2. A language system comprises three subsystems:
a) The lexical subsystem containing thousands of words,
whose function is to reflect the entire range of things and
phenomena in the ambient world
b) The grammatical subsystem, whose function is to
arrange words into sentences reflecting thoughts exchanged
in speech communication
c) The phonic subsystem, whose function is to provide the
items and products of two other subsystems, i. e. words
and sentences with externalizable and transmissible
sound shapes.

4. •Similar words in form;
•unrelated meanings;
•different parts of speech.
e.g. season – to season

5. Homophones
Proper
some- sum
can – can
Homographs
bow - bow

6. Phonetic
changes
Knight - night
Split of
polysemy
Cest - chest
Shortening
Steeplechase chase
Borrowing
Right – write rit
Conversion
Star - to star

7. to put in a specified position; to fix firmly or in
an immobile manner; to put into a specified state.

8. Diachronic approach
The
primary
meaning
The secondary
meaning
Central meaning
meaning
1066
OE
ME
Synchronic approach
Mod. E
(used more frequent)
Marginal
(used only in some
special contexts)
Synchronically we understand
polysemy as the coexistence of
various meanings of the same
word at a certain historical
period of the development of
the English language.

9. Polysemy splits
Generalization
e.g. thing
The prototype
e.g. fanatic
Specialization
eg. to ride
The new meaning
e.g. fan

11. to like – to love – to
admire – to adore
birdie – maiden
(poet.)
Ideographic
Stylistic
nice, handsome –
beautiful, wonderful
Absolute

12. is a substitution for an expression that may
offend or suggest something unpleasant to the receiver, using instead an
agreeable or less offensive expression, or to make it less troublesome for
the speaker. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others are
created to mislead. Thus they become a source generating synonyms.
e.g. toilet paper(usually used by toilet paper manufacturers) bathroom tissue, t. p., bath tissue
fat- big, fluffy, thick-boned, full-figured, heavy-set
prison - correctional facility
lie - misspeak, bend the truth, white lie, fudge, color the truth, be
economical with the truth, dissemble

13. Euphemisms may be classified according to the spheres of their
application and grouped the following way:
1. Religious euphemisms: God - Lord, Almighty, Heaven, goodness
2. Moral euphemisms: to die - to be gone, to expire, to be no more,
depart, to decease, to go west, to join the majority, to pass away
3. Medical euphemisms: lunatic asylum - mental hospital, madhouse;
idiots -mentally abnormal, low, medium and high - grade mental
defectives; cripple -invalid; insane - person of unsound mind
4. Political euphemisms: revolt, revolution - tension; poor people - less
fortunate elements

14. Antonyms are words which have opposite meanings.
A word can have more than one antonym, depending on which meaning
you use for the word.
For example:
- short could have the antonym tall if you are referring to a person's
height.
- short could have the antonym long if you are referring to to the length
of something.
In many languages, including English, you can sometimes make
antonyms by adding a prefix:
- real and unreal are antonyms
- flexible and inflexible are antonyms

15. Gradable
antonyms:
Slow – fast
Autoantonyms:
Fast (moving
quickly) – fast
(stuck in place)
Complementary
antonyms:
Mortal – immortal
Relational
antonyms:
Teacher –
student

17. Scientific
neologisms:
Black hole
Quark
Technological
neologisms:
Radar
Laser
Political
neologisms:
Meritocracy
Political
correctness
Types of
neologisms
Pop-culture
neologisms:
Jumping the shark
Scooby Gang
Imported
neologisms:
Zen
Mu

18. The
opposition
of
Stylistically
Marked and
Stylistically
Neutral
words

19. comprises stylistically neutral words.
They are opposed to formal and informal words. Their stylistic
neutrality makes it possible to use them in all kinds of
communication, both, formal and informal.
e.g. house, table, here, to buy, hand, meal, etc.
strata are in a
way exclusive. It comprises the formal and Informal styles.
e.g. daddy, rehearse, methinks, choong, buff
is a system of expressive means peculiar
to a specific sphere of communication. By the
we mean the circumstances attending
the process of speech in each particular case.

20. is used in an dimidiate circle of persons: family,
relatives, friends. It is rather a relaxed and unpretentious style.
Informal
Words
Colloquial
Literary
chap-teacher
Shortened words
exam - examen
Slang
Low
paper- chase
Blud friend
Safe – hi
Dialect
Nowt -nothing

21. is restricted to formal situations
Poetic and Highly Literary Words
Barbarisms
These are words of foreign origin which have not
entirely been assimilated into the English language.
They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as
something alien to the native tongue
e.g. no - goodnic - негодник
are called upon to sustain the special elevated
atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main
function of poetic words .
e.g. Shakespeare :
• ‘heaven’s air’, ‘rehearse’, ‘couplement’, ‘compare’
(noun), ‘rondure’, ‘hems’
Groups
Terms
are mostly and predominantly used in special works
dealing with the notions of some branch of science.
e.g. His father came back to say it was doubtful
whether they could make the loan. Eight per cent,
then being secured for money, was a small rate of
interest, considering its need.
Archaic and Obsolete Words
Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out
of the language altogether. Some words stay in the
language a very long time and do not lose their faculty
of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and
richer polysemantically.
The second group of archaic words are those that have
already gone completely out of use but are still
recognized by the English-speaking community:
e. g. methinks (it seems to me); nay (= no). These
words are called

22. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from
the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period:
Indo – European origin:
Mother, water, cat, to
come, slow, two, etc.
Common Germanic origin:
winter, shoe, shirt, shoot,
deep, etc.

23. A loan word is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic
shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English
language. Loan words differ of their degree of assimilation. The following three groups
may be suggested: completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words
and unassimilated loan words or barbarisms.

24. Not assimilated
semantically:
mantilla,
rickshaw, rupee
Not completely
assimilated
graphically:
ballet, buffet
Partially
assimilated
loan words
Not completely
assimilated
phonetically:
machine, sonata
Not assimilated
grammatically:
Formula : :
formulae

25. The changes a loan word had had to undergo depending on the date of its
penetration are the main cause for the existence of the so-called etymological
doublets.
are two or more words of the same language which were
derived by different routes from the same basic words.
Etymological twins are usually a result of chronologically separate borrowing from
a source language. In the case of English, this usually means once from French
during the Norman invasion, and again later, after the word had evolved separately
in French. An example of this is warranty and guarantee. Another possibility is
borrowing from both a language and its daughter language
Examples in English include:
•shadow, shade and shed (all three from Old English sceadu "shadow, shade")
•stand, stay, state, status and static (native, Middle French, Latin (twice) and
Ancient Greek via Latin, from the same Indo-European root)
•chief and chef (both from French at different times)
•secure and sure (from Latin, the latter via French)
•plant and clan (from Latin, the latter via Old Irish)

26. - these words exist in "several different languages as a
result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source“.
Terminological
system
(science,
industry, art):
allegro, piano,
aria
Abstract notions:
Control : :
контролъ
Technology,
political, social and
artistic life:
algorithm, graph,
automation
Sport, clothes,
entertainment:
Match, sweater,
club
Exotic
borrowings:
anaconda, kraal,
orangutan
Russian borrowings:
Kremlin, cosmonaut

27. English is actually an unusual language. Already a blend of early Frisian
and Saxon, it absorbed Danish and Norman French, and later added many Latin
and Greek technical terms. In the US, Canada, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa, and elsewhere, it absorbed terms for indigenous plants, animals,
foodstuffs, clothing, housing, and other items from native and immigrant
languages. Plus, the various dialects, from Cockney to Jamaican, and innumerable
sources of slang, from Polari to hip hop, continue to add novel terms and
expressions to the mix.
Standard English – the official language of Great Britain taught at
schools and universities, used by the press, the radio, and the television and spoken
by educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and
literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is
spoken or understood.
Local dialects are varieties of the English language peculiar to some
districts and having no normalized literary form. They differ in pronunciation,
vocabulary and grammar. In Great Britain there are five main groups of dialects:
Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contains several
dialects.

29. is the regional dialect of London. Cockney speakers have a
distinctive accent and dialect, and frequently use rhyming slang.
Example:
COCKNEY:
'Allo me old china - wot say we pop round the Jack. I'll stand you a pig and you can
rabbit on about your teapots. We can 'ave some loop and tommy and be off before
the dickory hits twelve.
ENGLISH TRANSLATION:
Hello my old mate (china plate) - what do you say we pop around to the bar (Jack
Tar). I'll buy you a beer (pig's ear) and you can talk (rabbit and pork) about your
kids (teapot lids). We can have some soup (loop the loop) and supper (Tommy
Tucker) and be gone before the clock (hickory dickory dock) strikes twelve.

30. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called
•Scottish
• Irish
• Canadian
• Australian
• Indian
• American
Jewellery – jewelry
Practice - practise
Be’s – am, is, are
I like, we like, etc. – I likes, we likes,
etc.
Lippie – lipstick
Mushies – mushrooms

32. Unilingual
General
Explanatory
dictionaries
irrespective of
their bulk
Etymological ,
frequency,
phonetical,
rhyming and
thesaurus type
dictionaries
Special
Glossaries of
scientific and other
special terms;
dictionaries of
abbreviations,
antonyms,
borrowings, etc.
Dictionaries of
American
English, dialect
and slang
dictionaries

33. Dictionaries of scientific
and other special terms; of
abbreviations, phraseology,
proverbs, synonyms, etc.
Special
Dictionaries of Old
English and Middle
English with explanations
in Modern English
Bilingual or
multilingual
General
English – Russian,
Russian – English, etc.,
and multilingual
dictionaries