Linguistics

1. Introducing
Extensions
Presented by:
Khofifah Dwi Astuti 20101050065
Farikha Nur Zahara 20101050068
Azki Azifa Nabila Zahra 20101050069
Raysa Salsabil 20101050073
Laili Nur Aina Putri 20101050088

2. F rege's Principle
A
A F arewell to Psychologism
Extensions for W ords and Phrases
C
Topic Outline
B
D
E
Truth V alues as Extensions of Sentences
Thematic Roles

3. a. Frege’s Principle of Compositionality
The meaning of a composite expression is a function of the meaning of its immediate
constituents and the way these constituents are put together.(cf.☞Frege’sPrinciple)
- Compositional is a procedure of taking the meanings of words and then combine them
alongside and in tandem with syntactic structure. The principle behind it is this: the
meaning of a complex expression is fully determined by its structure and the meanings of
its constituents.
• Frege's Principle
For example: Bob ate the apple =
Meaning
M1 M2 M3 M4

4. Based on Frege’s Principle, to know its meaning we need to
combine each word into a syntactic structure as in:
The + apple:
NP
M3 M4 M5
Ate + the apple (NP):
VP
M2 M5 M6
Bob + VP: Meaning
M1 M6

5. 2. A Farewell to Psychologism
Learning a new word requires:
-Pronunciation: phonetics and phonology
-Meaning
That is: meaning is the concept a speaker
associates with the utterance

6. Psychologistic: require an objective notion of meaning
-Subjectiveness: different speakers associate different things with a single word at
different occasions, leading to subjective meanings influenced by personal experience.
-Limited coverage: words like “and”, “if”, “most”, “only”, etc. D o not have mental
images as nouns do.
-Irrelevance: speakers with different personal experiences have different mental
images that have no effect on meaning.
-Privacy: mental images and assosiates of an individual are inaccessible to other speakers.

7. Acquiring common
meaning
-Between 2 speakers, the
meaning of an expression is
learned in a similiar way: by
reference to different things
that the expression denotes.
-Each speaker conveys
information that guarantees the
message and the content is
identical.
-Each speaker extracts
certain abstract meanings
from words that do not have
a depictive meaning.
• Reference: words reffering
to things in the world.
Ex: picture of horses when
learning the word horse.
• Preventsmisunderstandings
• Extension: referential description
that enables speakers to refer to
thingsusinglinguisticexpression

8. -The most important pioneers of logical semantics were the philosophers:
• G ottlob F rege (1848-192 5)
• Bertrand Russel (1872 -1970)
Both investigated the foundations of mathematics at the end of the 19th century.
Both authors considered natural language too irregular to be rigorously analyz ed
with the logical methods they developed.
Their primary interest in this respect was the development of a language (unlike
natural language)

9. 3. Extensions of Words and Phrases
Look for the example:
• Tübingen, Prof. Arnim v. Stechow (proper names)
• the president of the US, the capital of Germany (definite descriptions)
• table, horse, book (nouns)
• bald, red, stupid, alleged (adjectives)
• nobody, nothing, no dog (negative quantifiers)
W hat do these expressions refer to? (are used to) refer to persons, places, or other individuals. They
have sets of individuals as their extensions.
1. Extensions of Words and Phrases: Referential Expression
Referential expressions like:
• Tübingen, Prof. Arnim v. Stechow (proper names)
• the president of the US, the capital of G ermany (definite descriptions)

10. 2. Extensions of Words and Phrases: Common Noun
W hat do these expressions refer to? this does not refer to single individuals but
shows multiple references.
• common (count) nouns like table, car, … (as well as some
(’intersective‘)
• adjectives like blond, rectangular, …(do not refer to single individuals
but show multiple references.)
Instead of saying that such terms have more than one extension, we take their extensions to
be sets of individuals.

11. 3. Extensions of Words and Phrases: Functional Nouns
The extensions of functional nouns can be identified with sets of (ordered pairs) of individuals. It can be
said that the extension of a functional noun is a function mapping individuals to individuals.
Pay attention to the example below:
Birthplace: { 〈Adam, Paradise〉,〈Eve, Paradise〉, 〈John Lennon, Liverpool〉, 〈Yoko Ono, Tokyo〉, . . . }
mother: { 〈Cain, Eve〉, 〈Abel, Eve〉, 〈Stella McCartney, Linda McCartney〉, 〈Sean Lennon, Yoko Ono〉, . . . }
surface: { 〈Mars, Mars’ surface〉, 〈Earth, Earth’s surface〉, 〈Table 2 , surface of Table 2 〉, 〈Table 3, surface of
Table 3〉, . . . }

12. 4. Extensions of Words and Phrases: Verbs and Verb Phrases
Sets can also be used as extensions of verbs. F or example, the verb sleep has as
its extension the set of all sleepers (in a given situation).
Look at the example:
• John is sleeping. (Sleep means the extension is the set of sleppers. The individual John, as an
element of that extension of the verb, the set of sleeping individuals.)
• John kisses Mary (kiss: a relation between kissers and kissees, i.e., the set of pairs〈x, y〉such
that x kisses y.)
• M ary kisses John (donate: a three-place relation, a set of triples)

13. 4. Truth Values as Extensions of Sentences
According to Carnap (1947: 2 6), introducing truth-values as extensions of sentences, is
guided by essentially the same idea. N amely, he points out a strong analogy between
extensions of predicators and truth values of sentences. Carnap considers a wide class of
designating expressions (“designators”) among which there are predicate expressions
(“predicators”), functional expressions (“functors”), and some others. Applying the well-
known technique of interpreting sentences as predicators of degree 0, he generaliz es
the fact that two predicators of degree n (say, P and Q ) have the same extension if and
only if.

14. Extension of a Sentence = Truth Value
If we take the intension of a sentence to be its truth conditions, then we
should take the ‘extension of a sentence to be its truth value. The reason is
because the ‘intension’ determines for a given time/situation what the
extension is. Truth conditions determine for a given time/situation what the
truth value is.

15. • Example :
-Extension of “X ”
The thing which, at a given time situation “X ” picks out.
• If the intension of “Barack smokes” is T if Barack really smokes
Then, the extension of “Barack smokes”= TRUE
However,the meaning of a complex expression should be derived from the meaning of its component parts.
Thus, the extension of a complex expression should be derived from the extensions of its component parts.
In A Picture:
-[[ Barack ]]+ [[ smokes]] [[ Barack smokes ]] = True

16. Thematic roles are the various roles that a noun phrase may play with respect to the
action or state described by a governing verb, commonly the sentences main verb.
Consists of:
5. Thematic Roles
Agent
Experience
r
Them
e
Instrumen
t
Goal
Source
Location
Benefactiv
e

17. Agent :
The entity that
intentionally
carries out the
action of the verb.
Example:
The waiter spilled
the soup.
Experiencer:
The entity that
undergoes an emotion,
a state of being, or a
perception expressed
by the verb.
Example:
John has a headache.
Theme:
The entity that
directly receives
the action of the
verb.
Example:
Anne saw a
rainbow in the
sky.
Instrument:
The entity by which
the action of the
verb is carried out.
Example:
W illiam is
drawing with a
pencil.

18. Goal:
The direction
towards which the
action of the verb
moves.
Example:
I drove to London.
Source:
The direction
from which the
action originates.
Example:
Hans brought a
fish from the
store.
Location:
The location where
the action of the
verb takes place.
Example:
The cookies were
eaten in the
kitchen by the
baker.
Benefactive:
The entity that
receives a concrete or
abstract element as a
result of the action of
verb.
Example:
W henever Jane makes
hotel reservations for
her boss…

19. SUMMARY
The meaning of a composite expression is a function of
the meaning of its immediate constituents and the way
these constituents are put together (F rege’s Principle
of Compositionality).
Learning a new word requires: Pronunciation:
phonetics and phonology and meaning.
• The extension of a referential expression is an
individual.
• The extension of common noun is a multiply
extensional expression.
• The extension of a functional noun is a function
mapping individuals to
individuals
According to Carnap (1947: 2 6), introducing truth-
values as extensions of sentences, is guided by
essentially the same idea.
Truth conditions determine for a given time/situation
what the truth value is.
W ords are described according to the role it fulfills with
the situation described in a sentence is called the
thematic roles.

20. Thank you!!