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Professor Matthews
Business and the Liberal Arts
28 April 2016
Determinants of Motivation: English Language Students Abroad
Sarah slowly walks down the jetway, exhausted after thirteen hours of travel. She is both
excited and anxious about the opportunity ahead. The crisp, autumn air of Prague welcomes her –
the picturesque Vltava river flows in between the Old Town Square where the orange tiled roofs
match the falling leaves. Sarah is a recent college graduate from the University of Puget Sound. She
is looking forward to teaching English abroad, and yet nervous about her lack of experience. She is
ambitious, independent, and free-spirited – now is the time to experience life in another country.
In Prague, Sarah enrolls in a four-week, accredited course to get her Teach English as a
Foreign Language (TEFL) Certificate. She will get six hours of actual teaching experience and
education from well-trained instructors. After passing the course, Sarah can go anywhere in the
world to teach students of any age. Sarah searches for jobs and finds work teaching elementary
school students in Thailand. She imagines the beautiful beaches and the friendly locals – life in
paradise. But Sarah has romanticized the experience of being a teacher. And when she arrives in
Thailand she quickly realizes that her assumptions about teaching English were wrong.
Sarah has to teach thirty-five hours per week in overcrowded classrooms, leaving the
remaining five hours in her paid workweek to prepare lessons and grade homework. Half of the
students seem uninterested, without the desire to learn English. They argue that they are in rural
Thailand and will never need to speak English. Sarah tries making the lessons interesting and
interactive but the students do not react positively to these methods. She ends up working fifty to
sixty hours per week. Sarah is burnt out and does not know what to do.
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Sadly, Sarah’s experience is one that happens quite often. Recent college graduates are
entranced with the romantic idea of traveling abroad to teach English. They do not contemplate how
difficult teaching English is, especially with cultural barriers. In addition, many new teachers state
that one of the most difficult things they experience when teaching abroad is unmotivated students.
They try different tactics to motivate students based on assumptions that they have from their own
prior experiences. But they fail to understand the many different aspects that influence student
motivation, such as age, English proficiency, culture, and classroom climate.
Introduction:
An estimated 250,000 native English speakers are currently teaching English abroad at
nearly 40,000 schools and language institutes around the world (How Large Is the Job Market for
English Teachers Abroad?). It is a lucrative industry for recent graduates and those who want to
travel while earning income. Although traveling the world and teaching English sounds glamorous,
teaching English effectively is not easy—especially across different cultures, as depicted in Sarah’s
experience. Researchers have determined that one of the most difficult problems that teachers face
across cultures is unmotivated students. So, how are students motivated to learn English? Are there
any philosophies or methods utilized by teachers that are effective across cultures, age groups, and
levels of English proficiencies? If so, what are they? If not, what determinants are causing those to
not be universally effective?
These questions have led to extensive international research in many disciplines, including
education, history, psychology, and leadership studies. This paper will be divided into five sections:
a literature review, a synthesis of conclusions from the literature review, primary research through
an international questionnaire, analysis of the research, and the correlation of the literature and
research to transformational leadership. The literature review begins with a short synopsis of the
history of teaching English abroad. This provides an understanding of why teachers have been
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driven to teach in different countries over the last century. The history of teachers’ motivation is
related to why people teach English abroad today. The literature review includes a detailed
summary of each source and sets the context for how scholars study important factors in
determining how students are motivated to learn English. This research is conducted in several
countries, including: Nigeria, Iran, Japan, Chile and Sweden. Many common themes about student
motivation emerged; however, differences in the research are also evident. A synthesis of the
sources identifies four main thematic similarities: (1) autonomy increases student motivation, (2)
English proficiency has implications on student motivation (3) positive organizational climates
increase student motivation, and (4) cultural variables affect student motivation. In addition,
thematic differences and outliers in the research will be noted, including the effect of: utilizing
culturally relevant games and stories, future ambitions, and gender.
To test the validity of the literature, I created a seven-question survey based on a five-point
Likert Scale. These seven questions were aligned with the literature’s main findings, as to cross-
analyze and determine the validity of literature’s conclusions. The conclusions from the survey are
related to the literature review to determine commonalities and differences amongst them. Through
the analysis of the existing literature and my research, it is determined that, in general, the literature
and the primary research align in their conclusions. But, there are two important differences that
exist between these two forms of research: (1) student autonomy may not increase motivation, and
(2) low language proficiency may not decrease motivation. The teachers also indicated four main
themes when asked if any other factors influence student motivation, which are: (1) travel, (2)
relevance of the material, (3) social influences, and (4) teacher encouragement.
Student motivation abroad has also never been looked at through the lens of
transformational leadership, which has strong influences on student motivation to learn English
abroad. The findings have implications related to international leadership in general.
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Transformational leadership practices have positive influences on the motivation of followers, but
also have slightly different effects based on culture, which is prevalent in the results of the literature
and my research.
Literature Review:
History of English Teachers Abroad:
Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print.
Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century is the seminal work on the
history of teaching English abroad. Zimmerman states that historically, three distinct types of
teachers have worked abroad: colonials, missionaries, and volunteers (Zimmerman, 16-17). All
have struggled in their endeavor to educate students. The main points of conflict have been cultural
disconnects, the debate over American-style education versus traditional rote training, health and
sanitation education, and the ethical dilemmas that confronted most teachers. There are two distinct
periods that motivated teachers to work abroad. The first was before World War II, when American
imperialism and exceptionalism brought about a strong desire to “civilize the other.” The post-war
period was defined by increasing questioning of these superior attitudes, and teachers began asking
themselves whether it was their right to transport Americanized values to their host countries.
However, although teachers continued to impose American values on their students because of
cultural disconnects. Teachers also reflected on inequality in America. Several broad characteristics
classify most historical English teachers abroad. These teachers were usually white, middle-class,
and did not pursue education as a profession or career (Zimmerman, 14).
In the pre-WWII period, the majority of teachers were colonial teachers who sought to
westernize the students and the traditional styles of education. The colonial teaching period began
with a mass movement of teachers starting at the turn of the twentieth century. On July 23, 1901,
the U.S transport ship Thomas left the United States headed for the Philippines with 526 teachers on
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board. American teachers were shipped off to many colonial locations, including Hawaii, Puerto
Rico, Philippines, and Guam. These colonials were the main English teachers abroad in the first
three decades of the twentieth century. Zimmerman states that “wherever [the teachers]
went…Americans sought to spread their allegedly universalistic values; indeed, they cast
themselves as the globe’s lone ‘powerhouse’ of ‘the ideals of ‘Freedom and Justice’…”
(Zimmerman 4). This was particularly true during the colonial era. The teachers attempted to
westernize other nations through the implementation of American values. Teachers were appalled at
the rote, European method of learning and its prioritization of memorization and recitation.
Therefore, American English teachers tried to change systems, denouncing the students’ inability to
think, and only to memorize. This attack on rote systems continued through to the second era of
American teachers working abroad.
The teachers also despised the poor sanitation and health of these societies, as well as the
societal structures for reprimanding children. Teachers set up courses devoted to teaching the
“uncivilized” peoples how to live. They created sports teams and other health and fitness classes in
hopes of minimizing unsafe sexual practices and spreading disease among the local population. The
teachers in this early period were insistent on “transmitting ‘virtue’ or knowledge’ to people who
lacked them” (Zimmerman, 6). In addition, American teachers struggled with the common practice
of corporal punishment among native teachers. American English teachers initially denounced this
style of reprimanding children to create obedience, but soon many resorted to hitting children,
publicly embarrassing them for acting out, and other activities. Although these cultural disconnects
persisted after the war, many American English teachers began to question the superiority and
imposition of the educational system that they were once so insistent on.
Over time, especially after WWII, teachers began to see that the students in their classrooms
simply did not agree or align with the Americanized values that they were attempting to enforce.
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The students had their own cultures and beliefs. Therefore, teachers abroad attempted to determine
whether American styles of education should take precedence over indigenous ones (Zimmerman,
8). Most teachers struggled with this dilemma, trying to cater to the students’ cultural needs while
simultaneously teaching based on the training they received back home. After these post WWII
teachers, especially Peace Corps and other volunteer teachers, had lived in relative poverty, they
also began to question the cultural imperialism and materialism that spread overseas. But teachers
still imposed American values on students, and criticized the rote method more strongly following
the war.
American teachers condemned the methods of memorization in which passing examinations
were more critical than the learning and application of the material. Teachers pushed against the
standardized testing and attempted to impose more discussion-based, practical application learning
methods for students. These cultural impositions did not go well. Students began to boycott
American teachers and begged to go back to fact-based, examination-centered lessons. They needed
to pass the examinations to receive good jobs. The teachers desire to rid rote also stemmed from
their desire to promote a more relaxed tone in the classroom, where teachers could be friends with
the students.
After WWII, teachers abroad increasingly attempted to create a relaxed tone in the
classroom. They hoped to be a friend first, and a teacher second. America was becoming more
egalitarian in nature with the Civil Rights Movement, and many of the teachers who chose to go
overseas were more likely to be progressive individuals (Zimmerman, 44). They also wanted to
create equality in their classrooms abroad. But the teachers did not understand that students in some
cultures prefer not to have a personal relationship with teachers. Some students therefore acted with
discomfort, passive resistance, and sometimes hostility towards teachers’ appeal for friendship. The
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cultural disconnects continued after WWII when teachers abroad supported vocational training
rather than the traditional subjects that students desired to learn.
The American teachers desired to help students out of economic poverty, especially through
vocational training. They pushed for utilitarian sources of teaching over providing what the students
in particular cultures wanted. It predominantly centered on the discussion of providing students with
the means to meet their “Basic Human Needs,” which included classes such as cabinetmaking and
auto repair. According to teachers, these courses could provide employment opportunities, where
English and science could not (Zimmerman, 70). Although the vocational trend only employed ten
to twenty percent of teachers abroad, it never claimed the majority. Americans quoted people like
Gandhi, who emphasized ensuring livelihood and independence through practical education, to
justify their decision for vocational training. But again, students resisted this style of education and
wanted instead to learn traditional subjects like English, math, and science (Zimmerman, 72).
Cultural disconnects plagued American teachers in both the pre-war and post-war settings.
Although teachers began to question their American cultural imperialism after WWII, they still
attempted to transport their values, educational methods, and societal structures into the classroom.
McEown, Maya Sugita, and
+Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How Do Teachers Impact
Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1 (2014): 20–38.
Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.
McEown, Psychology professor at the University of Alberta, and Takeuchi, professor of
Foreign Language Studies at Kansai University in Japan, conducted a study to determine if
seventeen motivational strategies (MS) used by English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Japan
were effective. The MSs included specific leadership approaches, such as “speak in a clear voice”
or “start the class on time.” There were two groups studied—one with students of higher English
proficiency and higher initial motivation, and another with lower English proficiency and lower
initial motivation. They conducted surveys during four different points in the semester.
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Only two out of the seventeen motivational strategies showed similar responses between the
two groups, which were: “‘Start the class exactly on time’ and ‘Make a clear explanation for class
assessments and exams’” (32). These two MSs appeared important due to cultural customs. The
teachers in Japan give warnings to students who have been late and punish their grades. Many of the
students are also concerned with the final exam (29). Japanese students are culturally aware,
sensitive to punctuality, and are grade-oriented, so they consequently respond most positively to
these MSs. Of the remaining fifteen MSs, the two control groups differed, proving that the students’
perception of effective MSs was different depending on their English proficiency and motivational
levels (33). In other words, within the same culture, motivational strategies differed extensively.
Although the effectiveness of MSs can depend on culture, this study discovered one motivational
implication applicable to all cultures—the time of the semester. The research concluded that the
correlations between the frequency of the instructor’s motivational strategy use and perceived
students’ motivation are not stable, but rather depend on the time of the semester (30). While it is
universally true that the time of the semester has implications on student motivation, other factors
were not applicable across cultures.
Conventional wisdom in Western education highly esteems when teachers are enthusiastic
and cater to the individual needs of students. This Western philosophy also argues that these
practices can increase students’ motivation to learn. But, this seemingly effective style of leadership
had an undesirable effect with the students in this research. Specifically, “a negative correlation
in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching English’” was noted, “which was surprising” (32-33). In
addition, a negative correlation was found when EFL teachers “‘Ke[pt] pace with the students and
g[ot] them involved in the activities’” (29). These two aspects, which the authors note are important
in other educational cultures, were not only ineffective in motivating students to learn, but actually
had an adverse effect on students’ motivation.
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Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Emotional
Intelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills
6.3(2015): 113–133. Print.
Roohani and Mohammadi, both professors at Shahrekord University in Iran, investigated the
relationship between teachers’ Emotional Intelligence (EI) and students’ motivational attributes.
The researchers examined five aspects of EI: intrapersonal relationship, interpersonal relationships,
adaptability, stress management, and general mood. They discovered EI has significant influence in
developing student motivation, which supports previous literature indicating that a direct correlation
between teachers’ EI and student motivation exists.
Roohani and Mohammadi indicate, through the study of 30 EFL teachers and 221 advanced-
level adult students, that the teacher’s adaptability is the best tool to increase student motivation
(136). If teachers are flexible and cater to the needs of the students and the demands of the situation,
students indicate higher motivational levels. Although adaptability had the highest correlation in the
study, other aspects of EI are also important for EFL teachers.
The researchers emphasize that all components of EI are significant. They state that “highly
emotionally-intelligent EFL teachers who are high in such skills as interpersonal relationship, stress
management, adaptability, and happy mood can influence their students’ interest and intensity”
(139). In addition, EFL teachers with a high EI are able to create a fun environment and a
nonthreatening relationship with the students, which increases the students’ likelihood participate in
class. Rahooni and Mohammadi’s study concluded that “in an Iranian EFL context, teachers’ EI
skills can be positively related to their students’ motivational attributes such as their attitude
towards learning” (140). Therefore, all aspects of EI are critical in increasing student motivation in
EFL classrooms.
Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs,
and Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada
Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print.
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Although English is an important part of curricula for primary, secondary, and tertiary
institutions in Nigeria, millions of students fail to learn the language. Researchers Yetunde Ajibade,
professor at Obafemi Awolowo University, and Kate Ndububa, professor at Ambassadors’ College,
explored “how word games and culturally relevant instructional activities such as songs and stories
could be used in motivating students” (28). The researchers developed and conducted an experiment
that took place over three weeks. The experiment involved sixty Senior Secondary School II
students from a school in the Ife East Local Government Area of Osun State. The population was
split into two groups of thirty with one control group and one experimental group. The control
group was taught using conventional methods. The experimental group was taught comprehension
through culturally relevant stories, vocabulary through songs, and idiomatic expressions using word
games. In addition, the experimental group was given more autonomy and freedom when
completing assignments.
The researchers concluded that participants in the control group did not exhibit any significant
improvement in their motivation, whereas the experimental group did (38). This proves that the
culturally relevant teaching style used for the experimental group had positive effects. Not only was
student motivation highly influenced, but it was also determined that English performance increased
as a result of using word games and culturally relevant instruction. The researchers state that the
“experimental group’s improvement in performance in English could be attributed to the effect of
the treatment adopted” (39). Consequently, student motivation and English performance increased
as a result of culturally relevant instruction.
Ajibade and Ndububa also argue that other strategies are influential in improving student
motivation. Teachers who can make students feel respected as individuals are more likely to help
them strive to learn for the sake of learning and willing to be creative and open to new ideas (30).
Age also has implications on intrinsic motivation. Ajibade and Ndububa state that whereas young
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children tend to maintain high prospects for success even in the face of recurring failure, older
students do not. Younger pupils tend to see effort as positive, whereas older learners view it as
having unintended consequences (30). Therefore, age has effects on student motivation, even within
the same cultural setting.
Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on
Learner Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and
Francis+NEJM. Web.
This study carried out by Katharina Glas examines perceived student motivation of learning
English in secondary schools in Chile. She explores the teachers’ perspectives on student
motivation in the context of external and internal constraints, and how possible “spaces for
manoeuvre” can positively influence student motivation. The researchers interviewed nineteen
teachers who taught in public schools, semi-private schools, and private schools in proportions
approximately equal to those of the Chilean school system. In these interviews “the lack of student
motivation is perceived to be one of the greatest challenges facing an English teacher in Chile” (6).
The teachers in Chile stated both internal and external constraints that either inhibit or
intensify student motivation. A majority of the English teachers indicated that the “low
expectations, lack of support, and difficult access to motivational resources can work together to
undermine teacher’s efforts” (10). Often, senior level teachers and administration do not find
English that important, and in general the stigma that “learning English is not important for these
youngsters” (10) is perpetuated in Chilean culture. Glas states that “the government initiatives have
forgotten about the marginalised sector (teaching English)…” (11) which these teachers work in.
The main internal constraints that teachers criticized are the government-mandated textbooks. Many
of the teachers argued that students are actually highly motivated to learn English, but prefer to
learn through mediums which interest them (pop culture, music, world affairs, etc), rather than
boring textbooks.
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Although constraints were prevalent, the researchers determined that three main “spaces for
manoevre” were found in teachers’ perception of increasing student motivation: immediacy of
experience, learner autonomy, and empowering contents. The data suggests that to motivate
students the teachers must relate to the students’ current interests and “do things to exploit the
immediate relevance of English in the students’ lives, rather than telling them what English might
be good for later on” (14). Glas also determined that providing learning autonomy can have large
implications on increasing student motivation, as flexibility will allow them to pursue topics that
they are interested in. This will allow them to exploit their instinctive curiosity and thus support
intrinsic motivation (15). Lastly, empowering contents is also critical to positively effect student
motivation. She argues that if the teacher can provide motivating content, then, as a result, the
teacher can “tap into the three needs that must be met according to self-determination theory” (17),
which are competence, relatedness, and autonomy.
arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivation
strategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and year
8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se. Web.
10 Nov. 2015.
Emanuelsson, an English teacher, conducted a study to examine the effects of collaborative
learning techniques on student motivation to learn English in Gothenburg, Sweden. It focuses on a
collaborative teaching method that organizes classroom instruction to focus on promoting
cooperation to achieve common learning expectations (10). Essentially, the collaborative teaching
method encourages students to work in small groups in which each member shares responsibility,
ridding the educational system of intense personal competition. It involves group work, shared
knowledge between the teacher and students, multiple tasks, and a heterogeneous group of students.
To determine if this teaching style is effective, Emanuelsson created a month long lesson
that involved the students planning, researching, writing, and presenting on what factors influence
how individuals speak (accents, linguistic concepts, slang, etc.). Using surveys, interviews, and
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extensive observation, the researcher split the respondents into two groups. Group A, with thirty-
four students, had the highest level of English proficiency, while Group B, twenty-one students,
possessed lower English proficiency. The results concluded that many factors influenced student
motivation, and there were substantial discrepancies between Group A and Group B.
The study indicated that the students’ initial attitude toward learning English has a strong
influence on student motivation. Aspects of the initial attitude were intrinsic motivation, cultural
interest, linguistic self-confidence, and future ambitions. Therefore, there are many characteristics
of student motivation that the teacher does not have control over, since it is pre-determined. But, the
study determined that the teacher could increase motivation through many actions and concepts.
The first determinant that increased student motivation was to make the learning tasks
stimulating. Next, Emanuelsson established that encouraging a stimulating environment is crucial to
motivating English students. Third, increasing learners’ goal-orientedness was important. Lastly,
the relevance of the learning materials in mastering English affects how motivated students are.
Although these were relatively common among Group A and Group B, there were differences. For
example, encouraging a stimulating environment was more influential for the group with a higher
proficiency. The researcher determined that the less proficient group struggled more often and
preferred a more relaxed, easy environment. Therefore, English proficiency has strong implications
on student motivation.
Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions of
Motivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language
Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.
This study examines language learning in general, from Israeli students learning Arabic to
Chinese students learning English. Ruesch et al. studied 136 students and 84 teachers at North
American universities who were involved in one or more diverse set of languages, including:
Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Spanish, Hungarian, Italian, French, Russian, and/or German.
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The study compares teachers’ and students’ perceptions of motivational teaching practices
known as macrostrategies, and also compares these perceptions to previous research in the field to
determine if cross-cultural similarities or differences occur. The first major conclusion that Ruesch
et al. determined was that teachers do tend to rate macrostrategies differently than students do (19).
Students and teachers in the study disagreed on the macrostragy of effort, with teachers rating it as
the 6th most motivational practice, while students rated effort significantly lower at 10th overall (22).
Similarities and differences occur across cultures. Similarities included the macrostrategies of
teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and presenting tasks
properly, while the differences include social comparisons and levels of effort. Although these
parallels occur, there are a couple of distinct differences. First, the most striking difference between
North American and Hungarian data is the concept of comparison—for example avoiding social
comparisons (21). Teachers in the U.S. rarely want to openly compare students, and ranked it 3rd
among motivational practices. In contrast, Hungarian teachers ranked it 18th, or completely last,
while Taiwanese teachers ranked it 41st out of 47th, showing that cross-cultural differences have
large effects on specific aspects of motivation. Next, Taiwanese teachers ranked effort very high,
while U.S. teachers ranked it moderately, and Hungarian teachers ranked it rather low. When
looking at cultural aspects, Asian students emphasize effort more than their Western counterparts
(21).
This study determined that multiple effective motivational strategies are similar across
cultures, including teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and
presenting tasks properly. But other motivational macrostrategies did not translate across cultures,
including effort and openly comparing students. Not only did macrostrategies differ across cultures,
but students and teachers themselves had different perceptions of their effectiveness in motivation.
Thematic Synthesis:
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Similarities:
Autonomy Increases Student Motivation
Three of the studies conclude that autonomy increases student motivation, while one
additional study suggests its importance. In the Chilean study, Glas argues that providing learners
with autonomy is one of the most critical teaching philosophies in increasing students’ motivation.
Her data “suggested a positive interrelationship between teacher autonomy…, learner autonomy…,
and motivation” (15). Ajibade and Ndububa support this finding, as students in this study were
allowed to have some degree of control over the learning process (34) and consequently out-
performed the control group that lacked autonomy. Ruesch et al. also describe the significance that
Hungarian English students associate with autonomy in increasing their motivation.
English Proficiency Has Implications on Motivation
Only three out of the six studies analyzed English proficiency’s effect on motivation. All
three underscore the effect that students’ language proficiency has on their motivation. In the
Swedish study, the researchers divided the students into two groups based on proficiency levels, and
the results differed greatly between these two groups. McEown and Takeuchi discovered the same
results, stating that the effectiveness of some MSs varied according to students’ English proficiency
(22). Therefore, the students’ language proficiency levels must be taken into account when
determining how motivated they are to learn English.
Strong Organizational Climate Increases Motivation
Five of the six studies reference organizational climate and its significance to student
motivation. Roohani and Mohammadi examined that an effective organizational climate can create
a fun and optimistic environment in the classroom, hence promoting collaboration and participation
in classroom activities (139). Ruesch et al.’s research also indicates the consequences of
organizational climate, and the data between language learners in the United States, Taiwan and
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Hungary concludes that creating a pleasant classroom climate was among the most important
strategies for all three cultures analyzed (21). While creating a positive mood in the classroom is
influential, Glas also recognizes an uncontrollable determinant of organizational culture and its
impact on motivation. She discusses how the history of learning English in Chile, which consists of
negative sentiments, has a noticeable, adverse influence on student motivation.
Cultural Implications
Five of the six studies directly emphasize that cultural contexts can affect student
motivation, while Roohani and Mohammadi suggest its importance throughout their research.
Emanuelsson, who studied English students in Sweden, states that EFL students around the world
are “located in different cultural and historical contexts that can definitely affect their motivation to
learn” (5). McEown and Takeuchi agree, arguing that some motivational strategies could be
universal while others could be contingent on culture (21). Glas stresses relevance of culture in
student motivation and discusses how even institutional culture and familial culture can differ
between well-off and disadvantaged sectors of the same city. All of the research acknowledges that
cultural factors play a large role in how students are motivated to learn English.
Differences:
Culturally Relevant Games and Stories
Ajibade and Ndububa indicate a motivational factor that all of the other authors disregard.
They state that students in Nigeria, when taught English using culturally relevant songs, games and
stories, have higher motivation to learn English than students taught using conventional methods.
They argue that providing students with cultural familiarities in lessons will consequently result in
students being more attentive and willing to learn, therefore increasing motivation.
Future Ambitions
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Emanuelsson’s study in Sweden was the only research that emphasizes a student’s initial
attitude towards learning English and its effects on motivation. She found that the students who
desired to learn the “language as an instrument for future ambitions” (38) had more motivation than
students with weaker initial interest in learning English.
Gender
Although all of the studies indicate the gender of the participants in their research
methodology, only Ajibade and Ndububa discuss the implications of gender on student motivation.
They discovered that culturally relevant songs and stories designed to motivate students had no
significantly different effect on the motivation of male and female students (40). It seems possible
that the motivational levels would be similar for male and female students across all other studies,
but the other authors failed to analyze this variable.
Research:
Introduction
This section provides an explanation of my research strategy, an overview of the English
teachers who volunteered to participate in the study, a description of the questionnaire used to illicit
data from the teachers, and a brief explanation of the data analysis.
Participants
This study is designed to focus on the opinions of current and former English teachers
abroad. It allows them to share their thoughts on how students are motivated to learn English.
Student views are not included in this study. Teachers from around the world contributed. The
participants include English teachers in private American or British schools, teachers in public
institutions, private tutors, and volunteer teachers in the Peace Corps or other organizations.
The teachers were found through my personal connections to a TEFL certification course
TEFL WorldWide Prague, which marketed the survey via its Facebook page. Other personal
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connections were also used to find teachers. People who took the survey also sent it to other
teachers. The survey was also on LinkedIn and the University of Puget Sound’s alumni network.
There were seventy-five teachers who completed the questionnaire. They had taught in
twenty eight1 different countries. Most teachers only taught in one country, while some taught in up
to five different countries. The seventy-five teachers taught a multitude of age groups – from
kindergarten to adults – as well as low English proficiency levels to advanced English speakers.
Instruments
The primary instrument of this study was a questionnaire administered to the teachers via
Google Forms, which provides simple data collection and analysis2. The questionnaire for this study
was designed on the research conclusions provided in the literature review. Seven main questions
were asked, correlating to the main findings from the literature review. A five-point Likert Scale
was used to determine how strongly the teachers agreed. For example “Providing students with
autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English” was one of the seven
statements. Answering with a one is strongly disagreeing with the statement, while five is strongly
agreeing. Teachers also had the option to explain the choices they checked to help give context to
their ratings. Teachers also had an optional question asking them if there were any other factors in
their own experience that influenced student motivation.
Internal validity of the responses was difficult to monitor. The link to the online survey was
available for anybody with access to it. In addition, I did not know the qualifications of the teachers
or know who they were, so I had to trust the merit of the autonomous responses.
Data Analysis
The purpose of gathering the data was to determine if it aligned with the major conclusions
of the literature review. In order to accomplish this, the teachers participating in the survey
1 The list of countries where teachers have taught is attached in Appendix A
2 The questionnaire used is attached in Appendix B
19
answered seven questions that inquire how students are motivated to learn English abroad. The data
was analyzed based on the responses from each of these seven questions.
Autonomy:
The response to “providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation
to learn English” yielded a variety of answers. Forty percent of the participants responded with
neutrality on this statement by marking the number three. 18.7% of the participants disagree, or
somewhat disagree, with this statement by answering with a one or two. The remaining 41.3% of
the teachers agree or somewhat agree with this statement. There were a couple of recurring
explanations that teachers provided when answering this question. They indicated that autonomy
was more successful with higher-proficiency learners, and that lower-level English speakers need
much more instruction. There was also an indication that autonomy is only successful when there is
a structured foundation to build on.
Language Proficiency:
To examine how language proficiency affects student motivation, the participants responded
to the statement “Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English.”
As shown by the graph, there is a scattered response. Slightly over half of the respondents, 50.7%,
20
disagreed with this statement, and 30.7% agreed with it. The remaining 18.7%5 remained neutral.
There is one recurring theme in the teachers’ explanations to this response: this statement is true and
more noticeable if the low-proficiency students are in a class with many higher proficiency students
that dominate conversation and participation.
Classroom Mood:
The teachers collectively had a clear response to the statement “A positive classroom climate/mood
increases student motivation”. Seventy-three out of the seventy-five participants agreed with this
assertion, and the remaining two teachers neither agreed nor disagreed by answering with a three.
The teachers overwhelmingly commented on this statement with sentiments such as “You have to
remind them that the classroom is a safe space to make mistakes. Every one is still learning” or “A
positive environment definitely increased motivation. I found that when the classroom environment
was fun and positive, students were more inclined to participate.” These views indicate that a
positive classroom environment increases students’ motivation to learn through increased
participation and engagement.
Culture:
21
To examine if the literature is correct in arguing that cultural factors influence student
motivation, the statement “Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to
learn English” was evaluated by participants of the survey. The majority of teachers, 74.7%, agreed
with this statement. Only 5.3% moderately disagreed, while the remaining 20% rated this with a
three, indicating neither agreement nor disagreement. The teachers indicated very strongly in their
responses how important and influential culture is to student motivation, especially with common
thread participants indicating how influential Asian cultures are. For example, one participant
indicated that “this is especially true in Japan where the group opinion outweighs an individual's
opinion. Kids want to fit in and be exactly like their peers” or one teacher had “students who would
say that they are Arab so they should be speaking in Arabic, not English.” One teacher began
teaching in the Czech Republic right after independence from communist rule, and indicated that
students are highly motivated to learn English because they were forbidden to speak it during this
rule. There were countless examples of how cultural structures either increased or decreased student
motivation.
Students’ Families:
22
The claim that “The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the
English language, therefore increasing student motivation” yielded relatively uniform results. The
highest percentage of teachers responded neutrally, indicating that in their experience the students’
families did not directly affect motivation in a positive or negative way. 48% of teachers agreed that
students’ families encourage them to learn English, while only twelve percent disagreed.
Future Ambitions:
The teachers collectively agree with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English
with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.” The bulk of the ratings,
73.3%, agreed with this statement. Only 6.6% disagreed that students were motivated by future
ambitions, and 20% indicated that it neither increased nor decreased motivation. The teachers
indicated in their contextual explanations that this is most likely true in the case of older students
nearing university. But many teachers also indicated that cultural influences affect this, as some
cultures begin testing students on English skills at four or five years old to determine what schools
23
they will go to. Other teachers indicated that this is less true for students who are required to learn
English, and do not necessarily choose to be there.
Individual Consideration:
The participants in the survey validate the statement that “the more individual consideration
the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.”
Only four percent of the teachers oppose this assertion while eighty percent of the teachers agree.
The remaining 16% indicated that the more individual consideration students receive from teachers
does not affect intrinsic motivation in a positive or negative way. Although the teachers as a whole
indicated this statement as valid, there were important observations that they elaborated on in
individualized consideration could be negative for students. The teachers indicated that students
might be humiliated or embarrassed by receiving extra attention in front of their peers. The teachers
also discussed that giving attention to specific students could alienate the rest of the group and make
them feel unimportant. Balance was mentioned as a crucial qualifier for agreeing with this
statement.
Connections BetweenResearchandLiterature Review
The literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners. My research does not have a
particular focus, and includes all levels of English learners. The literature only studies older
students, between the levels of high school and university. This has the potential for creating
24
disconnects between the literature and the research, as students of older ages might be motivated to
learn English differently than younger students.
The primary research and the literature are mostly aligned in their findings, but there are
also some differences between them. Both the literature and the primary research find that cultural
factors and language proficiency have an effect, either positive or negative, student motivation.
They both conclude that motivation is increased due to the following factors: the students’ future
ambitions in education and careers, teacher providing students with individual consideration, and a
positive classroom environment. While these commonalities are present, the literature and primary
research have different findings on the importance of autonomy in increasing student motivation.
Effect of Student Autonomy on Motivation Differs Between Literature and Primary Research
Four of the six pieces of literature indicate that providing English learners with autonomy
will positively affect their motivation. But this does not align with the findings of the primary
research. Just as many teachers responded neutrally as either agreeing or somewhat agreeing – both
around forty percent. The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses to this question on the
survey was 3.35. A statistical mean of four or five would indicate that the teachers collectively
support the findings of the literature. But, because the mean is closer to three, the teachers in the
study collectively are more indifferent to the argument that providing students with autonomy
increases their motivation. When the data is analyzed based on region, slightly different results are
found; however, they are skewed based on sample size. The responses for teachers who taught in
Asia had a statistical mean of 3.16, slightly lower than the overall average. The statistical mean for
the responses of English teachers who taught in Europe is 3.39, just slightly higher than the overall
average, but still not high enough to indicate that the teachers in Europe agree with the literature.
Only two teachers taught in the Middle East and the mean of their data is 3.5, which is not
conclusive to the literature’s findings. A mean of 4.66 is calculated for the responses of teachers in
25
South or Central America, which aligns with the literature review. But with a sample size of only
three, one cannot say with confidence that students in this region are motivated to learn English
when given more autonomy. Therefore, because of the disconnect between the literature and the
primary research, it cannot be concluded whether providing students with autonomy will have a
positive effect on their motivation to learn English.
Cultural Factors Have Implications on Student Motivation
The primary research and the literature review reach the same conclusion that cultural
factors have implications on student motivation. Those factors can either positively or negatively
influence motivation. All six pieces of literature emphasize the importance of cultural factors’
influence on student motivation. The seventy-five teachers in the primary research collectively
agree with the literature, as 74.7% either agreed or somewhat agreed. But, there are regional
differences between the teachers’ responses. The average for teachers in Europe is 3.79, while it is
4.38 for those in Asia. Although a mean of 3.79 is shifted enough to conclude that teachers in
Europe find culture to be fairly important, it may not be strong enough to confidently conclude that
teachers in Europe agree with the literature on culture’s effect on motivation. The variance of 0.59
between the data for Asia and Europe is also large enough to make it appear that there is a
difference between how culture affects motivation in Asia versus Europe. The teachers from Asia
noted in their comments how different and influential the educational culture is, while European
teachers did not mention its relevance in their comments as often. The two individuals who taught
in the Middle East both rated this question with a five, while the mean for South American teacher
responses is 4.33, but the sample size is too small to confidently come to a conclusion. While there
are variations within the data, as a whole the primary research aligns with the literature in
concluding that cultural factors have implications on student motivation to learn English.
Language Proficiency Affects Motivation Based on Individual Circumstances
26
Three of the six pieces of literature claim that English language proficiency levels affect
students’ motivation. Two of the three made this claim more broadly, speaking of its importance but
indicating how the motivation of more proficient students is different from the motivation of less
proficient students. Emanuelsson’s study indicates the significance of English proficiency as well,
but has a more specific argument. She states that lower level English students are less motivated to
learn English, while higher-level students are more motivated. The statement “Low English
language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English” that the teachers responded to
in the survey coincides with Emanuelsson’s findings. It does not ask of the importance of language
proficiency on motivation in general, but the results that the teachers provide, as well as the their
extended comments, can be analyzed to determine the general effects of language proficiency on
motivation. The statistical average of the responses is 2.71, without any noticeable variations based
on specific regions. The teachers are collectively indifferent to this statement. It can be assumed that
this statistical average means that the teachers think that low language proficiency does not have a
strong affect on student motivation. While this is true, the results are so varied that the mean may
not be a good indicator of the results. Consequently, the standard deviation is 1.41, which is
relatively high compared to the standard deviation of other responses. This means that the data is
more spread out, and that over two-thirds of the data lies between the normal distribution. In this
case the normal distribution is between 1.30 and 4.12, which is essentially the whole data set. This
means that the results are so widespread that a clear conclusion cannot be drawn from the data.
Emanuelsson’s findings are not supported by the primary research, so it cannot be stated assertively
that lower English proficiency decreases student motivation. But, the teachers’ explanations indicate
that they did find English proficiency to be important in its implications on student motivation.
Many sentiments such as “In some cases absolutely [low English proficiency decreases student
motivation], in some cases no. My experience had a healthy mixture of both from those that I
27
worked with…” were voiced. Therefore, the respondents indicated that English proficiency does
affect motivation, but were unable to determine exactly how.
The Importance of a Strong Organizational Climate
The primary research and the literature align with the notion that a strong organizational
climate in the classroom will increase student motivation. Five of the six articles of literature
declare that having a positive classroom mood will increase student motivation to learn English.
The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses is 4.75, which clearly indicates that the teachers
agree with the statement, a “A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation.”
Because of the clear correlation between the literature and the primary research, a positive
classroom environment does increase student motivation to learn English.
Future Ambition
The literature and the primary research concur that students are motivated to learn English
because of a future ambition to get a job or go to university. Emanuelsson, who studied English
learners in Sweden, is the only author who discusses these future ambitions, she argues that students
are more motivated to learn English if they have these ambitions. While 73.7% of the participants
either agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English
with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.,” the statistical mean
was only 4.03. This average states that as a group the teachers collectively somewhat agree with the
statement. Although it cannot be confidently stated that the primary research and the literature align,
it appears that they are associated.
Students’ Families
Glas illustrates that external factors can influence students’ motivation to learn English. She
emphasizes that the students’ families can encourage them to learn English, usually associated with
the parents’ understanding of globalization or desiring their children to have a better life by
28
studying abroad or finding work abroad. Parents can also dissuade children to want to learn English
because of cultural or national pride. While Glas establishes that family life has an impact on
student motivation, she did not deduce whether there is a general trend of families being more
supportive or against learning English. Consequently, the survey question “The students’ families at
home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student
motivation” is asked to determine how the statement corresponds with the seventy-five participants.
The statistical average of the data is 3.44, portraying that teachers are relatively impartial to this
statement, with a slight trend towards somewhat agreeing with the statement. There are some
concerns with the answers to this question. Many of the respondents who answered with a three
explained that they either did not know about the family situations outside of school or that it
depended on the particular student in the class—they could not make a general assessment either
way. There is a theme in the teachers’ responses stating that if the families speak English at home or
for their careers, then this statement is more likely to be true. In addition, many of the participants
also indicated that there is a fine line between the families encouraging and pressuring students to
learn. Particularly the teachers who taught in Asia mentioned that the families may push the
students too hard. Therefore, there is no conclusion to show whether students abroad are motivated
because their families encourage them, but the literature and primary research both emphasize the
importance of this factor.
Other Factors
Due to the conciseness of the survey, only seven main questions were asked. Therefore,
there may be other factors that the participants think influence student motivation that did not relate
to one of the questions asked. Consequently, teachers were given an opportunity to answer the
question: “What other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English?” After
29
analyzing the responses. Four main themes emerged: students interested in traveling, the relevance
of the teaching material, social influences, and encouragement from the teacher.
Travel:
The most common theme that emerged is that students are motivated to learn because of the
opportunity to travel. They cited that English is a globalized language and they can travel to many
different countries where they can speak English. They indicated three types of traveling
opportunities that students are motivated by: current business travel, future leisure travel, and study
abroad.
Relevance:
The teachers emphasized that students are more motivated to learn when the lesson plans
cater to the students’ interests. Pop culture, music, television, movies, and other cultural ideas that
are associated with the English language are often important to students, and they want to learn
English in order understand and interact with these ideas. Glas and Emanuelsson, although not
citing this as a major factor to student motivation, mention its value in their respective research.
Social Influences:
Students may be motivated to learn English to satisfy social pressures and influences. In
societies with more distinct social classes, students may be motivated to learn English to appear
more sophisticated or of higher status. Social pressures from peers are also cited as imperative. The
interests of friends or the language proficiency of peers influences students’ motivations to learn
English.
Teacher Encouragement:
While teacher encouragement is encompassed in creating a positive classroom environment,
the participants in the survey specifically identified its significance. Students are more motivated
when they feel validated and are recognized when they perform well. The teachers suggest that in
30
many other cultures the fear of making mistakes can be a barrier for students, especially for younger
children. So they express that praising students can make them more likely to participate, and
consequently increase motivation.
Implications for International Leadership Practices:
Transformational Leadership
The literature and my primary research relate to transformational leadership, part of the Full
Range Leadership Development (FRLD) theory, as much of the literature discusses its effect on
student motivation. The FRLD theory is a model that is supported by extensive research and
applications in many different leadership settings. Many scholars argue that this paradigm of
leadership is the most established and premier model (Sosik & Jung, 8). The FRLD system
attributes five major styles of leadership: laissez-faire, passive management-by-exception, active
management-by-exception, contingent reward, and transformational leadership. The range begins
with laissez-faire as the lowest form of leadership, in which a leader abdicates responsibility and
avoids making decisions. This is essentially non-leadership. The continuum moves towards more
active, involved, and rewarding styles of leadership until the highest form of leadership of
transformational leadership is reached, in which the leader has a vision that aligns with the ideals of
the followers and inspires them to develop their own leadership capacity. This is considered the
most effective form of leadership within the FRLD theory.
Transformational leadership provides individuals with a source of both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation to complete the tasks assigned by the leader through four key behaviors:
idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration. With idealized influence the leader models high levels of performance and ethics,
which followers identify with, and this increases trust of the followers. A leader who develops and
articulates a vision that aligns with his or her followers shows inspirational motivation. To further
31
motivate followers, leaders who spend time listening, coaching, and teaching individuals display
individualized consideration. While none of the authors in the teaching literature specifically use the
terminology “transformational leadership,” they discuss aspects of it and the relationship that those
characteristics have in motivating students.
Five of the six authors indirectly discuss different qualities of transformational leadership
and their influence on motivation. Ajibade, and Ndububa argue that teachers who create an
environment where students feel respected as individuals are more interested in learning and open
to new ideas. This aligns with the transformational leadership concept of individualized
consideration, and they argue that it has positive effects on student motivation. McEown and
Takeuchi also discuss individualized consideration and its relationship to motivation. They discover
that a negative correlation occurred when teachers involved students in activities and kept pace with
them (29). This motivational strategy embodies intellectual stimulation and individualized
consideration because the teacher catered to the students’ pace and involved them in activities.
Another characteristic of transformational leadership that McEown and Takeuchi study is idealized
influence. They find that “a negative correlation in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching
English’” occurred. Enthusiasm can be categorized under idealized influence by indicating a desire
to teach, and an example of one who is fluent and engaged with the English language. Reusch et al.
also discusses the importance of idealized influence. Specifically, a teacher who “show[s] a good
example by being committed and motivated to helping the students succeed” (31) was one of the
highest rated motivational strategies by both teachers and students. Emmanuelson discusses
intellectual stimulation and its effect on motivation. Her research indicates how the two groups of
students studied, one with higher proficiency and the other with lower proficiency, were influenced
when the teacher encourages a stimulating, academic environment. This environment that she
discusses can also be categorized under intellectual stimulation. She finds that intellectual
32
stimulation is more influential in motivating the group with a higher English proficiency, while the
less proficient group struggled more often and preferred a more relaxed, easy environment.
Five of the six authors mention the importance of transformational leadership, with specific
emphasis on individualized consideration and idealized influence. Only the study of Japanese
students resulted in the opposite conclusion. The students were not only uninfluenced by aspects of
transformational leadership, but rather had a negative response to them. When teachers
implemented idealized influence through showing teaching enthusiasm, and enacted individualized
consideration when getting all students involved in activities, the data indicated that a negative
correlation to the students’ motivation occurred. Because of the discrepancy in the literature, my
survey has a specific focus on individualized consideration to determine that the general literature is
correct in praising individualized consideration.
The literature and my research align that when students are given individual consideration, a
form of transformational leadership, then they are more motivated to learn English. The teachers
responded to the statement “The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the
more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.” Around 80% of the participants
chose either a four or a five. This shows that a majority of the teachers agree, and my research
aligns with the literature in that when students are given individual consideration, they are more
motivated to learn English. While McKeown and Takeuchi’s research in Japan indicates that these
transformational leadership strategies do not prove successful in Japan, their findings portray the
importance of cultural effects on student motivation. While individualized consideration generally
supports student motivation, teachers must have awareness for the specific culture that they are
teaching to evaluate its effectiveness.
International Leadership Practices
While this paper looks at motivation through a case study of English students abroad, there
33
are many concepts and ideas that are translatable to international business practices. International
leaders and followers are always engaged in a mutual relationship, which should be based on a
common goal, as well as being equitable and ethical in the process of achieving that goal. In the
past, as shown through Zimmerman’s history of teaching English abroad, Western leaders have
attempted to impose their ethnocentric values onto their followers abroad. The results were
detrimental according to Zimmerman. In the same way, modern international leaders, when leading
foreign teams or working with organizations abroad, cannot force their cultural and social values
onto other cultures. This will alienate the followers of other cultures and make them feel lesser.
Successful and ethical leadership cannot be rooted in this power structure. Often, the followers will
begin to disregard the leader and retaliate against the treatment they receive. Accordingly,
international leaders need to be malleable and open to new styles of leadership, dependent on the
setting.
As with other leadership concepts, motivation depends on specific situations and factors. It
depends on culture, age, the leader’s actions, socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, work
environment, and many other influences. This is very important for international leaders to
understand. Because one motivational tactic is successful for one group of followers, it does not
mean that it will be successful for another. That same philosophy may result in negative effects on
follower motivation, and could actually create an unhealthy organizational climate, as it did with the
Japanese students’ negative responses to intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration.
Therefore, to most effectively motivate their followers, leaders must develop cultural intelligence,
which is the capability to deal effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds. There
are three main factors in becoming culturally intelligent: (1) becoming knowledgeable about how
cultures differ, (2) developing mindfulness, and (3) developing cross-cultural skills (Thomas &
Inkson, 16). These three steps relate to motivation, as shown through the literature and the findings
34
of the survey.
To become culturally intelligent, international leaders must become knowledgeable about
culture. This goes beyond the basic understanding that cultures differ, as this realization is obvious.
It is an understanding that culture is shared, and has profound influences on one’s behavior. Culture
is systematic and has developed over time according to a group’s values. There is a well-known
study by Geert Hofstede, who studied over 100,000 employees in over 50 countries, and rated each
country according to individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity
(Hofstede, 2016). These fundamentals, while generalizations, are integral for international leaders to
become familiar with. This clearly relates to motivation, as culture has profound influences over
behavior. The shared values of people must be respected in order to motivate them. In addition, an
individual in a highly collectivist culture is much more likely to be motivated when tasks are team-
oriented. Through this knowledge, international leaders master the first of the three layers of
cultural intelligence.
International leaders must also strive for cultural mindfulness. This is the ability to pay
attention to the context of a situation in a reflective and creative way. This is first manifested
through being mindful of one’s own assumptions, ideas, and emotions. Cultural mindfulness begins
with people becoming aware of their own culture. Mindfulness involves paying attention to one’s
senses, putting oneself into another person’s position, and categorizing people’s personalities and
cultural backgrounds as to improve future interactions. All of these actions are critical for
international leaders to motivate followers. People of varying cultures will act differently, and
leaders need to be constantly cognizant of how followers are feeling, responding, and viewing
situations as to foster a healthy relationship.
After one has developed cultural knowledge and mindfulness, then one can practice
building cross-cultural skills. Most problems that international leaders face involve communication
35
issues, misunderstandings, personality conflicts, poor leadership style, and bad teamwork. By
developing skills, international leaders can mitigate these potential problems. It is important to note
that this part of cultural intelligence does not mean that one develops skilled routines that are
mastered for a specific culture, as these “skills” will most likely not translate to other cultures.
Instead, one must improve more general skills, such as: relational skills, tolerance for uncertainty,
empathy, perceptual acuity, and adaptability. One must not only cultivate these skills, but also know
when to use each one. Cross-cultural skills are imperative for leaders who want to motivate
followers. Leaders can better relate to followers, and constantly improve how they interact with
people, no matter what setting they are in. They can choose the appropriate behavior that fosters
proper communication, trust, and respect from followers. This will increase follower motivation as
they will feel more comfortable and appreciated as individuals, willing to do the task necessary for
the common goal of the group.
By cultivating all three aspects of cultural intelligence, international leaders can feel
confident knowing that no matter the situation, they will be prepared to approach it with poise,
reflect on it, and learn valuable lessons that can be then applied in the future. Followers’ motivation
will be much stronger with culturally intelligent leaders, as the followers will be treated in a genuine
way that aligns with their culture(s), and makes them feel comfortable to work towards common
goals.
Concluding Thoughts:
More than 1.2 billion students are engaged in English classes around the world (How Large
Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?), and many scholars have studied how students are
best motivated, hoping to determine general trends and universal patterns that are successful. The
literature review indicates that students around the world are motivated by many factors, with
similarities and differences across cultures, age groups, and English skills. The primary research
36
studying seventy-five English teachers abroad indicate similarities and differences to the literature.
There is a similar emphasis on culture’s importance in influencing student motivation, but specific
motivational factors such as providing students with autonomy, or the idea that low proficiency
learners are less motivated, differed between the primary research and the literature. Although these
similarities and differences between the literature and the survey provide important conclusions,
they cannot be generalized for all students. As with other leadership concepts, student motivation
depends on specific situations and factors. It depends on culture, age, English proficiency,
socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, type of school (public or private), and many other
causes.
There are concerns with the literature gathered that must be discussed. Some of the
researchers studied more theoretical concepts such as emotional intelligence or transformational
leadership, while others study specific methods such as the teacher “speaking clearly and loudly” or
“providing sufficient study guides for the exam.” Consequently, the same concepts and frameworks
are not being studied in each cultural setting, so it is difficult to effectively determine how concrete
the similarities and differences are. The primary research differs from the literature, making
statistical analysis between them incompatible. While some basic statistical analysis is completed, it
is not sufficient to determine whether there is statistical difference between my research and the
literature. Due to this setback, the research examines broad motivational theories that can be
translated to future research and more easily cross-analyzed. Therefore, additional research in this
field should strategize to use the same framework across cultures to create a more unified collection
of information. In addition, the literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners, as well as
students aged fifteen or older. The primary research evaluates teachers who have taught all ages of
students, without any clear focus. It would be interesting for future research to evaluate the
37
motivation of young learners compared to older learners, as well as the relationship between
beginning and advanced learners’ motivation.
38
Works Cited
Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs, and
Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada
Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print.
arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivation
strategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and
year 8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se.
Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on Learner
Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
Web.
Hofste, Geert. "National Culture." The Hofstede Center. N.p., 2016. Web. 08 May 2016.
"How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?" How Large Is the Job Market for
English Teachers Abroad? 12 Feb. 2012. Web. 5 Dec. 2015.
McEown, Maya Sugita, and Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How
Do Teachers Impact Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1
(2014): 20–38. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.
Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Emotional
Intelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills
6.3(2015): 113–133. Print.
Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions of
Motivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language
Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.
Sosik, John J., and Don I. Jung. Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People, Profit,
39
and Planet. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.
Thomas, David C., and Kerr Inkson. Cultural Intelligence: Living and Working Globally. 2nd ed.
San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2009. Print.
Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print.
Appendix A
Country Number of Teachers Who Taught There3
Czech Republic 19
France 11
Spain 7
Germany 4
Poland 1
Italy 2
Turkey 1
Russia 2
Ukraine 1
Japan 10
Thailand 11
China 7
South Korea 3
Indonesia 1
3 Teachers may have taught in more one country
40
Cambodia 1
India 1
Mongolia 1
Vietnam 2
Taiwan 1
Kyrgyzstan 1
United Arab Emirates 3
Peru 1
Ecuador 1
Brazil 1
Guatemala 1
Chile 1
Czechoslovakia4 1
United States 1
United Kingdom5 1
Appendix B
Questionnaire for Teachers Abroad
Hi,
4 This teacher began his/her career in Czechoslovakia, before the country changed its name to the
Czech Republic
5 Two teachers indicated that after finishing teaching abroad, they either taught in the United States
or the United Kingdom. While this is not technically “teaching English abroad”, it may have
implications on their answers, so these countries are still noted.
41
My name is Joey Randazzo, a senior at the University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, WA. I am
conducting thesis research on how students are motivated to learn English abroad in TESOL/TEFL
classrooms. Because of your experience teaching abroad, I invite you to take this very brief (3-8
minute) survey. Your response will help me complete a significant thesis project and assist me in
my journey teaching abroad in just a couple of months. I am happy to share the results of the
survey.
Thank you for your time!
* Required
Preliminary Questions
What country did you teach in? * _________________________
What age group did you teach? * _________________________
What English proficiency did you teach? Low, moderate, or high? * ________________________
Main Questions
Providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to learn English. *
1 2 3 4 5
42
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore
increasing student motivation. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
Students are motivated to learn English with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto
university, etc. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated
that student will be to learn English. *
1 2 3 4 5
Disagree Agree
Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings
(optional). _______________________________________________________________________
Post-Questions
What other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English? (optional)
A more personal question: I will be teaching abroad starting in August, and any tips you feel
inclined to share would be great! I am particularly interested in volunteer teaching or working in a
developing country. (optional)

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Determinants of Motivation

  • 1. 1 Professor Matthews Business and the Liberal Arts 28 April 2016 Determinants of Motivation: English Language Students Abroad Sarah slowly walks down the jetway, exhausted after thirteen hours of travel. She is both excited and anxious about the opportunity ahead. The crisp, autumn air of Prague welcomes her – the picturesque Vltava river flows in between the Old Town Square where the orange tiled roofs match the falling leaves. Sarah is a recent college graduate from the University of Puget Sound. She is looking forward to teaching English abroad, and yet nervous about her lack of experience. She is ambitious, independent, and free-spirited – now is the time to experience life in another country. In Prague, Sarah enrolls in a four-week, accredited course to get her Teach English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) Certificate. She will get six hours of actual teaching experience and education from well-trained instructors. After passing the course, Sarah can go anywhere in the world to teach students of any age. Sarah searches for jobs and finds work teaching elementary school students in Thailand. She imagines the beautiful beaches and the friendly locals – life in paradise. But Sarah has romanticized the experience of being a teacher. And when she arrives in Thailand she quickly realizes that her assumptions about teaching English were wrong. Sarah has to teach thirty-five hours per week in overcrowded classrooms, leaving the remaining five hours in her paid workweek to prepare lessons and grade homework. Half of the students seem uninterested, without the desire to learn English. They argue that they are in rural Thailand and will never need to speak English. Sarah tries making the lessons interesting and interactive but the students do not react positively to these methods. She ends up working fifty to sixty hours per week. Sarah is burnt out and does not know what to do.
  • 2. 2 Sadly, Sarah’s experience is one that happens quite often. Recent college graduates are entranced with the romantic idea of traveling abroad to teach English. They do not contemplate how difficult teaching English is, especially with cultural barriers. In addition, many new teachers state that one of the most difficult things they experience when teaching abroad is unmotivated students. They try different tactics to motivate students based on assumptions that they have from their own prior experiences. But they fail to understand the many different aspects that influence student motivation, such as age, English proficiency, culture, and classroom climate. Introduction: An estimated 250,000 native English speakers are currently teaching English abroad at nearly 40,000 schools and language institutes around the world (How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?). It is a lucrative industry for recent graduates and those who want to travel while earning income. Although traveling the world and teaching English sounds glamorous, teaching English effectively is not easy—especially across different cultures, as depicted in Sarah’s experience. Researchers have determined that one of the most difficult problems that teachers face across cultures is unmotivated students. So, how are students motivated to learn English? Are there any philosophies or methods utilized by teachers that are effective across cultures, age groups, and levels of English proficiencies? If so, what are they? If not, what determinants are causing those to not be universally effective? These questions have led to extensive international research in many disciplines, including education, history, psychology, and leadership studies. This paper will be divided into five sections: a literature review, a synthesis of conclusions from the literature review, primary research through an international questionnaire, analysis of the research, and the correlation of the literature and research to transformational leadership. The literature review begins with a short synopsis of the history of teaching English abroad. This provides an understanding of why teachers have been
  • 3. 3 driven to teach in different countries over the last century. The history of teachers’ motivation is related to why people teach English abroad today. The literature review includes a detailed summary of each source and sets the context for how scholars study important factors in determining how students are motivated to learn English. This research is conducted in several countries, including: Nigeria, Iran, Japan, Chile and Sweden. Many common themes about student motivation emerged; however, differences in the research are also evident. A synthesis of the sources identifies four main thematic similarities: (1) autonomy increases student motivation, (2) English proficiency has implications on student motivation (3) positive organizational climates increase student motivation, and (4) cultural variables affect student motivation. In addition, thematic differences and outliers in the research will be noted, including the effect of: utilizing culturally relevant games and stories, future ambitions, and gender. To test the validity of the literature, I created a seven-question survey based on a five-point Likert Scale. These seven questions were aligned with the literature’s main findings, as to cross- analyze and determine the validity of literature’s conclusions. The conclusions from the survey are related to the literature review to determine commonalities and differences amongst them. Through the analysis of the existing literature and my research, it is determined that, in general, the literature and the primary research align in their conclusions. But, there are two important differences that exist between these two forms of research: (1) student autonomy may not increase motivation, and (2) low language proficiency may not decrease motivation. The teachers also indicated four main themes when asked if any other factors influence student motivation, which are: (1) travel, (2) relevance of the material, (3) social influences, and (4) teacher encouragement. Student motivation abroad has also never been looked at through the lens of transformational leadership, which has strong influences on student motivation to learn English abroad. The findings have implications related to international leadership in general.
  • 4. 4 Transformational leadership practices have positive influences on the motivation of followers, but also have slightly different effects based on culture, which is prevalent in the results of the literature and my research. Literature Review: History of English Teachers Abroad: Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century is the seminal work on the history of teaching English abroad. Zimmerman states that historically, three distinct types of teachers have worked abroad: colonials, missionaries, and volunteers (Zimmerman, 16-17). All have struggled in their endeavor to educate students. The main points of conflict have been cultural disconnects, the debate over American-style education versus traditional rote training, health and sanitation education, and the ethical dilemmas that confronted most teachers. There are two distinct periods that motivated teachers to work abroad. The first was before World War II, when American imperialism and exceptionalism brought about a strong desire to “civilize the other.” The post-war period was defined by increasing questioning of these superior attitudes, and teachers began asking themselves whether it was their right to transport Americanized values to their host countries. However, although teachers continued to impose American values on their students because of cultural disconnects. Teachers also reflected on inequality in America. Several broad characteristics classify most historical English teachers abroad. These teachers were usually white, middle-class, and did not pursue education as a profession or career (Zimmerman, 14). In the pre-WWII period, the majority of teachers were colonial teachers who sought to westernize the students and the traditional styles of education. The colonial teaching period began with a mass movement of teachers starting at the turn of the twentieth century. On July 23, 1901, the U.S transport ship Thomas left the United States headed for the Philippines with 526 teachers on
  • 5. 5 board. American teachers were shipped off to many colonial locations, including Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Philippines, and Guam. These colonials were the main English teachers abroad in the first three decades of the twentieth century. Zimmerman states that “wherever [the teachers] went…Americans sought to spread their allegedly universalistic values; indeed, they cast themselves as the globe’s lone ‘powerhouse’ of ‘the ideals of ‘Freedom and Justice’…” (Zimmerman 4). This was particularly true during the colonial era. The teachers attempted to westernize other nations through the implementation of American values. Teachers were appalled at the rote, European method of learning and its prioritization of memorization and recitation. Therefore, American English teachers tried to change systems, denouncing the students’ inability to think, and only to memorize. This attack on rote systems continued through to the second era of American teachers working abroad. The teachers also despised the poor sanitation and health of these societies, as well as the societal structures for reprimanding children. Teachers set up courses devoted to teaching the “uncivilized” peoples how to live. They created sports teams and other health and fitness classes in hopes of minimizing unsafe sexual practices and spreading disease among the local population. The teachers in this early period were insistent on “transmitting ‘virtue’ or knowledge’ to people who lacked them” (Zimmerman, 6). In addition, American teachers struggled with the common practice of corporal punishment among native teachers. American English teachers initially denounced this style of reprimanding children to create obedience, but soon many resorted to hitting children, publicly embarrassing them for acting out, and other activities. Although these cultural disconnects persisted after the war, many American English teachers began to question the superiority and imposition of the educational system that they were once so insistent on. Over time, especially after WWII, teachers began to see that the students in their classrooms simply did not agree or align with the Americanized values that they were attempting to enforce.
  • 6. 6 The students had their own cultures and beliefs. Therefore, teachers abroad attempted to determine whether American styles of education should take precedence over indigenous ones (Zimmerman, 8). Most teachers struggled with this dilemma, trying to cater to the students’ cultural needs while simultaneously teaching based on the training they received back home. After these post WWII teachers, especially Peace Corps and other volunteer teachers, had lived in relative poverty, they also began to question the cultural imperialism and materialism that spread overseas. But teachers still imposed American values on students, and criticized the rote method more strongly following the war. American teachers condemned the methods of memorization in which passing examinations were more critical than the learning and application of the material. Teachers pushed against the standardized testing and attempted to impose more discussion-based, practical application learning methods for students. These cultural impositions did not go well. Students began to boycott American teachers and begged to go back to fact-based, examination-centered lessons. They needed to pass the examinations to receive good jobs. The teachers desire to rid rote also stemmed from their desire to promote a more relaxed tone in the classroom, where teachers could be friends with the students. After WWII, teachers abroad increasingly attempted to create a relaxed tone in the classroom. They hoped to be a friend first, and a teacher second. America was becoming more egalitarian in nature with the Civil Rights Movement, and many of the teachers who chose to go overseas were more likely to be progressive individuals (Zimmerman, 44). They also wanted to create equality in their classrooms abroad. But the teachers did not understand that students in some cultures prefer not to have a personal relationship with teachers. Some students therefore acted with discomfort, passive resistance, and sometimes hostility towards teachers’ appeal for friendship. The
  • 7. 7 cultural disconnects continued after WWII when teachers abroad supported vocational training rather than the traditional subjects that students desired to learn. The American teachers desired to help students out of economic poverty, especially through vocational training. They pushed for utilitarian sources of teaching over providing what the students in particular cultures wanted. It predominantly centered on the discussion of providing students with the means to meet their “Basic Human Needs,” which included classes such as cabinetmaking and auto repair. According to teachers, these courses could provide employment opportunities, where English and science could not (Zimmerman, 70). Although the vocational trend only employed ten to twenty percent of teachers abroad, it never claimed the majority. Americans quoted people like Gandhi, who emphasized ensuring livelihood and independence through practical education, to justify their decision for vocational training. But again, students resisted this style of education and wanted instead to learn traditional subjects like English, math, and science (Zimmerman, 72). Cultural disconnects plagued American teachers in both the pre-war and post-war settings. Although teachers began to question their American cultural imperialism after WWII, they still attempted to transport their values, educational methods, and societal structures into the classroom. McEown, Maya Sugita, and +Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How Do Teachers Impact Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1 (2014): 20–38. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. McEown, Psychology professor at the University of Alberta, and Takeuchi, professor of Foreign Language Studies at Kansai University in Japan, conducted a study to determine if seventeen motivational strategies (MS) used by English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Japan were effective. The MSs included specific leadership approaches, such as “speak in a clear voice” or “start the class on time.” There were two groups studied—one with students of higher English proficiency and higher initial motivation, and another with lower English proficiency and lower initial motivation. They conducted surveys during four different points in the semester.
  • 8. 8 Only two out of the seventeen motivational strategies showed similar responses between the two groups, which were: “‘Start the class exactly on time’ and ‘Make a clear explanation for class assessments and exams’” (32). These two MSs appeared important due to cultural customs. The teachers in Japan give warnings to students who have been late and punish their grades. Many of the students are also concerned with the final exam (29). Japanese students are culturally aware, sensitive to punctuality, and are grade-oriented, so they consequently respond most positively to these MSs. Of the remaining fifteen MSs, the two control groups differed, proving that the students’ perception of effective MSs was different depending on their English proficiency and motivational levels (33). In other words, within the same culture, motivational strategies differed extensively. Although the effectiveness of MSs can depend on culture, this study discovered one motivational implication applicable to all cultures—the time of the semester. The research concluded that the correlations between the frequency of the instructor’s motivational strategy use and perceived students’ motivation are not stable, but rather depend on the time of the semester (30). While it is universally true that the time of the semester has implications on student motivation, other factors were not applicable across cultures. Conventional wisdom in Western education highly esteems when teachers are enthusiastic and cater to the individual needs of students. This Western philosophy also argues that these practices can increase students’ motivation to learn. But, this seemingly effective style of leadership had an undesirable effect with the students in this research. Specifically, “a negative correlation in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching English’” was noted, “which was surprising” (32-33). In addition, a negative correlation was found when EFL teachers “‘Ke[pt] pace with the students and g[ot] them involved in the activities’” (29). These two aspects, which the authors note are important in other educational cultures, were not only ineffective in motivating students to learn, but actually had an adverse effect on students’ motivation.
  • 9. 9 Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills 6.3(2015): 113–133. Print. Roohani and Mohammadi, both professors at Shahrekord University in Iran, investigated the relationship between teachers’ Emotional Intelligence (EI) and students’ motivational attributes. The researchers examined five aspects of EI: intrapersonal relationship, interpersonal relationships, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. They discovered EI has significant influence in developing student motivation, which supports previous literature indicating that a direct correlation between teachers’ EI and student motivation exists. Roohani and Mohammadi indicate, through the study of 30 EFL teachers and 221 advanced- level adult students, that the teacher’s adaptability is the best tool to increase student motivation (136). If teachers are flexible and cater to the needs of the students and the demands of the situation, students indicate higher motivational levels. Although adaptability had the highest correlation in the study, other aspects of EI are also important for EFL teachers. The researchers emphasize that all components of EI are significant. They state that “highly emotionally-intelligent EFL teachers who are high in such skills as interpersonal relationship, stress management, adaptability, and happy mood can influence their students’ interest and intensity” (139). In addition, EFL teachers with a high EI are able to create a fun environment and a nonthreatening relationship with the students, which increases the students’ likelihood participate in class. Rahooni and Mohammadi’s study concluded that “in an Iranian EFL context, teachers’ EI skills can be positively related to their students’ motivational attributes such as their attitude towards learning” (140). Therefore, all aspects of EI are critical in increasing student motivation in EFL classrooms. Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs, and Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print.
  • 10. 10 Although English is an important part of curricula for primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions in Nigeria, millions of students fail to learn the language. Researchers Yetunde Ajibade, professor at Obafemi Awolowo University, and Kate Ndububa, professor at Ambassadors’ College, explored “how word games and culturally relevant instructional activities such as songs and stories could be used in motivating students” (28). The researchers developed and conducted an experiment that took place over three weeks. The experiment involved sixty Senior Secondary School II students from a school in the Ife East Local Government Area of Osun State. The population was split into two groups of thirty with one control group and one experimental group. The control group was taught using conventional methods. The experimental group was taught comprehension through culturally relevant stories, vocabulary through songs, and idiomatic expressions using word games. In addition, the experimental group was given more autonomy and freedom when completing assignments. The researchers concluded that participants in the control group did not exhibit any significant improvement in their motivation, whereas the experimental group did (38). This proves that the culturally relevant teaching style used for the experimental group had positive effects. Not only was student motivation highly influenced, but it was also determined that English performance increased as a result of using word games and culturally relevant instruction. The researchers state that the “experimental group’s improvement in performance in English could be attributed to the effect of the treatment adopted” (39). Consequently, student motivation and English performance increased as a result of culturally relevant instruction. Ajibade and Ndububa also argue that other strategies are influential in improving student motivation. Teachers who can make students feel respected as individuals are more likely to help them strive to learn for the sake of learning and willing to be creative and open to new ideas (30). Age also has implications on intrinsic motivation. Ajibade and Ndububa state that whereas young
  • 11. 11 children tend to maintain high prospects for success even in the face of recurring failure, older students do not. Younger pupils tend to see effort as positive, whereas older learners view it as having unintended consequences (30). Therefore, age has effects on student motivation, even within the same cultural setting. Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on Learner Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. This study carried out by Katharina Glas examines perceived student motivation of learning English in secondary schools in Chile. She explores the teachers’ perspectives on student motivation in the context of external and internal constraints, and how possible “spaces for manoeuvre” can positively influence student motivation. The researchers interviewed nineteen teachers who taught in public schools, semi-private schools, and private schools in proportions approximately equal to those of the Chilean school system. In these interviews “the lack of student motivation is perceived to be one of the greatest challenges facing an English teacher in Chile” (6). The teachers in Chile stated both internal and external constraints that either inhibit or intensify student motivation. A majority of the English teachers indicated that the “low expectations, lack of support, and difficult access to motivational resources can work together to undermine teacher’s efforts” (10). Often, senior level teachers and administration do not find English that important, and in general the stigma that “learning English is not important for these youngsters” (10) is perpetuated in Chilean culture. Glas states that “the government initiatives have forgotten about the marginalised sector (teaching English)…” (11) which these teachers work in. The main internal constraints that teachers criticized are the government-mandated textbooks. Many of the teachers argued that students are actually highly motivated to learn English, but prefer to learn through mediums which interest them (pop culture, music, world affairs, etc), rather than boring textbooks.
  • 12. 12 Although constraints were prevalent, the researchers determined that three main “spaces for manoevre” were found in teachers’ perception of increasing student motivation: immediacy of experience, learner autonomy, and empowering contents. The data suggests that to motivate students the teachers must relate to the students’ current interests and “do things to exploit the immediate relevance of English in the students’ lives, rather than telling them what English might be good for later on” (14). Glas also determined that providing learning autonomy can have large implications on increasing student motivation, as flexibility will allow them to pursue topics that they are interested in. This will allow them to exploit their instinctive curiosity and thus support intrinsic motivation (15). Lastly, empowering contents is also critical to positively effect student motivation. She argues that if the teacher can provide motivating content, then, as a result, the teacher can “tap into the three needs that must be met according to self-determination theory” (17), which are competence, relatedness, and autonomy. arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivation strategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and year 8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. Emanuelsson, an English teacher, conducted a study to examine the effects of collaborative learning techniques on student motivation to learn English in Gothenburg, Sweden. It focuses on a collaborative teaching method that organizes classroom instruction to focus on promoting cooperation to achieve common learning expectations (10). Essentially, the collaborative teaching method encourages students to work in small groups in which each member shares responsibility, ridding the educational system of intense personal competition. It involves group work, shared knowledge between the teacher and students, multiple tasks, and a heterogeneous group of students. To determine if this teaching style is effective, Emanuelsson created a month long lesson that involved the students planning, researching, writing, and presenting on what factors influence how individuals speak (accents, linguistic concepts, slang, etc.). Using surveys, interviews, and
  • 13. 13 extensive observation, the researcher split the respondents into two groups. Group A, with thirty- four students, had the highest level of English proficiency, while Group B, twenty-one students, possessed lower English proficiency. The results concluded that many factors influenced student motivation, and there were substantial discrepancies between Group A and Group B. The study indicated that the students’ initial attitude toward learning English has a strong influence on student motivation. Aspects of the initial attitude were intrinsic motivation, cultural interest, linguistic self-confidence, and future ambitions. Therefore, there are many characteristics of student motivation that the teacher does not have control over, since it is pre-determined. But, the study determined that the teacher could increase motivation through many actions and concepts. The first determinant that increased student motivation was to make the learning tasks stimulating. Next, Emanuelsson established that encouraging a stimulating environment is crucial to motivating English students. Third, increasing learners’ goal-orientedness was important. Lastly, the relevance of the learning materials in mastering English affects how motivated students are. Although these were relatively common among Group A and Group B, there were differences. For example, encouraging a stimulating environment was more influential for the group with a higher proficiency. The researcher determined that the less proficient group struggled more often and preferred a more relaxed, easy environment. Therefore, English proficiency has strong implications on student motivation. Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions of Motivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. This study examines language learning in general, from Israeli students learning Arabic to Chinese students learning English. Ruesch et al. studied 136 students and 84 teachers at North American universities who were involved in one or more diverse set of languages, including: Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Spanish, Hungarian, Italian, French, Russian, and/or German.
  • 14. 14 The study compares teachers’ and students’ perceptions of motivational teaching practices known as macrostrategies, and also compares these perceptions to previous research in the field to determine if cross-cultural similarities or differences occur. The first major conclusion that Ruesch et al. determined was that teachers do tend to rate macrostrategies differently than students do (19). Students and teachers in the study disagreed on the macrostragy of effort, with teachers rating it as the 6th most motivational practice, while students rated effort significantly lower at 10th overall (22). Similarities and differences occur across cultures. Similarities included the macrostrategies of teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and presenting tasks properly, while the differences include social comparisons and levels of effort. Although these parallels occur, there are a couple of distinct differences. First, the most striking difference between North American and Hungarian data is the concept of comparison—for example avoiding social comparisons (21). Teachers in the U.S. rarely want to openly compare students, and ranked it 3rd among motivational practices. In contrast, Hungarian teachers ranked it 18th, or completely last, while Taiwanese teachers ranked it 41st out of 47th, showing that cross-cultural differences have large effects on specific aspects of motivation. Next, Taiwanese teachers ranked effort very high, while U.S. teachers ranked it moderately, and Hungarian teachers ranked it rather low. When looking at cultural aspects, Asian students emphasize effort more than their Western counterparts (21). This study determined that multiple effective motivational strategies are similar across cultures, including teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and presenting tasks properly. But other motivational macrostrategies did not translate across cultures, including effort and openly comparing students. Not only did macrostrategies differ across cultures, but students and teachers themselves had different perceptions of their effectiveness in motivation. Thematic Synthesis:
  • 15. 15 Similarities: Autonomy Increases Student Motivation Three of the studies conclude that autonomy increases student motivation, while one additional study suggests its importance. In the Chilean study, Glas argues that providing learners with autonomy is one of the most critical teaching philosophies in increasing students’ motivation. Her data “suggested a positive interrelationship between teacher autonomy…, learner autonomy…, and motivation” (15). Ajibade and Ndububa support this finding, as students in this study were allowed to have some degree of control over the learning process (34) and consequently out- performed the control group that lacked autonomy. Ruesch et al. also describe the significance that Hungarian English students associate with autonomy in increasing their motivation. English Proficiency Has Implications on Motivation Only three out of the six studies analyzed English proficiency’s effect on motivation. All three underscore the effect that students’ language proficiency has on their motivation. In the Swedish study, the researchers divided the students into two groups based on proficiency levels, and the results differed greatly between these two groups. McEown and Takeuchi discovered the same results, stating that the effectiveness of some MSs varied according to students’ English proficiency (22). Therefore, the students’ language proficiency levels must be taken into account when determining how motivated they are to learn English. Strong Organizational Climate Increases Motivation Five of the six studies reference organizational climate and its significance to student motivation. Roohani and Mohammadi examined that an effective organizational climate can create a fun and optimistic environment in the classroom, hence promoting collaboration and participation in classroom activities (139). Ruesch et al.’s research also indicates the consequences of organizational climate, and the data between language learners in the United States, Taiwan and
  • 16. 16 Hungary concludes that creating a pleasant classroom climate was among the most important strategies for all three cultures analyzed (21). While creating a positive mood in the classroom is influential, Glas also recognizes an uncontrollable determinant of organizational culture and its impact on motivation. She discusses how the history of learning English in Chile, which consists of negative sentiments, has a noticeable, adverse influence on student motivation. Cultural Implications Five of the six studies directly emphasize that cultural contexts can affect student motivation, while Roohani and Mohammadi suggest its importance throughout their research. Emanuelsson, who studied English students in Sweden, states that EFL students around the world are “located in different cultural and historical contexts that can definitely affect their motivation to learn” (5). McEown and Takeuchi agree, arguing that some motivational strategies could be universal while others could be contingent on culture (21). Glas stresses relevance of culture in student motivation and discusses how even institutional culture and familial culture can differ between well-off and disadvantaged sectors of the same city. All of the research acknowledges that cultural factors play a large role in how students are motivated to learn English. Differences: Culturally Relevant Games and Stories Ajibade and Ndububa indicate a motivational factor that all of the other authors disregard. They state that students in Nigeria, when taught English using culturally relevant songs, games and stories, have higher motivation to learn English than students taught using conventional methods. They argue that providing students with cultural familiarities in lessons will consequently result in students being more attentive and willing to learn, therefore increasing motivation. Future Ambitions
  • 17. 17 Emanuelsson’s study in Sweden was the only research that emphasizes a student’s initial attitude towards learning English and its effects on motivation. She found that the students who desired to learn the “language as an instrument for future ambitions” (38) had more motivation than students with weaker initial interest in learning English. Gender Although all of the studies indicate the gender of the participants in their research methodology, only Ajibade and Ndububa discuss the implications of gender on student motivation. They discovered that culturally relevant songs and stories designed to motivate students had no significantly different effect on the motivation of male and female students (40). It seems possible that the motivational levels would be similar for male and female students across all other studies, but the other authors failed to analyze this variable. Research: Introduction This section provides an explanation of my research strategy, an overview of the English teachers who volunteered to participate in the study, a description of the questionnaire used to illicit data from the teachers, and a brief explanation of the data analysis. Participants This study is designed to focus on the opinions of current and former English teachers abroad. It allows them to share their thoughts on how students are motivated to learn English. Student views are not included in this study. Teachers from around the world contributed. The participants include English teachers in private American or British schools, teachers in public institutions, private tutors, and volunteer teachers in the Peace Corps or other organizations. The teachers were found through my personal connections to a TEFL certification course TEFL WorldWide Prague, which marketed the survey via its Facebook page. Other personal
  • 18. 18 connections were also used to find teachers. People who took the survey also sent it to other teachers. The survey was also on LinkedIn and the University of Puget Sound’s alumni network. There were seventy-five teachers who completed the questionnaire. They had taught in twenty eight1 different countries. Most teachers only taught in one country, while some taught in up to five different countries. The seventy-five teachers taught a multitude of age groups – from kindergarten to adults – as well as low English proficiency levels to advanced English speakers. Instruments The primary instrument of this study was a questionnaire administered to the teachers via Google Forms, which provides simple data collection and analysis2. The questionnaire for this study was designed on the research conclusions provided in the literature review. Seven main questions were asked, correlating to the main findings from the literature review. A five-point Likert Scale was used to determine how strongly the teachers agreed. For example “Providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English” was one of the seven statements. Answering with a one is strongly disagreeing with the statement, while five is strongly agreeing. Teachers also had the option to explain the choices they checked to help give context to their ratings. Teachers also had an optional question asking them if there were any other factors in their own experience that influenced student motivation. Internal validity of the responses was difficult to monitor. The link to the online survey was available for anybody with access to it. In addition, I did not know the qualifications of the teachers or know who they were, so I had to trust the merit of the autonomous responses. Data Analysis The purpose of gathering the data was to determine if it aligned with the major conclusions of the literature review. In order to accomplish this, the teachers participating in the survey 1 The list of countries where teachers have taught is attached in Appendix A 2 The questionnaire used is attached in Appendix B
  • 19. 19 answered seven questions that inquire how students are motivated to learn English abroad. The data was analyzed based on the responses from each of these seven questions. Autonomy: The response to “providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English” yielded a variety of answers. Forty percent of the participants responded with neutrality on this statement by marking the number three. 18.7% of the participants disagree, or somewhat disagree, with this statement by answering with a one or two. The remaining 41.3% of the teachers agree or somewhat agree with this statement. There were a couple of recurring explanations that teachers provided when answering this question. They indicated that autonomy was more successful with higher-proficiency learners, and that lower-level English speakers need much more instruction. There was also an indication that autonomy is only successful when there is a structured foundation to build on. Language Proficiency: To examine how language proficiency affects student motivation, the participants responded to the statement “Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English.” As shown by the graph, there is a scattered response. Slightly over half of the respondents, 50.7%,
  • 20. 20 disagreed with this statement, and 30.7% agreed with it. The remaining 18.7%5 remained neutral. There is one recurring theme in the teachers’ explanations to this response: this statement is true and more noticeable if the low-proficiency students are in a class with many higher proficiency students that dominate conversation and participation. Classroom Mood: The teachers collectively had a clear response to the statement “A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation”. Seventy-three out of the seventy-five participants agreed with this assertion, and the remaining two teachers neither agreed nor disagreed by answering with a three. The teachers overwhelmingly commented on this statement with sentiments such as “You have to remind them that the classroom is a safe space to make mistakes. Every one is still learning” or “A positive environment definitely increased motivation. I found that when the classroom environment was fun and positive, students were more inclined to participate.” These views indicate that a positive classroom environment increases students’ motivation to learn through increased participation and engagement. Culture:
  • 21. 21 To examine if the literature is correct in arguing that cultural factors influence student motivation, the statement “Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to learn English” was evaluated by participants of the survey. The majority of teachers, 74.7%, agreed with this statement. Only 5.3% moderately disagreed, while the remaining 20% rated this with a three, indicating neither agreement nor disagreement. The teachers indicated very strongly in their responses how important and influential culture is to student motivation, especially with common thread participants indicating how influential Asian cultures are. For example, one participant indicated that “this is especially true in Japan where the group opinion outweighs an individual's opinion. Kids want to fit in and be exactly like their peers” or one teacher had “students who would say that they are Arab so they should be speaking in Arabic, not English.” One teacher began teaching in the Czech Republic right after independence from communist rule, and indicated that students are highly motivated to learn English because they were forbidden to speak it during this rule. There were countless examples of how cultural structures either increased or decreased student motivation. Students’ Families:
  • 22. 22 The claim that “The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student motivation” yielded relatively uniform results. The highest percentage of teachers responded neutrally, indicating that in their experience the students’ families did not directly affect motivation in a positive or negative way. 48% of teachers agreed that students’ families encourage them to learn English, while only twelve percent disagreed. Future Ambitions: The teachers collectively agree with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.” The bulk of the ratings, 73.3%, agreed with this statement. Only 6.6% disagreed that students were motivated by future ambitions, and 20% indicated that it neither increased nor decreased motivation. The teachers indicated in their contextual explanations that this is most likely true in the case of older students nearing university. But many teachers also indicated that cultural influences affect this, as some cultures begin testing students on English skills at four or five years old to determine what schools
  • 23. 23 they will go to. Other teachers indicated that this is less true for students who are required to learn English, and do not necessarily choose to be there. Individual Consideration: The participants in the survey validate the statement that “the more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.” Only four percent of the teachers oppose this assertion while eighty percent of the teachers agree. The remaining 16% indicated that the more individual consideration students receive from teachers does not affect intrinsic motivation in a positive or negative way. Although the teachers as a whole indicated this statement as valid, there were important observations that they elaborated on in individualized consideration could be negative for students. The teachers indicated that students might be humiliated or embarrassed by receiving extra attention in front of their peers. The teachers also discussed that giving attention to specific students could alienate the rest of the group and make them feel unimportant. Balance was mentioned as a crucial qualifier for agreeing with this statement. Connections BetweenResearchandLiterature Review The literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners. My research does not have a particular focus, and includes all levels of English learners. The literature only studies older students, between the levels of high school and university. This has the potential for creating
  • 24. 24 disconnects between the literature and the research, as students of older ages might be motivated to learn English differently than younger students. The primary research and the literature are mostly aligned in their findings, but there are also some differences between them. Both the literature and the primary research find that cultural factors and language proficiency have an effect, either positive or negative, student motivation. They both conclude that motivation is increased due to the following factors: the students’ future ambitions in education and careers, teacher providing students with individual consideration, and a positive classroom environment. While these commonalities are present, the literature and primary research have different findings on the importance of autonomy in increasing student motivation. Effect of Student Autonomy on Motivation Differs Between Literature and Primary Research Four of the six pieces of literature indicate that providing English learners with autonomy will positively affect their motivation. But this does not align with the findings of the primary research. Just as many teachers responded neutrally as either agreeing or somewhat agreeing – both around forty percent. The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses to this question on the survey was 3.35. A statistical mean of four or five would indicate that the teachers collectively support the findings of the literature. But, because the mean is closer to three, the teachers in the study collectively are more indifferent to the argument that providing students with autonomy increases their motivation. When the data is analyzed based on region, slightly different results are found; however, they are skewed based on sample size. The responses for teachers who taught in Asia had a statistical mean of 3.16, slightly lower than the overall average. The statistical mean for the responses of English teachers who taught in Europe is 3.39, just slightly higher than the overall average, but still not high enough to indicate that the teachers in Europe agree with the literature. Only two teachers taught in the Middle East and the mean of their data is 3.5, which is not conclusive to the literature’s findings. A mean of 4.66 is calculated for the responses of teachers in
  • 25. 25 South or Central America, which aligns with the literature review. But with a sample size of only three, one cannot say with confidence that students in this region are motivated to learn English when given more autonomy. Therefore, because of the disconnect between the literature and the primary research, it cannot be concluded whether providing students with autonomy will have a positive effect on their motivation to learn English. Cultural Factors Have Implications on Student Motivation The primary research and the literature review reach the same conclusion that cultural factors have implications on student motivation. Those factors can either positively or negatively influence motivation. All six pieces of literature emphasize the importance of cultural factors’ influence on student motivation. The seventy-five teachers in the primary research collectively agree with the literature, as 74.7% either agreed or somewhat agreed. But, there are regional differences between the teachers’ responses. The average for teachers in Europe is 3.79, while it is 4.38 for those in Asia. Although a mean of 3.79 is shifted enough to conclude that teachers in Europe find culture to be fairly important, it may not be strong enough to confidently conclude that teachers in Europe agree with the literature on culture’s effect on motivation. The variance of 0.59 between the data for Asia and Europe is also large enough to make it appear that there is a difference between how culture affects motivation in Asia versus Europe. The teachers from Asia noted in their comments how different and influential the educational culture is, while European teachers did not mention its relevance in their comments as often. The two individuals who taught in the Middle East both rated this question with a five, while the mean for South American teacher responses is 4.33, but the sample size is too small to confidently come to a conclusion. While there are variations within the data, as a whole the primary research aligns with the literature in concluding that cultural factors have implications on student motivation to learn English. Language Proficiency Affects Motivation Based on Individual Circumstances
  • 26. 26 Three of the six pieces of literature claim that English language proficiency levels affect students’ motivation. Two of the three made this claim more broadly, speaking of its importance but indicating how the motivation of more proficient students is different from the motivation of less proficient students. Emanuelsson’s study indicates the significance of English proficiency as well, but has a more specific argument. She states that lower level English students are less motivated to learn English, while higher-level students are more motivated. The statement “Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English” that the teachers responded to in the survey coincides with Emanuelsson’s findings. It does not ask of the importance of language proficiency on motivation in general, but the results that the teachers provide, as well as the their extended comments, can be analyzed to determine the general effects of language proficiency on motivation. The statistical average of the responses is 2.71, without any noticeable variations based on specific regions. The teachers are collectively indifferent to this statement. It can be assumed that this statistical average means that the teachers think that low language proficiency does not have a strong affect on student motivation. While this is true, the results are so varied that the mean may not be a good indicator of the results. Consequently, the standard deviation is 1.41, which is relatively high compared to the standard deviation of other responses. This means that the data is more spread out, and that over two-thirds of the data lies between the normal distribution. In this case the normal distribution is between 1.30 and 4.12, which is essentially the whole data set. This means that the results are so widespread that a clear conclusion cannot be drawn from the data. Emanuelsson’s findings are not supported by the primary research, so it cannot be stated assertively that lower English proficiency decreases student motivation. But, the teachers’ explanations indicate that they did find English proficiency to be important in its implications on student motivation. Many sentiments such as “In some cases absolutely [low English proficiency decreases student motivation], in some cases no. My experience had a healthy mixture of both from those that I
  • 27. 27 worked with…” were voiced. Therefore, the respondents indicated that English proficiency does affect motivation, but were unable to determine exactly how. The Importance of a Strong Organizational Climate The primary research and the literature align with the notion that a strong organizational climate in the classroom will increase student motivation. Five of the six articles of literature declare that having a positive classroom mood will increase student motivation to learn English. The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses is 4.75, which clearly indicates that the teachers agree with the statement, a “A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation.” Because of the clear correlation between the literature and the primary research, a positive classroom environment does increase student motivation to learn English. Future Ambition The literature and the primary research concur that students are motivated to learn English because of a future ambition to get a job or go to university. Emanuelsson, who studied English learners in Sweden, is the only author who discusses these future ambitions, she argues that students are more motivated to learn English if they have these ambitions. While 73.7% of the participants either agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.,” the statistical mean was only 4.03. This average states that as a group the teachers collectively somewhat agree with the statement. Although it cannot be confidently stated that the primary research and the literature align, it appears that they are associated. Students’ Families Glas illustrates that external factors can influence students’ motivation to learn English. She emphasizes that the students’ families can encourage them to learn English, usually associated with the parents’ understanding of globalization or desiring their children to have a better life by
  • 28. 28 studying abroad or finding work abroad. Parents can also dissuade children to want to learn English because of cultural or national pride. While Glas establishes that family life has an impact on student motivation, she did not deduce whether there is a general trend of families being more supportive or against learning English. Consequently, the survey question “The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student motivation” is asked to determine how the statement corresponds with the seventy-five participants. The statistical average of the data is 3.44, portraying that teachers are relatively impartial to this statement, with a slight trend towards somewhat agreeing with the statement. There are some concerns with the answers to this question. Many of the respondents who answered with a three explained that they either did not know about the family situations outside of school or that it depended on the particular student in the class—they could not make a general assessment either way. There is a theme in the teachers’ responses stating that if the families speak English at home or for their careers, then this statement is more likely to be true. In addition, many of the participants also indicated that there is a fine line between the families encouraging and pressuring students to learn. Particularly the teachers who taught in Asia mentioned that the families may push the students too hard. Therefore, there is no conclusion to show whether students abroad are motivated because their families encourage them, but the literature and primary research both emphasize the importance of this factor. Other Factors Due to the conciseness of the survey, only seven main questions were asked. Therefore, there may be other factors that the participants think influence student motivation that did not relate to one of the questions asked. Consequently, teachers were given an opportunity to answer the question: “What other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English?” After
  • 29. 29 analyzing the responses. Four main themes emerged: students interested in traveling, the relevance of the teaching material, social influences, and encouragement from the teacher. Travel: The most common theme that emerged is that students are motivated to learn because of the opportunity to travel. They cited that English is a globalized language and they can travel to many different countries where they can speak English. They indicated three types of traveling opportunities that students are motivated by: current business travel, future leisure travel, and study abroad. Relevance: The teachers emphasized that students are more motivated to learn when the lesson plans cater to the students’ interests. Pop culture, music, television, movies, and other cultural ideas that are associated with the English language are often important to students, and they want to learn English in order understand and interact with these ideas. Glas and Emanuelsson, although not citing this as a major factor to student motivation, mention its value in their respective research. Social Influences: Students may be motivated to learn English to satisfy social pressures and influences. In societies with more distinct social classes, students may be motivated to learn English to appear more sophisticated or of higher status. Social pressures from peers are also cited as imperative. The interests of friends or the language proficiency of peers influences students’ motivations to learn English. Teacher Encouragement: While teacher encouragement is encompassed in creating a positive classroom environment, the participants in the survey specifically identified its significance. Students are more motivated when they feel validated and are recognized when they perform well. The teachers suggest that in
  • 30. 30 many other cultures the fear of making mistakes can be a barrier for students, especially for younger children. So they express that praising students can make them more likely to participate, and consequently increase motivation. Implications for International Leadership Practices: Transformational Leadership The literature and my primary research relate to transformational leadership, part of the Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD) theory, as much of the literature discusses its effect on student motivation. The FRLD theory is a model that is supported by extensive research and applications in many different leadership settings. Many scholars argue that this paradigm of leadership is the most established and premier model (Sosik & Jung, 8). The FRLD system attributes five major styles of leadership: laissez-faire, passive management-by-exception, active management-by-exception, contingent reward, and transformational leadership. The range begins with laissez-faire as the lowest form of leadership, in which a leader abdicates responsibility and avoids making decisions. This is essentially non-leadership. The continuum moves towards more active, involved, and rewarding styles of leadership until the highest form of leadership of transformational leadership is reached, in which the leader has a vision that aligns with the ideals of the followers and inspires them to develop their own leadership capacity. This is considered the most effective form of leadership within the FRLD theory. Transformational leadership provides individuals with a source of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to complete the tasks assigned by the leader through four key behaviors: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. With idealized influence the leader models high levels of performance and ethics, which followers identify with, and this increases trust of the followers. A leader who develops and articulates a vision that aligns with his or her followers shows inspirational motivation. To further
  • 31. 31 motivate followers, leaders who spend time listening, coaching, and teaching individuals display individualized consideration. While none of the authors in the teaching literature specifically use the terminology “transformational leadership,” they discuss aspects of it and the relationship that those characteristics have in motivating students. Five of the six authors indirectly discuss different qualities of transformational leadership and their influence on motivation. Ajibade, and Ndububa argue that teachers who create an environment where students feel respected as individuals are more interested in learning and open to new ideas. This aligns with the transformational leadership concept of individualized consideration, and they argue that it has positive effects on student motivation. McEown and Takeuchi also discuss individualized consideration and its relationship to motivation. They discover that a negative correlation occurred when teachers involved students in activities and kept pace with them (29). This motivational strategy embodies intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration because the teacher catered to the students’ pace and involved them in activities. Another characteristic of transformational leadership that McEown and Takeuchi study is idealized influence. They find that “a negative correlation in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching English’” occurred. Enthusiasm can be categorized under idealized influence by indicating a desire to teach, and an example of one who is fluent and engaged with the English language. Reusch et al. also discusses the importance of idealized influence. Specifically, a teacher who “show[s] a good example by being committed and motivated to helping the students succeed” (31) was one of the highest rated motivational strategies by both teachers and students. Emmanuelson discusses intellectual stimulation and its effect on motivation. Her research indicates how the two groups of students studied, one with higher proficiency and the other with lower proficiency, were influenced when the teacher encourages a stimulating, academic environment. This environment that she discusses can also be categorized under intellectual stimulation. She finds that intellectual
  • 32. 32 stimulation is more influential in motivating the group with a higher English proficiency, while the less proficient group struggled more often and preferred a more relaxed, easy environment. Five of the six authors mention the importance of transformational leadership, with specific emphasis on individualized consideration and idealized influence. Only the study of Japanese students resulted in the opposite conclusion. The students were not only uninfluenced by aspects of transformational leadership, but rather had a negative response to them. When teachers implemented idealized influence through showing teaching enthusiasm, and enacted individualized consideration when getting all students involved in activities, the data indicated that a negative correlation to the students’ motivation occurred. Because of the discrepancy in the literature, my survey has a specific focus on individualized consideration to determine that the general literature is correct in praising individualized consideration. The literature and my research align that when students are given individual consideration, a form of transformational leadership, then they are more motivated to learn English. The teachers responded to the statement “The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.” Around 80% of the participants chose either a four or a five. This shows that a majority of the teachers agree, and my research aligns with the literature in that when students are given individual consideration, they are more motivated to learn English. While McKeown and Takeuchi’s research in Japan indicates that these transformational leadership strategies do not prove successful in Japan, their findings portray the importance of cultural effects on student motivation. While individualized consideration generally supports student motivation, teachers must have awareness for the specific culture that they are teaching to evaluate its effectiveness. International Leadership Practices While this paper looks at motivation through a case study of English students abroad, there
  • 33. 33 are many concepts and ideas that are translatable to international business practices. International leaders and followers are always engaged in a mutual relationship, which should be based on a common goal, as well as being equitable and ethical in the process of achieving that goal. In the past, as shown through Zimmerman’s history of teaching English abroad, Western leaders have attempted to impose their ethnocentric values onto their followers abroad. The results were detrimental according to Zimmerman. In the same way, modern international leaders, when leading foreign teams or working with organizations abroad, cannot force their cultural and social values onto other cultures. This will alienate the followers of other cultures and make them feel lesser. Successful and ethical leadership cannot be rooted in this power structure. Often, the followers will begin to disregard the leader and retaliate against the treatment they receive. Accordingly, international leaders need to be malleable and open to new styles of leadership, dependent on the setting. As with other leadership concepts, motivation depends on specific situations and factors. It depends on culture, age, the leader’s actions, socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, work environment, and many other influences. This is very important for international leaders to understand. Because one motivational tactic is successful for one group of followers, it does not mean that it will be successful for another. That same philosophy may result in negative effects on follower motivation, and could actually create an unhealthy organizational climate, as it did with the Japanese students’ negative responses to intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Therefore, to most effectively motivate their followers, leaders must develop cultural intelligence, which is the capability to deal effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds. There are three main factors in becoming culturally intelligent: (1) becoming knowledgeable about how cultures differ, (2) developing mindfulness, and (3) developing cross-cultural skills (Thomas & Inkson, 16). These three steps relate to motivation, as shown through the literature and the findings
  • 34. 34 of the survey. To become culturally intelligent, international leaders must become knowledgeable about culture. This goes beyond the basic understanding that cultures differ, as this realization is obvious. It is an understanding that culture is shared, and has profound influences on one’s behavior. Culture is systematic and has developed over time according to a group’s values. There is a well-known study by Geert Hofstede, who studied over 100,000 employees in over 50 countries, and rated each country according to individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity (Hofstede, 2016). These fundamentals, while generalizations, are integral for international leaders to become familiar with. This clearly relates to motivation, as culture has profound influences over behavior. The shared values of people must be respected in order to motivate them. In addition, an individual in a highly collectivist culture is much more likely to be motivated when tasks are team- oriented. Through this knowledge, international leaders master the first of the three layers of cultural intelligence. International leaders must also strive for cultural mindfulness. This is the ability to pay attention to the context of a situation in a reflective and creative way. This is first manifested through being mindful of one’s own assumptions, ideas, and emotions. Cultural mindfulness begins with people becoming aware of their own culture. Mindfulness involves paying attention to one’s senses, putting oneself into another person’s position, and categorizing people’s personalities and cultural backgrounds as to improve future interactions. All of these actions are critical for international leaders to motivate followers. People of varying cultures will act differently, and leaders need to be constantly cognizant of how followers are feeling, responding, and viewing situations as to foster a healthy relationship. After one has developed cultural knowledge and mindfulness, then one can practice building cross-cultural skills. Most problems that international leaders face involve communication
  • 35. 35 issues, misunderstandings, personality conflicts, poor leadership style, and bad teamwork. By developing skills, international leaders can mitigate these potential problems. It is important to note that this part of cultural intelligence does not mean that one develops skilled routines that are mastered for a specific culture, as these “skills” will most likely not translate to other cultures. Instead, one must improve more general skills, such as: relational skills, tolerance for uncertainty, empathy, perceptual acuity, and adaptability. One must not only cultivate these skills, but also know when to use each one. Cross-cultural skills are imperative for leaders who want to motivate followers. Leaders can better relate to followers, and constantly improve how they interact with people, no matter what setting they are in. They can choose the appropriate behavior that fosters proper communication, trust, and respect from followers. This will increase follower motivation as they will feel more comfortable and appreciated as individuals, willing to do the task necessary for the common goal of the group. By cultivating all three aspects of cultural intelligence, international leaders can feel confident knowing that no matter the situation, they will be prepared to approach it with poise, reflect on it, and learn valuable lessons that can be then applied in the future. Followers’ motivation will be much stronger with culturally intelligent leaders, as the followers will be treated in a genuine way that aligns with their culture(s), and makes them feel comfortable to work towards common goals. Concluding Thoughts: More than 1.2 billion students are engaged in English classes around the world (How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?), and many scholars have studied how students are best motivated, hoping to determine general trends and universal patterns that are successful. The literature review indicates that students around the world are motivated by many factors, with similarities and differences across cultures, age groups, and English skills. The primary research
  • 36. 36 studying seventy-five English teachers abroad indicate similarities and differences to the literature. There is a similar emphasis on culture’s importance in influencing student motivation, but specific motivational factors such as providing students with autonomy, or the idea that low proficiency learners are less motivated, differed between the primary research and the literature. Although these similarities and differences between the literature and the survey provide important conclusions, they cannot be generalized for all students. As with other leadership concepts, student motivation depends on specific situations and factors. It depends on culture, age, English proficiency, socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, type of school (public or private), and many other causes. There are concerns with the literature gathered that must be discussed. Some of the researchers studied more theoretical concepts such as emotional intelligence or transformational leadership, while others study specific methods such as the teacher “speaking clearly and loudly” or “providing sufficient study guides for the exam.” Consequently, the same concepts and frameworks are not being studied in each cultural setting, so it is difficult to effectively determine how concrete the similarities and differences are. The primary research differs from the literature, making statistical analysis between them incompatible. While some basic statistical analysis is completed, it is not sufficient to determine whether there is statistical difference between my research and the literature. Due to this setback, the research examines broad motivational theories that can be translated to future research and more easily cross-analyzed. Therefore, additional research in this field should strategize to use the same framework across cultures to create a more unified collection of information. In addition, the literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners, as well as students aged fifteen or older. The primary research evaluates teachers who have taught all ages of students, without any clear focus. It would be interesting for future research to evaluate the
  • 37. 37 motivation of young learners compared to older learners, as well as the relationship between beginning and advanced learners’ motivation.
  • 38. 38 Works Cited Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs, and Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print. arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivation strategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and year 8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on Learner Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Hofste, Geert. "National Culture." The Hofstede Center. N.p., 2016. Web. 08 May 2016. "How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?" How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad? 12 Feb. 2012. Web. 5 Dec. 2015. McEown, Maya Sugita, and Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How Do Teachers Impact Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1 (2014): 20–38. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills 6.3(2015): 113–133. Print. Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions of Motivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Sosik, John J., and Don I. Jung. Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People, Profit,
  • 39. 39 and Planet. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print. Thomas, David C., and Kerr Inkson. Cultural Intelligence: Living and Working Globally. 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2009. Print. Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print. Appendix A Country Number of Teachers Who Taught There3 Czech Republic 19 France 11 Spain 7 Germany 4 Poland 1 Italy 2 Turkey 1 Russia 2 Ukraine 1 Japan 10 Thailand 11 China 7 South Korea 3 Indonesia 1 3 Teachers may have taught in more one country
  • 40. 40 Cambodia 1 India 1 Mongolia 1 Vietnam 2 Taiwan 1 Kyrgyzstan 1 United Arab Emirates 3 Peru 1 Ecuador 1 Brazil 1 Guatemala 1 Chile 1 Czechoslovakia4 1 United States 1 United Kingdom5 1 Appendix B Questionnaire for Teachers Abroad Hi, 4 This teacher began his/her career in Czechoslovakia, before the country changed its name to the Czech Republic 5 Two teachers indicated that after finishing teaching abroad, they either taught in the United States or the United Kingdom. While this is not technically “teaching English abroad”, it may have implications on their answers, so these countries are still noted.
  • 41. 41 My name is Joey Randazzo, a senior at the University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, WA. I am conducting thesis research on how students are motivated to learn English abroad in TESOL/TEFL classrooms. Because of your experience teaching abroad, I invite you to take this very brief (3-8 minute) survey. Your response will help me complete a significant thesis project and assist me in my journey teaching abroad in just a couple of months. I am happy to share the results of the survey. Thank you for your time! * Required Preliminary Questions What country did you teach in? * _________________________ What age group did you teach? * _________________________ What English proficiency did you teach? Low, moderate, or high? * ________________________ Main Questions Providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to learn English. * 1 2 3 4 5
  • 42. 42 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student motivation. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Students are motivated to learn English with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English. * 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Agree Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Post-Questions What other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English? (optional) A more personal question: I will be teaching abroad starting in August, and any tips you feel inclined to share would be great! I am particularly interested in volunteer teaching or working in a developing country. (optional)