Fibres

1. TEXTILES FIBRES YARNS FABRICS PROCESSING MANUFACTURE APPLICATION PROPERTIES DESIGN VALUE ADDITION MARKET

2. TEXTILES • A Textile is a flexible material comprised of a network (interlacement / Interlooping / Bonded) of natural or artificial FIBERS • The term ‘Textile' is a Latin word taken from the word ‘TEXERE' which means ‘to weave'. • The term Textiles covers Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics.

3. Organizational Structure of Textile Industry Vertical Horizontal This does not refer to the shape of the factory but to the ways in which, the various parts of the structure relate to each other..

4. Vertical Organization A company which is structured in such a way that it takes in a basic raw material and performs all of the necessary processing functions to convert it into the finished product is said to be vertical or vertically organized..

5. Vertical Structure MacMillan Textiles Ltd. Spin Yarn Weave/Knit fabric Wet processing Making-up End-product Fibre Wholesale/retail

6. Horizontal Organization A company that only performs part of the overall manufacturing process, the products of which become raw materials for the next company in the processing sequence..

7. Horizontal Structure SpinnersFibre Yarn Weavers Knitters Fabric Fabric Wet Processors Making-up End-Product Wholesaler/Retailer Converters

8. Structure with both Vertical & Horizontal elements Weavers Yarn Spin Yarn Weave Wet processing Making-up End-products Wholesale/retail Fibre Knitters Wet processing Converters Making-up End-products Wholesale/retail

9. Manufacturing Sequence.. The wet processor could have all the above stages as raw material : Raw Fibre Yarn Fabric Spin Weaving or Knitting Cut & Sew Garment Knit

10. PRODUCTION METHODS DRY PROCESSING • Fiber Processing • Dry Spinning • Weaving • Knitting • Crocheting • Felting • Braiding • Knotting • Netting WET PROCESSING • Wet Spinning • Preparation Process • Coloration Process • Finishing Process

11. Fibers

12. How a Linear Structure Is Formed ? Fiber is a linear structure

13. Polymerization • A long continuous chain formed by one chemical or by the reaction of more chemicals that produces a repetitive chain. • One unit that repeats in polymer is called a monomer.

14. Polymerization happens: • As a natural process.(natural) • With natural material under controlled conditions.(man made) • With synthetic material /chemicals under controlled conditions.(synthetic)

15. The history of fibres is as old as human civilization. Traces of natural fibres have been located to ancient civilizations all over the globe. For many thousand years, the usage of fiber was limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibres for different applications. Flax is considered to be the oldest and the most used natural fibre since ancient times 15

16. Fiber • A basic and fundamental unit of textiles • A long slender thread like structure of cell • A smallest entity of textiles we wear • A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by interlacing in a variety of methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or webbing, and which is the basic structural element of textile products.

17. • It is a smallest textile component which is microscopic hair like substance that may be man made or natural. • They have length at least hundred times to that of their diameter or width • Fibres used for apparel range in length from about 15mm to 150mm. • Flax ranges up to 500mm and more • Thickness of these fibres tend to range from about 10µm to 50µm

18. Staple Fiber • A basic standard length of fiber is called staple length • The fibre can be a short staple or a long staple. • It may be natural or continuous fibers may be cut to a staple length

19. Filament • A long continuous fibrous structure ranging in length from a few hundred meters (silk) to several kilometers (man made fibres) Thickness of filaments is silmilar to that of fibres • Mono filament – A strand containing a long continuous filament • Multi filament – A strand containing 2 or more filaments

20. Properties of Textile Fiber FIBRE MORPHOLOGY: Macro structure of Micro structure of fibre and filament fibre and filament Fibre length Microscopic - Fibre thickness Appearance Length to breadth ratio Microscopic- Colour longitudinal struc. Translucency Microscopic- Lustre cross sectional struc. Sub Microscopic struc.

21. Properties of Textile Fiber Primary • Fiber length • Tenacity • Cohesiveness • Flexibility Secondary • Evenness • Porosity • Resiliency • Lustre • Durability • Shape and appearance

22. PROPERTIES OF FIBRES Properties of fibers can be classified based on various factors like :- – Visual / Physical properties – Microscopic properties – Chemical properties – Mechanical properties – Environmental & Biological properties – Thermal properties – Electrical properties

23. Physical properties of FIBERS Physical properties are those which can be seen in appearance. A) COLOUR B) SHAPE C) COVER D) HAND E) LUSTER F) FIBRE LENGTH

24. Fiber Length • The average length of fiber is termed as fiber length. • The length is to make a long continuous strand with small length staple fibers minimum fiber length is 5mm. • The fiber should have minimum length to width ratio of 1:100.

25. COLOUR • COLOUR:- manufactured fibers are usually white in color where as natural fiber may vary in shades white to brown or tan to black e.g. (color of wool fiber depends on sheep )

26. SHAPE • SHAPE:- shape of a fiber is determined by its cross sections .often it can also be included in microscopic properties of fiber. All fibers have length ,cross section ,surface contour and diameter and also some fibers have crimp. • Length :fibers may be staple or filament • Cross section :it is referred to the appearance of the fiber when viewed across its diameter. • Surface :surface contour is sometimes referred to as longitudinal appearance. • Diameter : it is the width of the cross section. • Crimp : the wave or bump of the fiber.

27. Fiber Fineness • The fiber fineness is the relative measurement of its size, diameter and linear density. • It also suggests the uniformity of the fiber.

28. Uniformity / Evenness • Uniformity in thickness and length of fiber gives more even and fine yarns resulting in fine quality

29. Cohesiveness. • The property of an individual fiber by virtue of which the fibers hold on one another when spun into yarn. • For e.g, cotton’s convolutions,wools scales help them to hold themselves.

30. COVER Cover is the ability to occupy an area it varies from fiber to fiber (e.g. wool, asbestos , flax, hemp etc)

31. HAND • Hand is the way a fiber feels when handled. Fiber shapes vary and includes round, flat and multimodal (e.g. soft, crisp, dry, silky or harsh)

32. LUSTER Luster is the quality of fiber to reflect the light from its surface. • Different fibers have different luster properties. • Silk has high luster in natural fibers. • Most of the man made fibers have high degree of luster. • The luster of fibers can be varied by different processes.

33. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS Chemical properties of fibers can be defined as those properties of fibers which they exhibit when they come in contact with any kind of chemicals. It is very necessary to understand various chemical properties of different fibers because 1. It relates directly to the care required in daily processing like cleaning, washing and ironing . 2. Also because fibers usually come in contact with chemicals during textile processing like dyeing and printing and various other finishes. Generally it can be said that synthetic fibers have less chemical reactivity than natural fibers. But different fibers react differently with various kinds of chemicals………..

34. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS • Chemical properties of different fibers depend on the inbuilt properties of fibers. • Also the effect of a chemical on the fiber will be determined by: • The type of chemical • The strength of chemical and the strength of fiber • Time of exposure of the fiber to the chemical. • Chemical reactivity of different fibers basically includes: • EFFECTS OF ALKALIES • EFFECTS OF ACIDS • EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS • EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS • ABSORBENCY / POROSITY

35. 1. EFFECT OF ACIDS The effect of acids on a fiber is determined by the type and strength of the acid. mineral acids even in dilute concentration will damage natural fibers like cotton. however dilute concentrations of acids will not harm protein fibers like wool (even they are used in wool processing . 2. EFFECT OF ALKALIES Alkalies do not harm natural cellulosic fibers such as cotton which is often treated with NaOH to improve its strength . various soaps and detergents are not recommended for wool as they are alkaline in nature and alkalis are not suitable for protein fibers.

36. 3. EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS Oxidizing agents such as chlorine bleach are used to remove colors or stains in fibers. For example many natural fibers are not white enough to give good dye results, so they are treated with bleaches. However chlorine based bleaches are not suitable for protein fibers whereas it can safely be used on nylon and polyester. Cotton requires controlled bleaching. 4. EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS Chemical solvents are used in dry cleaning. organic solvents are used to remove oily stains and dirt. Acetone is one of the solvents that will damage both acetate and triacetate.

37. Porosity • Porosity is volume of air contained within the volume of the fiber. • This facilitates absorption of moisture, lubricants and dyes. • Natural fibers have higher porosity than synthesized.

38. Mechanical properties of fibers The mechanical properties of fibers are determined in a textile testing laboratory. These procedures make possible accurate evaluation of the quality of textile products. » Abrasion Resistance » Dimensional Stability » Elastic Recovery » Pilling » Flexibility » Resiliency or Wrinkle Recovery » Specific Gravity or Density » Tenacity

39. Abrasion Resistance Abrasion Resistance is the ability of a fiber to withstand the effects of rubbing or friction. It is a significant factor in the durability of a fiber. e.g Nylon is used extensively in action outerwear, such as ski jackets, because it is very strong and resists abrasion. Excellent abrasion resistance -Nylon, Aramid Poor abrasion resistance -Glass, Acetate.

40. Excellent abrasion resistance

41. ABRASION RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT FIBRES EXCELLENT NYLON POLYESTER GOOD COTTON RAYON FAIR WOOL SILK RAYON-VISCOSE POOR GLASS ACETATE TRIACETATE

42. DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:- • It is the ability of a fiber to maintain its original shape, neither shrinking nor stretching. • Some varieties of Rayon and wool shrink progressively. PILLING:- Pilling is the formation of small balls of loose fibres on the surface of a fabric, results from abrasion.The tumbling action of washing and automatic drying may also cause pilling. Excellent against pilling- Rayon Cotton Flax Glass Poor against pilling - Nylon Polyester

43. Excellent against pilling Poor against pilling nylon polyester

44. ELASTIC RECOVERY:- Ability of a fiber to return to its original length. Elastomeric fibers like spandex can be stretched 100 percent and still return to its original length. Fibres with high Elastic Recovery recovers its creep after being compressed.

45. FLEXIBILITY The ability of fiber to be plied or twisted without any rupture to the fiber. • Fibers that bend or fold easily have good flexibility. • The fiber should be sufficiently pliable so that it can wrap around another fiber when spun. Stiff fibers are hard to spin into yarn and create fabric with limited consumer appeal. • It contributes greatly to the drape of a fiber. • All man made cellulosic fibers have good flexibility.

46. RESILIENCY OR WRINKLE RECOVERY:- It is the ability of a fiber to return to its original shape after being bent or folded. Fibres with good resiliency like polyester are often used in apparel when retention of appearance is important. Compressive resiliency or loft is the ability of a fiber to return to its original thickness after it is crushed. RESILIENCY OF DIFFERENT FIBRES EXCELLENT Glass Nylon Polyester GOOD Wool Triacetate Acrylic FAIR Silk POOR Rayon Cotton Flax Acetate RESILIENCY OF DIFFERENT FIBRES

47. Resiliency • The resistance to compression, flexing or torsion is termed as resiliency. Some fibers have natural tendency to return to their original condition after the applied force is removed. • This is an important factor considered while selecting the fibres for carpet.

48. Tenacity / Fibre Strength • The strength of material, when it is loaded along its load axis is called tensile strength or tenacity of the fiber . • In general, strong fibers last longer and provide more service than do weak fibers. • Tenacity or Fiber strength, is important factor contributing to the wear life of a textile product. • Nylon, Aramid and Glass fibers are noted for their strength. Acetate and Acrylic are relatively weak, in contrast.

49. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MAJOR TEXTILE FIBRES FIBER STRENGTH ABRASION RESISTANCE RESILIENCY PILLNG RESISTANCE SPECIFIC GRAVITYDENIER COTTON GOOD 3.0-5.0 GOOD POOR EXCELLENT 1.54 FLAX EXCELLENT 6.6-8.4 FAIR POOR EXCELLENT 1.52 WOOL POOR 0.8-2.0 FAIR GOOD FAIR 1.32 SILK GOOD 3.9-4.5 FAIR FAIR GOOD 1.30 RAYON-VISCOSE FAIR 0.7-6.0 FAIR POOR GOOD 1.54 ACETATE POOR 0.8-1.5 POOR POOR GOOD 1.32 TRIACETATE POOR POOR GOOD GOOD 1.30 ACRYLIC FAIR 1.8-3.5 POOR GOOD FAIR 1.19 GLASS EXCELLENT 6.0-7.0 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 2.54 NYLON EXCELLENT 2.5-7.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.14 POLYESTER EXCELLENT 2.5-9.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.38 SPANDEX POOR 0.6-0.9 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 1.21

50. ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS Environmental properties or the various biological properties of fibers are important as it will determine the effect of various climatic conditions , micro organism and insects on textile products. Environmental or biological properties of fibers include: 1. SENSITIVITY TO THE CLIMATE 2. SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS 3. SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS

51. SENSITIVITY TO CLIMATE Exposure to sunlight and air pollution will cause some fibers to deteriorate. for example cotton and flax looses its strength after long exposure to sunlight. white wool and silk turns yellow on prolonged exposure to sunlight. SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS Most synthetic fibers remain unaffected by microorganisms but fibers like cotton and regenerated cellulosic get discolored and eventually rots by microorganisms like mold and mildew SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS Insects such as moths, carpet beetles and silverfish can attack fibers. Wool is specially susceptible to attack from moths and carpet beetles. Silverfish will attack cotton and regenerated cellulosic fibres

52. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS Thermal properties of fibers are those properties which are exhibited by a fiber when they are exposed to heat directly or if exposed to similar conditions Thermal properties of fiber include: • EFFECTS OF HEAT • FLAMMABILITY.

53. EFFECTS OF HEAT • The reaction to heat may take the form of melting or shrinking. • Different Fibers react differently to heat. • The heating causes decomposition & weakens the fabric considerably. • Most synthetic fibers are thermoplastic (fibers melt or soften when exposed to heat). • The suitable treatment of fibers can give a fair degree of resistance to fiber.

54. FABRIC COTTON WOOL SILK VISCOSE RAYON NYLON POLYESTER MIN & MAX (TEMP) 1500 C & 2460 C 2260 C & 5720 C 3300 C & 3300 C 3000 C & 4000 C 1500 C & 2150 C 2490 C & 2900 C

55. Heat Setting • Applying heat and pressure in a controlled manner, permanently changes the shape and improves the dimensional stability of thermoplastic fibres. • The fibers, yarns and fabrics are very stable at temperatures lower than those at which they were set.

56. FLAMMABILITY It is the important factor considered for the suitability to end use • Fibers react differently to flames. • Some fibers will ignite, some don't. • Cellulose fibers are most flammable ones. (cotton, flax, viscose) • Acetate and triacetate burn immediately • Nylon, polyester, acrylic, spandex don’t catch fire but melt and form hard beads

57. • Protein based wool & silk are less flammable. They burn slowly. • The Inorganic fibers like asbestos, glass, and metal do not burn.

58. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY • Fibers that do not conduct electrical charges create static electricity. • Hydrophobic fibers tend to have low electrical conductivity because of their low absorbency. • Synthetic fibers are poor conductors of electricity.

59. • Synthetic fiber materials are charged with static electricity so it attracts the dust & dirt particles and it becomes easily soiled • The fabrics like cotton, wool and other fabrics retain moisture, the static leaks away to earth, just as fast as it is formed, via the metal parts of the machinery used & so causes no trouble.

60. CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES

62. NATURAL FIBRE • Any hair like raw material directly obtainable from an animal, vegetable or mineral source that can be convertible after spinning into yarns and then into fabric. • Under them there are various categories: • (1) plant • (2) animal • (3) minerals 62

63. Vegetable fibers they can be further on classified as: (a) fibre occurring on the seed (raw cotton , java cotton) (b) phloem fiber (flax, ramie , hemp, jute) (c) tendon fibre from stem or leaves (manila hemp, sisal hemp etc) (d) fibre occurring around the trunk (hemp palm) (e) fibre of fruit/ nut shells (coconut fibre – Coir) cotton and linen are the most important among them. 63

64. ANIMAL FIBRES 64 • Animal fibers are natural fibers that consist largely of proteins s silk, hair/fur, wool and feathers. • The most commonly used type of animal fibe

65. MINERAL FIBRE 65 • Asbestos is the only natural mineral fibre obtained from varieties of rocks. • properties • It is fibrous form of silicate of magnesium and calcium containing iron and aluminium and other minerals. • It is acid proof, flame proof and rust proof. • Its particles are carcinogenic and hence its use is restricted.

66. MAN MADE FIBRE 66 • Natural man made fibre (A) Cellulosic fibres • Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature. • Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. > Cellulose is an excellent fiber. • Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer glucose. • The three types of regenerated cellulosic fibres are rayon, acetate and triacetate which are derived from the cell walls of short cotton fibres called linters. • Paper for instance is almost pure cellulose

67. SYNTHETIC MAN MADE FIBRE 67 • POLYESTER • Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. • The term "polyester" is most commonly refered as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). • it has a high melting temperature • it can be dyed with only disperse dyes • they are thermoplastic, have good strength and are hydrophobic • the fibre has a rod like shape with a smooth surface. • it is lustrous and its hand is crisp. • it has excellent resiliency and so it the best wash and wear fabric. • there are problems of static and pilling in it

68. NYLON 68 • Nylon is one of the most common polymers used as a fiber. • There are several forms of nylon depending upon chemical synthesis such as nylon 4, 6, 6.6, 6.10, 6.12, 8,10 and 11. • Nylon is found in clothing all the time, but also in other places, in the form of a thermoplastic material.

69. 69 • Nylons are also called polyamides, because of the characteristic amide groups in the backbone chain. • These amide groups are very polar and are linked with each other with hydrogen bonds. • nylon is a regular and symmetrical fibre with crystalline regions and make very str fibers. • the fibre has a smooth rod like shape with a smooth surface

70. RUBBER FIBRE • Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that naturally occurs as a colloidal suspension, or latex, in the sap of some plants. • The manufacturing process consists of extruding the natural rubber latex into a coagulating bath to form filament.the material is cross linked to obtain fibres which exhibit high stretch • It can be synthesized. 70

71. 71 • natural rubber is essentially a polymer of isoprene units, a hydrocarbon diene monomer. • Synthetic rubber can be made as a polymer of • oprene or various other monomers • The material properties of natural rubber make it an elastomer . • Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. • Rubber's stress-strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect, the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic. • Rubber strain crystallizes.

72. GLASS FIBRE • It is also known as Fiberglass that is a material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. .Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing • it has a high degree of viscosity • The basis of textile grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n. • In order to induce crystallization, it must be heated to temperatures above 1200°C for long periods of time. 72

73. 73 • The first type of glass used for fiber was soda-lime glass or A glass which was not very resistant to alkali. A new type, E- glass was Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. • By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products. • it has a good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity of 0.05 W/m-K.

74. 74 • Because glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. • Humidity is an important factor in the tensile strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen tenacity. • it has no effect on exposure to sunlight even after extended periods. • It is completely hydrophobic

75. 75 METALLIC FIBRES • Metallic fibers are manufactured fibers composed of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-coated plastic, or a core completely covered by metal. Gold and silver have been used since ancient times as yarns for fabric decoration. More recently, aluminum yarns, aluminized plastic yarns, and aluminized nylon yarns have replaced gold and silver. • they are made through laminating process. • Coated metallic filaments help to minimize tarnishing.

76. 76 • When suitable adhesives and films are used, they are not affected by salt water, chlorinated water in swimming pools or climatic conditions. • If possible anything made with metallic fibers should be dry-cleaned. • Ironing can be problematic because the heat from the iron, especially at high tempatures, can melt the fibers. • they are used mainly for decorative purposes.

77. Fiber Identification test fiber Soda ash 40% sol. Caustic soda 25% sol. Sodium hypo chloride Hydro chloric acid 40% Nitric acid 15% Nitric acid 70% Sulphuri c acid 15% Sulphuri c acid 70% Burning in Flame Microscopic View Remarks Cotton swells Swells& Shines Whitened Turns yellowish Opens up &looses strength Dissolves slowly Dissolves on heating Dissolves quickly Burns continuously leaving grey ash of burning paper smell Longitudinal twists. Resistance to alkalis. jute -do- -do- -do- --- - --- -do -do Dissolves -do Longitudinal irregular lines -Rough handle Coir --- --- Color turns pale --- --- --- Dissolves on prolonged heating Dissolves slowly -do- black ash Opaque thick serations Brittle & resistant to chemicals Viscose Swells Swells & slowly dissolves Gets weakened Turns yellow Dissolve s on heating Dissolves Dissolves Dissolves quickly Burns continuously leaving grey ash of burning paper smell Longitudinal regular lines Soft filaments good luster Silk Looses strength Dissolves Dissolves slowly --- --- Dissolves partial;ly --- Dissolves Self extinguishing Leaves crushable Black beads Densed centre line Uneven coating Delicate lustrous filaments Wool -do- -do- Dissolves --- --- Dissolves slowly --- Dissolves slowly Self extinguishing Leaves crushable Black beads Fish Scales structure Rough crimpy fibers Polyester --- --- --- --- --- Dissolves slowly on prolonged treatment transperant hard beads. Dissolves slowly Burns& stops leaving semi Translucent& uniform Resistant to chemicals Acrylic --- --- --- --- --- Looses strength & dissolves slowly --- Turns yellowish brown Dissolves & Turns yellowish brown Burns & stops Out of flame Leaving dark hard beads Translucent& uniform Lofty & more voluminous Nylon --- --- --- --- --- Looses strength --- Dissolves slowly Burns & stops Out of flame Leaving dark hard beads Translucent& uniform Strong More elastic

78. THANK YOU

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