6d) Base Velocity Estimate Overlaid on Reflectivity Base Velocity RFD Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

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JohnChrisBroyles

An example showing the location of the RFD occlusion associated with the Moore, Oklahoma EF5 tornado on May 20, 2013. Base velocity (right) was used as primary to draw the RFD boundary. This location in black was super-imposed onto reflectivity (left). Even though base velocity was the primary indicator for the estimate, reflectivity also shows the RFD boundary well.

6d) Base Velocity Estimate Overlaid on Reflectivity Base Velocity RFD Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

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6a) RFD-FFD Boundary Locations For Six Well-organized HIgh-end Supercells.pdf

6a) RFD-FFD Boundary Locations For Six Well-organized HIgh-end Supercells.pdf

6a) RFD-FFD Boundary Locations For Six Well-organized HIgh-end Supercells.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

6b) Reflectivity Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

6b) Reflectivity Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

6b) Reflectivity Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

A schematic showing the rear flank downdraft of a tornadic supercell. The RFD occlusion or tornado is at the center of rotational convergence within the RFD. The curved dashed line is the outline of the hook echo. The white area is inflow to the updraft. Gray indicates relatively warm downdraft outflow. An unstable RFD is favorable for tornadogenesis. A couple hundred meters above the surface, winds generally turn south-southwest or southwesterly in the area south of the hook. Graphic obtained from Markowski et al. 2002.

6c) Schematic of a Classic Rear Flank Downdraft.pdf

6c) Schematic of a Classic Rear Flank Downdraft.pdf

6c) Schematic of a Classic Rear Flank Downdraft.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

7) Estimated Tornado Start Location Relative To RFD Boundary Location For 208...

7) Estimated Tornado Start Location Relative To RFD Boundary Location For 208...

7) Estimated Tornado Start Location Relative To RFD Boundary Location For 208...

JohnChrisBroyles

8) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 208...

8) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 208...

8) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 208...

JohnChrisBroyles

8a) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 20...

8a) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 20...

8a) Tornado Start Location Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary Position For 20...

JohnChrisBroyles

9) EF5 Tornado Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary and EF4-EF5 Tornado Frequen...

9) EF5 Tornado Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary and EF4-EF5 Tornado Frequen...

9) EF5 Tornado Frequency Relative To RFD Boundary and EF4-EF5 Tornado Frequen...

JohnChrisBroyles

A schematic showing the process of tornadogenesis involving an RFD surge beginning just over 13 minutes before the tornado start time. The RFD surge creates the inflow channel, as the RFD surge impinges on the inflow sector. This likely induces a pressure drop due to the Bernoulli Effect, which strengthens the RFD occlusion. The tornado forms after the RFD occlusion matures beneath the low-level mesocyclone, most often in the RFD’s northeast quadrant.

10) Hypothesis - Critical Role of the RFD Surge, Schematic Created and Modifi...

10) Hypothesis - Critical Role of the RFD Surge, Schematic Created and Modifi...

10) Hypothesis - Critical Role of the RFD Surge, Schematic Created and Modifi...

JohnChrisBroyles

RFD boundary surges northeastward toward the forward flank. As the RFD boundary impinges on the supercell’s inflow sector, an inflow channel is created. This induces a pressure drop due to the Bernoulli Effect, which strengthens the RFD occlusion. Also, restriction within the inflow channel causes the RFD occlusion to rapidly deepen as air is evacuated upward through the mesocyclone at a faster rate than can be replaced below. The tornado forms after the RFD occlusion matures beneath the low-level meso, most often in the RFD’s northeast quadrant. The descending reflectivity core (DRC) is in dark gray, which wraps around the RFD occlusion near the tornado start time (see Part 2).

10a) Schematic of RFD Surging Beneath Mesocyclone with Rapid Intensification ...

10a) Schematic of RFD Surging Beneath Mesocyclone with Rapid Intensification ...

10a) Schematic of RFD Surging Beneath Mesocyclone with Rapid Intensification ...

JohnChrisBroyles

An RFD surge was found for all 208 cases. The following method was used to identify the start and end points of the RFD surge, and to measure the RFD surge’s speed relative to the supercell’s speed. First, the case was loaded and studied for about 15 minutes. The tornado start location was marked. Then, the RFD boundary location was estimated at high confidence times before and after the tornado start time. The examination paid close attention to the movement of precipitation behind the RFD boundary. Four questions listed below, were asked in order to determine when the RFD surge started and ended. 1) When did the precipitation gradient, just behind the RFD boundary, begin to accelerate relative to the storm’s movement? 2) When did the precipitation gradient, just behind the RFD boundary, obtain a bowed or curved appearance? 3) When did the precipitation gradient, just behind the RFD boundary, reach the forward flank? 4) When did the precipitation gradient, just behind the RFD boundary, decelerate relative to the storm’s movement? Reflectivity data were used exclusively to determine when the RFD surge began and ended. The RFD surge was considered a time period when the leading edge of precipitation, just behind the RFD boundary, moved at a speed faster than the supercell’s speed. This involved an acceleration and then deceleration of the leading edge of precipitation.

11) RFD Surge Identification Method.pdf

11) RFD Surge Identification Method.pdf

11) RFD Surge Identification Method.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

RFD surge analysis for the Sibley, Iowa EF4 tornado on June 25, 2010. A cell merger ongoing in panel 1, instigates the RFD surge. The RFD surge starting point (panel 2) and ending point (panel 6), are marked. During the RFD surge, the reflectivity structure bulges and rapidly expands (panel 3 and 4). A bowing shape develops in panel 5. The RFD surge ends when it reaches the forward flank (panel 6).

11a) RFD Surge Analysis - Sibley, Iowa EF4 Tornado on June 25, 2010.pdf

11a) RFD Surge Analysis - Sibley, Iowa EF4 Tornado on June 25, 2010.pdf

11a) RFD Surge Analysis - Sibley, Iowa EF4 Tornado on June 25, 2010.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

JohnChrisBroyles

Type 1 RFD surge (at right), in which the low-level mesocyclone is initially above the RFD. During the RFD surge, the RFD boundary moves toward the supercell’s forward flank. The RFD occlusion develops and matures, which is followed by tornado formation in the RFD occlusion. The tornado most often forms in the northeast quadrant of the RFD. For the Rozel, Kansas EF4 tornado on May 19, 2013 (at right), a prominent cell merger started the RFD surge. The mesocyclone was located to the west of the RFD boundary (panel 1). The cell merger caused an enhanced downdraft to move southeast, creating a long pendant (panel 2). The RFD occlusion developed at the pendant’s southeast end. The tornado formed as the RFD boundary surged northeastward toward the forward flank. This created a narrow inflow channel (panel 3 and 4). 300 meter ground-relative flow is estimated based on cell movement and outflow.

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

Type 2 RFD surge (at right), in which the RFD surge is initially ahead of the RFD boundary. The RFD boundary moves underneath the low-level mesocyclone and then away toward the forward flank. The RFD occlusion develops and matures after the low-level mesocyclone has been undercut. This is followed by tornado formation within the RFD occlusion. For the Fackler, Alabama EF4 tornado on April 27, 2011 (to right), the RFD surge was instigated by cell mergers to the southwest of the RFD boundary. The RFD surge was very strong, with a 117 knot max outbound noted in panel two. The inflow channel became narrow as the RFD boundary pushed toward the forward flank (panel 3). Reflectors quickly disappear around the new tornado (panel 4), likely due to absorption by the rapidly strengthening tornado. 300 meter ground-relative flow is estimated based on cell movement and outflow.

14) RFD Surge Type (30.3 Percent) Fackler, AL EF4 - 4-27-2011.pdf

14) RFD Surge Type (30.3 Percent) Fackler, AL EF4 - 4-27-2011.pdf

14) RFD Surge Type (30.3 Percent) Fackler, AL EF4 - 4-27-2011.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

Type 3 RFD surge (at right), in which the low-level mesocyclone is initially ahead of the RFD boundary. The RFD boundary surges toward the supercell’s forward flank, and to the center of the low-level mesocyclone. An RFD occlusion forms on the RFD boundary, underneath the low-level mesocyclone. The tornado develops within the RFD occlusion, on the RFD boundary, eventually moving southwestward into the RFD. For the Ravanna, Kansas EF3 tornado on May 24, 2016 (at right), the mesocyclone was initially to the east of the RFD boundary. The RFD surge was instigated by outflow associated with cell mergers west of the boundary (panel 2). As the RFD surged toward the forward flank, the RFD occlusion developed on the RFD boundary (panel 2 and 3). Then, the tornado formed in the RFD occlusion (panel 4). 300 meter ground-relative flow is estimated based on cell movement and outflow.

15) RFD Surge Type (3.4 Percent) Ravanna, KS EF3 - 5-24-2016.pdf

15) RFD Surge Type (3.4 Percent) Ravanna, KS EF3 - 5-24-2016.pdf

15) RFD Surge Type (3.4 Percent) Ravanna, KS EF3 - 5-24-2016.pdf

JohnChrisBroyles

An example showing the Goldsby, Oklahoma EF4 tornado on May 24, 2011, in which the RFD was disrupted by a northward-moving wave. First, a left-moving supercell from north Texas approached the Goldsby supercell at near 65 nautical miles per hour. Outflow associated with the cell merger enhances vertical vorticity, causing the tornado to strengthen and reach peak intensity (panel 2). After the cell merger, a northward-moving wave associated with the left-mover, hit the Goldsby supercell’s RFD. The back edge of the RFD retreated northward (panels 4, 5 and 6), and eventually the backed flow associated with the northward-moving wave pushed the flanking line precipitation away from the mesocyclone (panels 7 and 8). This disrupted the RFD causing the tornado to dissipate.

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

JohnChrisBroyles

An example showing the Hillsboro, North Dakota EF3 tornadic supercell on August 27, 2016, in which there were two RFD surges. The first RFD surge did not produce a tornado, while the second did. The first RFD surge pushed southward and did not undercut the low-level mesocyclone. Veered flow at 700 mb and a lack of cell mergers were limiting factors, keeping the first RFD surge to the west of the low-level meso. The second RFD surge pushed eastward, undercutting the low-level meso. The second RFD surge was aided by cell outflow and cell mergers during the 15 minutes preceding the tornado. Veered low to mid-level flow, associated with northwest flow aloft, can contribute to a problem in which a supercell’s RFD surge takes place too far west. When this happens, it can be difficult for the RFD to undercut the low-level mesocyclone. This problem makes tornadogenesis more unlikely in summer.

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

JohnChrisBroyles

During the cell merger analysis, all 208 cases were examined twice. The first examination pass identified cell mergers that occurred closer to the tornado start time. Within this first pass, clustering within the distribution was found at two time periods. The first was found to occur just a few minutes prior to the tornado start time. A second was found further out in time, generally between five and ten minutes prior to the tornado. During the first examination, it was observed that another cell merger was commonly occurring more than 10 minutes prior to the tornado start time. And this cell merger was often happening just before the start of the RFD surge. As a result, a second pass through the 208 cases was completed to identify cell mergers further out before the tornado start time. The cell merger that was identified during the second pass was called cell merger one, while the two cell mergers that were identified during the first pass were called cell merger two and three. After all the analysis was done, a cell merger two was found in more cases than a cell merger one. This is because a cell merger midway through the tornadogenesis process was slightly more common than a cell merger near the beginning of the tornadogenesis process. The first and second examinations were completely independent of each other, which revealed more detail concerning the distribution. Using the three periods of cell merger clustering, average times prior to the tornado start time were computed. The 208 case average of those times are listed below, with the number of cases identified for each time, and the percent of occurrence listed in Table 1.

18) Times of Cell Mergers Associated with Tornadogenesis Relative To Tornado ...

18) Times of Cell Mergers Associated with Tornadogenesis Relative To Tornado ...

18) Times of Cell Mergers Associated with Tornadogenesis Relative To Tornado ...

JohnChrisBroyles

19) Location of 77 Cell Mergers That Instigated RFD Surges Relative To Pendan...

19) Location of 77 Cell Mergers That Instigated RFD Surges Relative To Pendan...

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JohnChrisBroyles

19a) Cell Merger Instigating RFD Surge for Canton, Oklahoma EF3 on May 24, 20...

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JohnChrisBroyles

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6a) RFD-FFD Boundary Locations For Six Well-organized HIgh-end Supercells.pdf

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6b) Reflectivity Boundary Position Estimate.pdf

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6c) Schematic of a Classic Rear Flank Downdraft.pdf

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7) Estimated Tornado Start Location Relative To RFD Boundary Location For 208...

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10a) Schematic of RFD Surging Beneath Mesocyclone with Rapid Intensification ...

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11) RFD Surge Identification Method.pdf

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11a) RFD Surge Analysis - Sibley, Iowa EF4 Tornado on June 25, 2010.pdf

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12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

12) Average RFD Surge Times Relative To Tornado Start Time For All 208 Superc...

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

13) RFD Surge Type 1 (66.3 Percent) Rozel, KS EF4 - 5-19-2013.pdf

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14) RFD Surge Type (30.3 Percent) Fackler, AL EF4 - 4-27-2011.pdf

14) RFD Surge Type (30.3 Percent) Fackler, AL EF4 - 4-27-2011.pdf

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15) RFD Surge Type (3.4 Percent) Ravanna, KS EF3 - 5-24-2016.pdf

15) RFD Surge Type (3.4 Percent) Ravanna, KS EF3 - 5-24-2016.pdf

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

16) Northward-moving Wave Disrupts RFD and EF4 Tornado near Goldsby, OK on Ma...

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

17) EF3 Forms After 2nd RFD Surge Undercuts Low-level Meso at Hillsboro, ND o...

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We explore different scenarios to explain the chemical difference found in the remarkable giant-giant binary system HD138202+CD−3012303. For the first time, we suggest how to distinguish these scenarios by taking advantage of the extensive convective envelopes of giant stars. Methods. We carried out a high-precision determination of stellar parameters and abundances by applying a full line-by-line differential analysis on GHOST high-resolution spectra. We used the FUNDPAR program with ATLAS12 model atmospheres and specific opacities calculated for an arbitrary composition through a doubly iterated method. Physical parameters were estimated with the isochrones package and evolutionary tracks were calculated via MIST models. Results. We found a significant chemical difference between the two stars (∆[Fe/H]∼0.08dex), which is largely unexpected considering the insensitivity of giant stars to planetary ingestion and diffusion effects. We tested the possibility of engulfment events by using several different combinations of stellar mass, ingested mass, metallicity of the engulfed object and different convective envelopes. However, the planetary ingestion scenario does not seem to explain the observed differences. For the first time, we distinguished the source of chemical differences using a giant-giant binary system. By ruling out other possible scenarios such as planet formation and evolutionary effects between the two stars, we suggest that primordial inhomogeneities might explain the observed differences. This remarkable result implies that the metallicity differences that were observed in at least some main-sequence binary systems might be related to primordial inhomogeneities rather than engulfment events. We also discuss the important implications of finding primordial inhomogeneities, which affect chemical tagging and other fields such as planet formation. We strongly encourage the use of giantgiant pairs. They are a relevant complement to main-sequence pairs for determining the origin of the observed chemical differences in multiple systems.

Disentangling the origin of chemical differences using GHOST

Disentangling the origin of chemical differences using GHOST

Disentangling the origin of chemical differences using GHOST

Jupiter’s moon Io hosts extensive volcanism, driven by tidal heating. The isotopic composition of Io's inventory of volatile chemical elements, including sulfur and chlorine, reflects its outgassing and mass loss history, and thus records information about its evolution. We used millimeter observations of Io’s atmosphere to measure sulfur isotopes in gaseous SO2 and SO, and chlorine isotopes in gaseous NaCl and KCl. We find 34S/32S = 0.0595 ± 0.0038 (equivalent to δ34S = +347 ± 86‰), which is highly enriched compared to average Solar System values and indicates that Io has lost 94 to 99% of its available sulfur. Our measurement of 37Cl/35Cl = 0.403 ± 0.028 (δ37Cl = +263 ± 88‰) shows that chlorine is similarly enriched. These results indicate that Io has been volcanically active for most (or all) of its history, with potentially higher outgassing and mass-loss rates at earlier times.

Isotopic evidence of long-lived volcanism on Io

Isotopic evidence of long-lived volcanism on Io

Isotopic evidence of long-lived volcanism on Io

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CELL -Structural and Functional unit of life.pdf

Nistarini College, Purulia (W.B) India

HotJupiters are amongthebest-studied exoplanets, but it is still poorly understood how their chemical composition and cloud properties vary with longitude. Theoretical models predict that clouds may condense on the nightside and that molecular abundances can be driven out of equilibrium by zonal winds. Here we report a phase-resolved emission spectrum of the hot Jupiter WASP-43b measured from 5–12µ 5–12µ 5–12µm with JWST’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI). 1524 ±35 1524 ±35 and 863±23 The spectra reveal a large day–night temperature contrast (with average brightness temperatures of 1524 ± 35 863 ±23 863 ±23Kelvin, respectively) and evidence for water absorption at all orbital phases. Comparisons with three-dimensional atmospheric models show that both the phase curve shape and emission spectra strongly suggest the presence of nightside clouds which become optically thick to thermal emission at pressures greater than ∼100mbar. The dayside is consistent with a cloudless atmosphere above the mid-infrared photosphere. Con3trary to expectations from equilibrium chemistry but consistent with disequilibrium kinetics models, methane is not detected on the nightside (2σ upper limit of 1–6 parts per million, depending on model assumptions).

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