, effective recovery response very much depends on the
authorities capacity to plan and coordinate the efforts of the
various groups involved in this process.
Facilitating all these actions requires political commitment of the
government for the benefit of the disaster stricken areas.
102. 3. Economic Aspect
Governments face a dilemma following any disaster
that causes extensive damage to both the local
economy and to the physical environment.
Both demands require immediate attention and the
deployment of extensive resources.
In a rich country the two sectors are likely to be fully
addressed in parallel, but in a poor country the
overwhelming financial and administrative burden
may be such that choices have to be made about
which should have priority attention and at what stage
in the reconstruction process.
103. 4. Environmental impacts
Disasters almost always have negative environmental impacts, ranging from
damage to ecosystems to the production of vast quantities of waste.
Some environmental impact due to disaster are loss of vegetation cover and
wildlife habitat,
Saltwater intrusion to underground freshwater reservoirs, Groundwater
pollution through sewage overflow, Soil contamination, Waste
accumulation—additional waste disposal sites required, Loss of productive
systems (e.g., agriculture), etc.,
Post-disaster reconstruction can either be an opportunity to address these
impacts and long-standing environmental problems in the disaster location
or it can cause a second wave of damage.
The choice is up to decision makers responsible for assessment, planning, and
implementation of reconstruction programs.
Assessment allows the disaster’s environmental impacts to be identified and
priority areas for corrective action to be determined.
Physical and environmental planning present opportunities to analyze and
rebalance the relationship between the built environment and the natural
environment.
And in implementation, actions can be taken that aid environmental recovery,
mitigate the impacts of the reconstruction itself, and promote long-term
sustainable development goals.
