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. THEME PAPER ON 

CONSERVATION OF WATER IN .. .
AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS

WATER RESOURCES ·DAY • 2003 

IND.IA WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY
FOREWORD 

To focus attention on various issues relating to water resources development and create public
awareness, observance of Water Resources Day every year was started inIndia, in 1987. .
Subsequently, in 1994: the United Nations OrganiZation declared March 22 every year as "World
Day for Water". Since the"rt a joint National Curtain Raiser function is being organized every
year on 22nd
March at New Delhi, to mark the beginning ofseries of Water Resources Day and
World Water Day programmes throughout the country. However this year Curtain Raiser function .
. is being held on 21st
March. Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS) prepares a theme paper on .
a chosen topic every year, which forms the basis for countrywide discussions. This year's theme
is "Conservation of Water in Agriculture and Industrial sectors".
During the twentieth century, while the world population has increased three folds, the water
use has increased by seven times. Besides about one third of the world population is located in
.the countries facing water scarcity. The increase in population alongwith increased water-use '
and higher standard of living are bound to result in water scarcity in the coIningyears in many
countries of the world.
In our country, while the per capita availability was 5.20 Th.cu.m per annum in 1950, it came
down to 2.20 Th.cu.m ,in 1991. It was 1.80 Th.cu.m in 2000 and is likely to reduce to about 1.34
Th.cu.m in the year 2025. As per the International Standards, when per capita availability is
less than 1 Th.cu.m per year, water scarcity occurs. As such we are likely to reach that stage
near about the year 2025. .
To face the water crisis that is likely to occur in future, we may have to increase the water
storage capacity as well as take all measures for conservation of water and its efficient use in
right earnest. Agriculture sector alone utilizes about 80 percent of water. With demand from
other sector's rising at a fast pace, the availability of water for irrigation is likely to reduce. It is
therefore essentialto improve the water use efficiency and adopt various conserVation measures
. in the agriculture sector to meet its requirements. So also with increased water use in industrial
sector, conservation measures, including recycling and reuse, would have to be strictly followed.
To meet the growing demands of water for food, urban and. rural use,' industri~s including
. power, adequate conservation measures are a must. It is an urgent necessity and involvement of
all concerned would be required to meet the challenge.The theme paper has attempted to cover
all the relevant issues related to the conservation aspects required to be adopted in the agriculture
and industrial sectors in the country.
. .
The paper has been prepared and reviewed by team of experts listed on the following page.
Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.. .
~,. --~~----
New Delhi (P.L.Diwan)
21, March 2003 Vice President
INDIAN WATERRESOURCES SOCIETY
(i)
Contributions by
1. 	 Er. B.D. Pateria, Life Member, IWRS & Chief Engineer (pOMIO), C1 ·C
2. 	 Er. CD. Khoche, Life Member, IWRS, Former Chief Engineer ewe & Consultant 

WAPCOS 

3. 	 ~r. S.C Sud, Consultant, WAPCOS & Former Chief Engineer (CWO
4. 	 Er. R.P. Saxena, Life Member, IWRS & Director (BP), CWC
5. 	 Er. Y.K Chawla, Life Member, IWRS & Director (IP-S), CWC
6. 	 Er. A.K. Sinha, Life Member, IWRS & DiIector (NWP), CWC
7. Er. P.Y. Rao, Director (WM), CWC
. 8. Er. R.K. Khanna, Life Member, IWRS & Director EIA, cwe
9. 	 Er. Som Dutt Gupta, Life Member, IWRS & Director (P&P), CWC - Group Coordinator
Reviewers
1. Er. Z. Hasan Former Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, GOI 

·2. Er. A.D. Mohile Former Chairman, CWC 

3. 	 Er. P.C Mathur, Consultant, WAPCOS & Former Chairman, GFCC
4. 	 Sh. Rakesh Hooja, Jt. Secy., Mlo Home Affairs & Life Member,-IWRS
5. 	 Er. P.L.Diwan, CMD. WAPCOS & Vice President, IWRS
(aJ
THEME PAPER ON 

CONSERVATION OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS 

CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGES
FOREWORD (i)
. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1-4
1. INTRODUCTION 5-9
2. WATER USE FOR AGRICULTURE AND
STRATEGIES; MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION
10-28
3. WATER USE FOR INDUSTRIES AND
STRATEGIES/ MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION
29-38
4. LINKAGES, COORDINATION AND
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
. 39-46
5. R&D EFFORTS REQUIRED 47-51
6. CONCLUSION 52-53
"
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

PREAMBLE 

With about four percent of World's Water resources available in the country, the presumption
that these are inexhaustible is proving incorrect. With the increase in population, urbanization
and industrialization, the demand of water for various uses is increasing continuously, thereby
reducing per capita water availability. This calls for water conservation measures to be adopted
particularly in irrigated agriculture and industrial sectors which are two major sectors of water
use. This would include efficient harvesting of rainwater through storage, efficiency in water
use and its distribution.
WATER RESOURCES
National Commission for Integrated Water Resources D~velopment Plan (NCIWRDP) in their
report .(1999) have assessed average annual flow in river system of India as 1953 BCM. The .
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has assessed the quantum of replenishable ground water
as 432 BCM. The utilizable water resources assessed by the NCIWRDP are1086 BCM (690 BCM
from surface flow and 396 BCM from ground water flow). The return flow of about 169 BCM is
expected to be available for utilization in th~ year 2050.
WATER REQUIREMENT
The NCIWRDP has estimated the water requirementfor various sectors for the years 2010,2025
and 2050 for low and high demand scenarios, linked to low and high population variants of
1346 million and 1581 million in the year 2050. The requirements for low and high demand
scenarios for the year 2050 for Irrigation and Industrial Sectors are 628 BCM and 807 BCM and
81 BCM and 81 BCM respectively.
WATER CONSERVATION IN AGRICULTURE
Keeping in view the water availability, command area, possible storage sites, the ultimate
irrigation potential of the country through major, medium and minor projects has been assessed
as 139.9 million ha. Mha. The cultivable area of the country is estimated to be about 186 Mha,
out of which 142 Mha is under cultivation and it is expected that cultivated area will stabilize at
this level. The requirement of total food grains in the year 2050 is assessed as 450 Mt. With the
expansion of irrigation and use of modem agronomic practices, food production has increased
from 51 Mt in 1950-51 to about 208 Mt in the year 2001-02. Though productivity in irrigated
~eas has increased, there is great scope for its increase through improvement in efficiency in
:erms of per unit of land and water. Against the backdrop of imminent scarcity and inter­
sectoral competition, there is no alternative but to adopt the conservation measures in agriculture.
- .-.: _ . e increased tempo of water resources development in the planned era, irrigation potential
~ :na€ased from 22.6 Mha in1951 to about 93 Mha in 1997-98 (contribution of major and
..,.....e~:,rm irrigation being 34 mha). The present total water use in agriculture is 525 BCM, which
-= .;J - u.: '" percent of total water use in the country. Thus, agriculture sector is the main user of
::- - -. -a:e:- and as earlier reported even in future ·it will be the major consumer (about 807 BCM
. -ca.:
1
The land use for high demand and low demand scenarios has been assessed by NCIWRDP for
the years 2010, 2025 and 2050. For the year 2050, net sown area assessed is 145 Mha, cropping
intensity as 150 to 160 percent and percent of Irrigated area to Gross Cropped area as 52 to 64­
percent. It has also assessed that of the total irrigation in 2050, about 3-1 percent will be from
surface'w~ter. NCIWRDP has assessed that the average of food crop yields will also go up in
Rainfed and Irrigated areas from about 1.0 tonnes per ha to 1.5 tonnes per ha, and from about
3.0 tonnes per ha to 4.0 tonnes respectively in the year 2050. Keeping lL~e above land use and
yield projections the water requirements have been worked out by the Commission.
The irrigation development has also created problems concerning equity, drainage and water
logging, low efficiencies etc. The major problem is of the overall low irrigation efficiencies. The
efficiencies obtained are about 35 to 40 percent in surface water and 65 to 70 percent in ground
water use and thus there is great scope for their improvement. Also considering that water
available for in:igation or agricultural use may go down to 75 percent from about 83 percent as
at present and irrigation sector being major consumer of water, maximum conservation measures
would be required to be adopted in agriculture use of water to match the demand with supply
in future.
STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION
The sh'ategies which would need to be adopted would be a combination of development and
management sh·ategies. Water conservation in agriculture sector could be achieved by creating
storages, reducing conveyance losses, efficient water management, land treatments, reducing
water demand, reuse of waste water, conjunctive use of surface and ground water, improved
O&M of irrigation systems, rationalization of water rates, integrated use of poor quality and
good quality waters, technology upgradation etc. Regular performance evaluation of projects
and Benchmarking of irrigation systems also need to be carried out for improving performance
of irrigation systems. .
Besides, early completion of ongoing projects by providing sufficient funds needs to be ensured.
The problems of soil salinity, soil degradation, soil toxicity associated with. trace elements and
. increase in pesticide ingredients causing deterioration of envirornnentalso need to be tackled in
right earnest. Involvement and training of farmers in all these objectives is very essential in
achieving the desired objectives.
WATER CONSERVATION IN INDUSTRIES
. With the increase in population and rapid industrialization in the country, water demands for
industries have increased considerably. Water requirement for industries in India although
insignificant, when c:ompared to the demand for other uses like agriculture, creates problems by
creation of point loads on available resources. The major purposes for which water is utilized in
indush'ial plants_are processing, cooling and condensing, boiler feed and other miscellaneous
uses such as washing and meeting domestic requirements in the industrial townships. Most of
these uses are non-consumptive enabling reuse of water through suitab.E treatment and re­
circulation and other conservation measures. Limited water resources rna,' become a deciding
factor in the choice of the manufacturing process or may force a char ge !T m one process to
another, as industrial expansion increases the strain on the available -,'-atEi'.
2
INDUSTRIAL WATER REQUIREMENTS
. ' .
The actual requirement of water varies from industry to industry depending on the raw material ' .'
used, processing technology followed, recycle and reuse of water, disposal of effluent etc. 

NCIWRDM has estimated the industrial water requirement for the years 2025 and 2050 as 70 

BCM and 103 BCM. However, considering the likely technology upgradation'and adoption of 

. water conservation measures, the National Commission has recommended adoption of lower 

figures of 67 BCM and 81 BCM for the years 2025 and 2050 respectively. .
WATER CONSERVATION
To meet the increased competing demands of various sectors, it is essential to affect economy in
industrial use of water. Most of the industrial uses being non-consumptive, recycling and reuse
of water plays an important role for economizing water use in industries. For affecting efficient
and economical use of water, the tariff rates have to be such as to compel the industry to look .
into .technological interventions leading to reduced use per unit production of waste water.
Some of the important issues pertaming to water conservation are incorporation of alternate
production processes and technologies for reducing water use, recycling and reuse of water,
ensuring sound plant maintenance practices and minimizing spills and leaks and appropriate
pricing of water. .
ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS
. . .
Pollution of water by effluents discharged by industries is a serious hazard being faced by the'
country. Disposal methods currently practised' are not environmentally compatible. Adoption
of appropriate technologies for reduction of water use, treatment of industrial effluent to a .
certain minimum standard before discharging into surface or ground water bodies arid industrial
zoning for notlocating water intensive indush'ies in arid and semi-arid areas need to be done.
LINKAGES, COORDINATION .AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Presently various Ministries/Organizations are handling the schemes pertaining todevelopment,
management, conservation and protection of water resources. Also a number of problems have
emerged in terms of wide gap inutiIization of created irrigation potential,low irrigation efficiency, .
madequacy in operation and maintenance of the systems, lack of equity in water distribution,
resource degradation through water logging and soil salinisation and poor crop productivity in
irrigated areas, For indush'ial projects including Power project also even though consumptive
water requirements are less as compared to non-consumptive use, water availability and
environment aspects are required to be verified by the concerned State and Central Deparfn1ents/
).finistries. These problems threaten the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. There isa need
.or a holistic and Integrated Water Resources Development and Management to conserve and
gment the net water availability by optimally harnessing the available waterto match with
-':'.e increasing demands of various sectors. This calls for either bringing all water related subjects
'..:::-.::e:r one umbrella or to be dealt with by River Basin Organizations, when set up for integrated
=-"agernent of water resources. However, to start with there is a need for Inter-Departmental!
:"':~-. :ini.sterial Coordination Committees at State and Central level to tackle these problems
~ -~- . 1 .
~~ ;-'--:.:he1inkag~s/coordination between various concerned Departments/ Ministries, there
'.i ;. :- ..:-:::-~ '. ol 'e the stakeholders in these activities. Though PIM has been recognized as an
:::::.s-::-=.a:. :_='~ :':r efficient and proper irrigation water management, it needs to be implemented
3
as a mass movement amongst·the Politicians, Policy Makers and other Goverriment Officials,
farmers through mass media and other means so as to create awareness about its benefits.
Necessary legal measures under the existing constitutional provision, as outlined in Chapter 4,
also need to be taken for the purpose. . .
R&D EFFORTS REQUIRED
Due to water scarcity and the increasing pollution the problems of matching the demands with
available supplies, as also using poor quality water or its recycling before use would have to be
tackled. The research efforts would thus need to be focussed on various aspects of these problems
in different regions of the country.
R&D efforts·in agriculture sector would need to be directed to deal with savings in agricultural
use, improved irrigation practices, conjunctive use of multi-source and multi-quality waters,
techno:-economic improvements in micro irrigation systems, water shed management, Bio­
Drainage, crop planning for flood aIfecteci areas, environmental protection and reuse of irrigation
water.
R&D efforts in industr·ial sector would need to be oriented towards development of appropriate
technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process water, development of pollution control
mechanism, cost effective technologies for treatment of waste water for reuse and recycling of
water.
As the R&D efforts ·so far made did not have desired impact it may be necessary to avail the
technical and financial support of various international agencies like World Bank,IPTRID
(International Programme for Technology and..Research in Irrigation and Drainage), IWMI
(International Water Management Institute) etc. An action plan for research for next 25 to 30
years may be drawn through cooperation of all agencies viz. Government, Academic Institutes,
Organizations. Programme for application of results/research findmgs fmm lab to fields for, .
wider application may be formed.
Private sector participation in R&D efforts also needs to be encouraged.
CONCLUSION
To achieve the objective of conservation of water in the agricultural and industrial sectors focus
of attention will have to be on-augmentation and creation of additional resources,performance
improvement of existing systems, coordination amongst various agencies, provision of adequate
funds· for creation of additional resources and conservation measures, ensuring users'
participation, giving impetus for Benchmarking of irrigation system, creating mass awareness
·for better management of availability and demand and environment protection.
Strategies will need to focus on augmentations and optimum utilization "vithout s-acrificing on
quality with peoples participation..
4 

_ ._-- ----- -----~ -~~~-
CHAPTER 1 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 	 OVERVIEW
India is one of the few countries in the world endowed with abundant land and water resources.
But this resource is very unevenly distributed over time and space, as most of the runoff occurs
during the four monsoon months of June to September. India possesses about 4 percent of world's
water resources and ranks 5th in the world for availability of water, after Canada, China, ErsrNhile
USSR & old Brazil. In the early stages of development in the country, it was generally taken for
granted that our large water resources were almost inexhaustible. Most of the water resources
were earlier being lised primarilyfor irrigated agriculture, with demands in other sectors
insignificant relative to resource availability. Although the total quantity of water available on
an average may be enough to meet all our demands put together, yet water shortage is felt as its
availability is highly uneven and irregular. Also, with the increase in population, urbanization,
and industrialisation, the demands for water for various uses have now increased considerably
and would continue to do so in the coming years.The Economic Survey released by Minish'y of
Finance on 27th Feb,2003 also highlights the water shortages being faced by various sectors and
stresses the need for taking urgent measures for conservation and efficient management of the
available water. This scenario of rising.competing demands for various sectors and mismatch of
water availability and demand highlights the need for conservation of water. VVaterconservation
has three dimensions:
i) 	 Water resources conservation- efficient management of rainwater through
storage, allocati'6n and transfer for use and preservation of the quality of
the resource including its supporting ecosystem.
ii) 	 Water use conservation -water supply and distribution with minimum
losses and consumption through prevention of wastage.
iii) 	 Efficient l.lse of water through adoption of water saving technologies and
cropping patterns.
1.2 	 INDIA'S WATER RESOURCES
1.2.1 Surface Water Resources
India with a geographical area of 329 Mha experiences vast spatial and temporal variations in
precipitation. Variability ·of rainfall from year to year and from season to season within a year is
also very high. The average annual rainfall in India is 1170 mm, which corresponds to an
annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metre (BCM). National Commission for Integrated
Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP) in its report has assessed the average annual
flow in the river systems of India as 1953 BCM. However, over 90 percent of the annual runoff
in the peninsular rivers and over 80 percent of the annual runoff in Himalayan rivers occurs
during the four monsoon months of June to Oct. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meglma system is a
major contributor to India's Water Resources representing more than 60 percent of the total
runoff. Many of the small rivers totally dry up during the summer. Due to this spatial and
temporal variation of runoff, most of the water not only flows unutilised to the sea, but also
causes immense flood losses. To meet the demands for various purposes throughout the year, it
is therefore, essential to conserve the excess monsoon flows for utilization during the lean season.
5
1.2.2 Groundwater Resour.ces .
The quantum of dynamic groundwater which can be annually extracted economically is
generally reckoned as the ground water potential of the country. Water extracted·from an aquifer
in any year should be capable of being replenished through recharge from the succeeding
precipitations, so that over a cycle of 2,3 or 5 years, the groundwater table does not go down.
The Central Ground Water Board(CGWB) has assessed the quantum of replenishable ground
water as 432 BCM.
1.2.3 Utilizable Water Resources ·
Due to the constraints of hydrology, topography and geological limitationS, water resources will
be 1086 BCM, comprising of 690 BCM from surface flow and 396 BCM from the replenishable
ground water. In addition to the above availability, as per figure estimated, return flow from
irrigation,domestic, municipal and industrial uses would increase from 90 BCM to about 169
BCM in the year 2050 and would.be available for utilization.
1.3 WATER REQUIREMENT
Water is. required for agriculture production, municipal and industrial needs, energy and
navigation development, recreation, preserving ecology etc. Being faced with monsoon season- .
with a few rainy days, agriculture·in India is heavily dependant on irrigation. Irrigation sector
. consumes as much as 83 percent of available water resources followed by drinking and municipal
use (4.5 percent), energy development (3.5 percent) and industries (3.0 percent). Other uses
account for approximately 6 percent of the total use. The net sown area in the country is
expected to stabilise at about 145 M.ha. It is unlikely that net sown area will increase in the
future. The only way to meet the increasing food requirementofgrowing populationwill therefore
be increasing the gross cropped area by .expandirig.irrigation facilities and facilitate multi - .
qopping.
. Although irrigation will continue to be the majorconsumer of water even in future, its share in
the total'water use may reduce, while the share of domestic, industrial and energy.water use
will rise due to urbanization and industrialisation. The requirement of water for other uses such
as navigation, ecological, recreation etc, although not so sigrUficant in terms of consumptive
use, will continue to be important and will have specific quantity and temporal needs.
The NCIW·RDP has estimated the water requirement for various sectors for the years 2010,
2025 and 2050 for 19w and high demand scenarios, linked to low and high population variants
of 1346 million and 1581 million in year 2050. These requirements.are given be~ow in Table-I.
6
Table -I 

REQUIREMENT OF WATER FOR DIFFERENT USES [BCM] 

.. Use Year
-
.1997-98 2010 2025 2050
il
! Low High <Yo Low High °It) Low High %
II
! . - Irrigation 524 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 68
~
-­ Domestic 30 42 43 6 55 62 7 90 111 9
~
. - Industries 30 37 37 5 67 67 8 81 81 7
4_ Power 9 18 19 3 31 33 4 63 70 6
:J . Inland 0 7 7 1 10 10 1 15 15 1
Navigation
6. Flood Conh'ol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7. Environment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Afforestation
8. Environment 0 5 5 1 10 10 1 20 20 2
Ecology
9. Evaporation 36 42 42 6 50 50 6 76 76 7 .
Losses
Total 629 694 710 100 784 843 100 973 1180 100
- .""
Source: Report of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development
(Vol..:I, Sept, 1999.)
1.4 WATER CONSERVATION
There is large variation in rainfall from region to region, season to season and year to year. This
leads .to complex situations like the distinctly different monsoon and non-monsoon seasons,
high-low rainfall areas, drought -flood syndrome and wastage of water to the sea. Due to this,
the water may not be available in places where we want it, at times when we want it and in
quantities in which we want it. Water conservation is thus required to change the time and
space availability of water to suit the demands. Conservation is defined as prevention against
loss or waste. Briefly stated, it means putting the water resources of the country for the best
possible beneficial use with all the technologies at our command. In other words, surface water
flowing waste to the sea should be stored to the maximum possible extent, evaporation, seepage
and other losses minimized and benefits spread with the sole criteria of maximum benefits to as
large a number as possible, having due regard to priorities like drinking, irrigation, industrial,
navigation, ecological etc.
7
1.4.1 Water Conservation in Agriculture
Since irrigated agriculture consumes .most of the available water resources, it is necessary to 

.improve the performance of the existing irrigation systems and highest degree of efficiencies in 

.water use in irrigation sector may have to be achieved to meet the increasing demands. However, 

reduction of losses and water saving alone would not be enough. Additional sources of water, 

including conservation of water through creation of storages,ramwater harvesting and transfer 

of water from surplus to water short basin, would also be needed. .
Since bulk of the flows in the river systems of India are received during the 3·to 4 monSoon
months, whereas the demand for water is throughout the year, storage dams in India are
inevitable for conservation of excess monsoon flows for beneficial use during the lean season,.
Minor storages and use of groundwater are supplementary to major storages and not alternatives.
Since the possible storage sites are limited and spatial and temporal variations considerable, the
country needs to develop all possible storages; big as well as small, surface or ground. Water
conservation measures comprise not only creation of reservoirs for storing the water that would .
otherwise be flowing waste, but also reduction of evaporation losses, control of soil moisture·
losses by mulching of soil, improving water use efficiency and recycling and reuse of waste
water etc.
Improved water management through evolving a suitable cropping pattern iIi. conformity with
soil and climatic conditions, prevention of losses, improved on farm water application practices,
involvement of farmers in water distribution and maintenance of distribution.network,
conjunctive .use of surface and groundwater, pricmg of water, reuse of drinking water etc,
alongwith adoption of water saving technologies like sprinkler and drip methods of. irrigation,
would help in conserving and optimally utilising this valuable resource.
Water conservation with respect to crop diversification is very essential as paddy can not be
increased in a straight line manner from the present level of production to a higher level when
meeting with the cereal demand at 350 M.t; in 2025. It is to be limited at a level where complete
crop water requirement is managed to the revised water allocation for irrigai.ion sector by 2025
and beyond, similarly sugarcane can not be increased beyond a certain percentage among the
irrigated crops.
1.4.2 Water Conservation in Industries
Most of the industrial production processes require large quantities of water.Apart from ensuring
leakage control, water conservation strategy in industries should include introduction of
appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process water and necessary .
pollution control mechanisms. . .
The quantum of water consumed by industries depends upon the raw materials used and the
processing technology followed. Water conservation measures in industries should include:
i) review of alternate productionprocesses and technologies from consumption
point ofview;
. ii) ensuring sound plant maintenance practices ·and good house keeping,
minimising spills and leaks; .
iii) optimization of treatment to achieve maximum recycling. As water and waste
water treatment costs go up, recycling will begin to pay.
8
iv) for medium & large industries, where use of processed or recycled water is
permissible, use of fresh water should not be allowed.
v) For industries located near the coast, uSe of sea water _with or without
treatment may be considered in lieu of fresh water.
1.4.3 Mass Awareness
For implementation of water conservation measure1? in these two important sectors, involvement
of end users or stake holders would be essential. For creating mass awareness about the water
scarcity being faced and likely to occur in future and the measures required to be taken, it is
essential to provide necessary information in this regard through mass media viz., T.Y. Radio,
infro-brouchers /literature/ pamphlets, advertisement in local newspapers. The existing efforts
in this regard need to be given requisite inputs by all concerned.
9
CHAPTER · 2
WATER USE IN AGRICULTURE AND STRATEGIES/MEASURES 

FOR CONSERVATION 

2.1 INTRODUCTION
India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one of them.
Its development and management plays a vital role in agricultural production. Average annual
water resources potential of the country is estimated as 1953 BCM. However considering the
constraints of hydrology, topography and geological limitations, only 690 BCM of surface water
can be utilized by conventional storage and diversion structures. Besides, replenishable ground
water to the extent of 432 BCM is available on annual basis for exploitation. Thus, total, utilizable
water available in the country is 1122 BCM. With this availability of water and keeping in view
the possible storagesites, corrunand available etc. the ultimate irrigation potential of the country
through major, medium and minor irrigation projects has been assessed as 140 million ha by
conventional storage and diversion works.
The cultivable area of the counh'y is estimated to be about 186 M.ha out of which about 142
M.ha is under cultivation. There has practically been no increase in the cultivated area in the
last 3-4 yeat·s. With rise in population and indush'ialisation putting pressure on land, it is expected
that cultivated area will stabilise atthis level. With continuous growth in population iUs estimated
that 450 M.T. of total foodgrains will be required by the year 2050. Since productitrity of rain-fed
agriculture is low and ulU'eliablE~, it is imperative to bring more area under irrigation. Available
land and water resources therefore should invariably be put to optimum use to support
agricultural production. The needEor water resources development for overall social and economic
development was duly recognised at the very outset of commencement of the plan period.
Accordingly. systematic water resources development works have been carried out through
successive Five Year Plans that followed since the year 1950.
The expansion of irrigation system alongwith the increased use of fertilizers, seeds of high varieties,
and modern agronomic practices has increased the production of food grain from 51 M.t. in
1950-51 to about 208 M.t. and made the country not only self sufficient, but in a position to·
export the food grains. Despite the fact that productivity in irrigated areas has increased, such 

increases are still way below the world standards and of developing countries like China and 

Brazil. Large and widespread prograrrune of implementation of irrigation development taken 

up during the plan era has created some problems also concerning equity, environment, drainage, 

lag in potential created and utilised, low irrigation efficiencies etc. There is great scope for 

improvement in efficiency both ill terms of per unit of land and of water. Against the backdrop 

. of asituation of imminent scarcity, need for sustainability and inter-sectoral competition on 

.physical and financial resources, water resources management has to undergo a paradigm shift 

and deep Introspection. .
2.2. PRESENT WATER USE
Water requirements for irrigation mainly depend upon requirement of foodgrains as well as
non-'foodgrains. Thepopulation of the country is continuously on the rise and presently is reported
to have crossed a billion mark. In India, average food grain consumption at present is 550 gm.
per capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China and USA are 980 gni. and 2850
10
gm respectively. Present annual requirement on the basis of present consumptionievel (550. gm) '
for the country is about 210. M.t. which is almost equal to the current production. To'achieve
the self-sufficiency in food, the country embarked on a massive programme of systematic water
resources development Accordingly, during the Plan eta (upto end of 20.0.2) construction of
30.8 major, 10.0.4 medium and millions of minor irrigation projects and modernisation of 10.8 old
projects (ERM schemes) was undertaken. Of these, 149 major projects, 753 medium projects
and 14 ERM projects are reported to have been completed and remaining projects are under
construction . .As a result of this development, irrigation potential by the end of 1997-98 has
gone upto 92.7 M. ha. against 22.6 M.ha in 1951. Out of this, contribution of major and medium
projects is about 34 M.ha. Total water use in agriculture at current level of development is of the'
.order of about 525 BCM which is about 83 percent of total present water use in the country.
2.3 FUTURE WATER NEEDS
The population of the country is increasing year after yeqr. The National Commission on
Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP) has assessed the water demand for
irrigation sector considering low and high variant population of 1346 million and 1581 million
respectively by 20.50.. Considering the rising trend in economy and food consumption and
socio-economic factors, the Commission has expressed the view thatper capita economic growth
rate of 4.5 percent peryear is reasonable as~umption. As such 284 kg. of foodgrain per head
per year or 382 Mt ( low demand) and .450. MT(high demands) of total foodgrains will be
.required by the year 20.50. . For assessing the future water demand to meet this requirement of
food grains the Commission has adopted the projection as given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
LAND USE (HIGH DEMAND SCENARIO AND LOW DEMAND SCENARIO)
J
S.No. . Particulars Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050
1. Net Area Sown--Mha 143.0. 144.0. 1-15.('
2. Cropping Intensity -percent 135 140.-142 150--:. ~_
3.
..
Percent of Irrigated to Gross
C!'opped Area '
40.-41 45-48 --'­ - ­
4. Percent of Irrigated Foodcrops
Area to Gross Irrigated Area
0 70 I
- '
S. Percent of Rainfed Foodcrops Area. .
.to Gross Rainfed Cropped Area
6"
r '
- -
'I
. .
-
6. P~rcent of Surface Watex Irrigation
to Total Irrigation.
47
I -=;"-: ­ 54.3
The national level average yields in the year 1991-92 for all food gra':1S under rain fed and irrigation
conditions were 1~ O and 2.33 tonne/ha respectively. In view of national and international experience, the
Cominission has been of the view that good probability exists for achieving food crop yieldsa$ given in.
following Table 2.2
11
Table 2.2 

FOOD CROP YIELD PROJECTIONS 

Year 2010 2025 2050
,
Rainfed food crop yield (T /Ha) 1.1 1.25 1.5
Irigated food crop yield (T/Ha.) 3.0 3.4 4.0
Keeping the above projections of land use and yield in view, the Commission has estimated that
the total irrigated area will have to be increased to 139 M.ha. and 146 M.ha for low demand
and high demand scenario respectively and the corresponding water requirement will be of
the order of 628 BCM and 807 BCM respectively by the year 2050. Source wise requirement of
water for irrigation use is given in Table 2.3
Table 2.3
WATER REQUIREMENT FOR IRRIGATION USE (BCM)
S1.
No.
.. Irrigation Use Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050
Low High % Low .High % Low High %
1. Surface Water 330 339 48 325 366 43 375 403 39
2. Ground Water 213 218 31 236 245 29 253 344 29
Total
Water Use I 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 I 68
2.4 IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE
Construction of irrigation projects is not an end by itself. Despite the fact that productivity in
irrigated areas has increased, such increases are still way below the world standards and of
developing countries like China and Brazil. Besides , large and widespread programme of
implementation of irrigation development taken up during the plan era has created some problems
also concerning equity, environment, drainage,lag in potential created and utilised, low irrigation
efficiencies etc. All this has ultimately led to low productivity of irrigated land which ranges
from around 1.5 tonnes per ha to 4 tonnes per ha for cereal crops as compared to an achievable
target of about 5 tonnes per ha
This can squarely be attributed to inefficiency in management and operation of irrigation systems. .
Major pait of failure is attributable to inability of the conveyance system to carry the required
discharge, poor maintenance of the system, large losses during conveyance and distribution,
inequitable and untimely delivery of water to the fields, poor on-farm development, lack of field
channels, lack of flexibility of operation, inappropriate methods of field application such as
continuation of flood irrigation system, etc. The present irrigatio~system suffers from lack of
flexibility of operations in the system for optimal water utilization. .
12
However, problems of existing irrigation systems may not be limited to those relatedto irrigation
efficiency and equity alone. At times the water availability itself may be inadequate or may
have become inadequate due to upstream development. The cropping pattern may have changed
from those for which the system was planned.
. 	 . .
2.4.1. Irrigation Efficiencies
While all the problems associated with poor performance of irrigation sector need consideration, uhnost .
problem which is required to be addressed is the improvement in efficiencies, defined as the ratio of volume
of water delivered to the volume of water received.
Some studies have been carried out to have a general idea about the factors which infl~ence the
irrigation efficiencies. General conclusion of these studies were:
>. 	The average conveyance efficiency for the group of schemes with a combined supply by
gravity and pumping was higher than the group of schemes with gravity supply only;
.~ 	In schemes where the area served by one lateral ranged between 400 to 3,000 ha.
conveyance efficiency was higher than in schemes where this area was larger or smaller.
> 	In schemes where the tertiary Units were larger than 200 ha. the average conveyance
efficiencywas higher than in schemes with tertiary units bern~een 5 and 100 ha.
> 	In schemes where the size of flow per farm inlet was more than 50 l/s, the distribution
efficiency was higher than in schemes where the size of flmv "vas 50 1/s or less.
>.In schemes where water had to be lifted to the fields, the field application efficiency was
'. higher than in schemes where the water was not lifted.
There is no national level assessment of overall irrigation efficiencies obtained from surface a..l1d
ground water. ' However, in general, the overall effidencies obtained are of the order of 5-:1..
percent in surface water and 65-70 percent in ground water schemes which are conside:ro =be very low. It should be our endeavor to improye the irrigation efficiencies in surface ~ c;> "=- :­
about 60 percent.
2.4.2. The Basin Efficiency concept
The efficiency discussed in the preceding para. rela: :c a . :'-c a ?:-~:.a:- :-. ~ ::2:~:- >
of water.from the project is taken as a contribu~o.:: : -':cc ~ ':::S5:: : cE ~=€::".~· .~-. ~-=:S :-.•. a
realization that this need not be so. Recycling &: reu..'€ c:~.''''''=:- ";..~ _ =: :.~~ ----.: _:":"'::aTI '(as
in case of conjunctive use or an integrated systerr, ,,;.,:...:. ~ a:.:...,..'~ :-.2:.S2 ~::-~ ,c:-arion) or in
other downstream areas is not a loss. ca..TU10t be used
because say there are, no downstream projects or !­
Thus, upper limit of effective water supply ;:;::
Only that par: -::-: ::.:: ::--2 ;~.~::'::':-' ---'-~
rn:.:"':a:: -.;::..=­ . -:._..:::-a-;'iL
There are three major implications of this conce.
i) Where recycling is possible, pollution CQ:1ty; ::s a basic way of increasing water supply.
ii). The amount of actual water supply :5 ~ ely to be underestimated if the recycling
process is not accounted for.
13
iii) 	 Recycling does not create any new water. If the original withdrawal can be used
with 100 percent efficiency, the same irrigation needs would be met as those
theoretically possible through numerous recycling.
The overall project efficiency comprise conveyance efficiency operational efficiency and field
application efficiency. Distribution efficiency which is a component of overall conveyance
efficiency depends upon type of conveyance system upto the outlet. Substantial saving in water
loss and distribution system can be achieved by adoption of pipe distribution system or by living
of water courses.
There are two distinct paths of increasing effectiveness, one by improving the system or project
efficiency, and the other by allowing increased and repeated use of return flows (with low
efficiency). The optimum combination of these two paths is what one needs to attempt. For
example, in the Indian alluvium, it is often found that lining of canals, and thus improving
conveyance efficiency does not increase the total water supply, but reduces the need for lifting
the seeped water. Thus lining is effectively not a water saving but an energy saving device. If
one accounts for all'usable returns and their use any where, the resultant basin efficiency can be
computed as total use of water from an initial. diversion divided by the overall efficiency. Such
basin efficiency are likely to be much higher than average project efficiency of 30 percent to 40
percent and may often reach above 70 percent in water scarce region. While system irrigation
efficiencies are no doubt important indicators of proper use of the system waters, they do not
fully depict the overall usability of the basin waters.
2.5 	 NEED FOR CONSERVATION
It is estimated that with increasing demand from other competing sectors, the availability of
water for irrigation sector is likely to reduce progressively to about 75 percent in future. Irrigated
agriculture which consumes the major part of the total water being used should be the focus
and fore-runner for achieving maximum conservation in its use. Even a marginal improvement
in the efficiency of water use in this area will result in the saving of a large volume of water
which can be utilized either for extending the irrigated area or for diverting to other beneficial
purposes. The inevitable reduction in loss in avai1ability of total wa~er for irrigation sector
has to be offset by improvement in irrigation efficiencies.
However, improvement in water application efficiencies and productivity levels alone will
not be sufficient and it is an imperative to create additional potential and bring more area
under irrigation. Therefore, there is urgent need to create more storages for conserving water
which is available during monsoon period only, for its use during lean period.
2.6 	 WATER CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
Water conservation strategies in any sector include development and management strategies.
Water conservation in agriculture can be achieved by creating storages (medium and major),
reducing conveyance losses, efficient canal water management, efficient on-farm water
management, including improved water application techniques, land treatments, reducing water
demand, reuse of waste water, conjunctive use of surface and ground water etc. Maximum
conservation in water use has to be achieved in irrigated as well as rainfed agriculture.
2.7 	 ~ONSERVATION MEASURES
2.7.1 	 Creation of Surface Storage
Traditional methods like small scale local water harvesting are necessary and are to be encour-aged
but alone they are not sufficient to meet the future needs of water requirements in the country.
14
,
To ensure sustainable food security, water storage in big dams for fuller utilization of the surface
water is the only answer for making water available for use during the non-monsoon seasons.
Till date, a total of about 174 BCM built up storage had been created. By adding 76 BCM of
storage capacity from projects under construction, and 3 BCM in small tanks, a total of 253
BCM of storage is estimated to be available. Identified future projects would add another 132
BCM of storage making a total of 385 BCM. It is estimated that the task of completing the
capacity under construction and creation of the remaining identified future capacity, are not
taken up on an urgent basis and completed within a finn time-frame in order that the objective
of harnessing the water resources optimally can be fulfilled without waiting for the predicted
water stress situation to overtake us, the existing utilizable flows are likely to be insufficient in
future. The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD;
1999) has suggested to enhance the utilizable flows by all possibilities. The country, which has
now 4300 dams would need many more dams in the next 50 years.
2.7.2 Early Completion of Ongoing Projects.
A large number of major and medium projects could not be completed due to thin spreading of
resources, plan after plan and have consequently been depriving farmers from getting ultimate
benefits from the projects. With abundance availability of water as earmarked for the project,
the upper reaches which start getting irrigation supplies tend to over irrigate and indulge in
wasteful use of water. Acceleratefi Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) was launched by the
Government of India in 1996-97 with a view to help the States in ensuring early completion of
ongoing irrigation projects through Central Loan Assistance (CLA) The AIBP has undergone
considerable change over the last six years. Its implementation is now linked to the reforms in
irrigation sector. The Government of India has also initiated a Fast Track Programme under
AIBP with effect from lsi February, 2002. The approved major and medium irrigation projects,
which will be completed in one year are to be entitled to get 100 percent CLA under the Fast
Track Programme of AIBP.
As per the modified guidelines of the programme with effect from the year 2002-2003, the
Reforming States under general category, which agree to revise their water rates so as to recover
full O&M cost within a period of 5 years will get CLA in the ratio 4:1 (Centre: State, ) instead of
existing 2:1 and under special category in the ratio 1:0 (Centre: State, ) instead of existing 3:1.
2.7.3. Performance Improvement
Many of the irrigation systems have become dilapidated due to silting of canal system, weed 

growth, and breakage of regulatory structures leading to over-use of water. Maintenan~e of 

irrigation systems are generally inadequate. The low water rates also encourage misuse of 

water. The dilapidated condition of the systems is also responsible for lukewarm response of 

the farmers towards participatory irrigation management (PIM). Improving water use efficiency 

. is the first step along the path towards sustainable water development and management. 

Measures to conserve water and use it more effi~iently are now the most economically and 

environmentally sustainable water demand and supply options. It should be our endeavor to 

achieve the low demand scenario for which it is imperative that considerably higher level of 

efficiency is brought about in irrigation use. The issue of low water efficiency, water rates, 

O&M, dilapidation of system and PIM are all inter-related and need to be tackled as
complementary measures to improve the water use efficiency.
2.7.3.1 Reducing conveyance losses
Water is lost during conveyance through seepage from main canals, branches, distributaries,
minors, water courses and field channels. Conveyance loss accounts for 40 to 50 per cent of the
15
"
water delivered into a canal. Almost half of these losses occur in field channels. While the
seepage is a net loss of water in areas with poor quality groundwater, it can be retrieved for
irrigation in areas having good quality ground water. As mentioned elsewhere in this section
part of this water which is retrieved and reused, should not be counted as a seepage loss. In
order to reduce these losses lining of canal network should be done selectively based on these
factors together with economic considerations.
2.7.3.2 Operation and Maintenance Of Irrigation System
Adequate and timely maintenance of an irrigation system is imperative for proper irrigation
management. Efficient water management cannot be achieved unless the infrastructure for
water conveyance and delivery system is in a reasonably good condition to retain its operational
efficiency. A serious impediment to irrigation system reliability and performance is, therefore,
infrastructural deterioration from inattentive and absent maintenance regime. The worst affected
areas are the secondary and tertiary systems. One of the main reasons for poor maintenance is
the non-availability of funds With the State Govts.
2.7.3.3 Rationalisation of Water Rates
Prior to independence, the irrigation rates had generally been adequate to meet the working
expenses and the interest charges. However, the water rates being charged at present are low
and are not able to meet even the operation and maintenance charges of the irrigation projects.
Therefore, there has been progressive deterioration in the return of irrigation projects imposing.
a growing burden on the general revenues of the State. The under pricing of water adversely
affects the availability of resources for the maintenance of irrigation systems. ·This consequently
leads to deterioration of system and is responsible for the poor quality of services. Low water
rates also encourages excess and wasteful use of water. Alongside heavy subsidies in electricity/
free electricity for agriculture has encouraged wasteful use of energy and water. The O&M cost
ne.eds to be reassessed every five years. It is imperative that the tariff structure ofboth irrigation
and energy are reviewed and revised to restore the efficiencies of the irrigation and power
sectors. In addition to normal maintenance, an amourit of 20 percent equivalent of O&M cost
should be allowed to take care of special repair costs. Water tariff for Lift irrigation schemes
should be fixed on the basis of capital and O&M cost of the scheme and delivery should be on
volumetric basis.
2.7.3.4 Equitable Water Distribution
One of .the reasons' for theinequitable water distribution has to do with the design concept of ·
spreading water to the large nun:tber of farmers possible. This is responsible for poor water
management at the scheme leveL The appropriation of water by the head end farm~rshasalso
to do with .the sheer size and complexity of irrigation schemes. Schemes of more than: 100,000
ha. are common and full development of such large schemes often takes 10 to 20 years or more.
Throughout the development period, the excess water available is used by the head end farmers.
Thus, during an extendednumber of years, head end farmers grow commerciarcrops on the
full size of their farms with irrigation intensity much higher than those considered in· the
designs. But, during the same period~ construction of the tail end of the scheme continues as
per their initial design concept without taking any accoUnt of the ·actual ·situation which has
developed in the upper reaches. . As a result, at tUnes irrigation potential is created in places
where water ultimately does not reach. In addition there is lack of operational plan for
16
distribution of irrigation water through the various irrigation systems/projects. In absence of
these, and even where these are available and not being followed in practice, the command
area in the head reaches generally gets the water while tail areas of the command are deprived
of precious water for irrigation. To overcome this situation, in areas where no specific system of
distribution is being followed, "Warabandi" or other system of distribution shall be followed.
2.7.3.5 Dynamic Regulation
When schemes and canals stretch over hundreds of kilometres, it is very difficult to adjust
supply and demand without proper advanced communications and control systems. Such
large schemes are subject to large variations in water demand. . During the kharif season,
rainfall is a major factor. While It may be raining in one part of the scheme, the other/part may
be dry. Besides, during each season, water requirements increase to reach a peak and then
decrease depending on the type of crop grown and the locations. The efficient operation of the
schemes would require that canal flows are adj,usted to these variations in water demand.
However, the level of technology used in the Indian irrigation schemes to control water flows
does not permit such quick adjustments and there is always a large gap between the two.
There is a need for canal system to respond quickly to flow changes. Computer technology is
being recognised as a special tool for monitoring and analysing the data and acts as a decision
support system(DSS). Special efforts by computer engineers and communication groups have
helped in establishing management information system(MIS) for operation of reservoir and
canal which helped in improvement in flood control, irrigation and hydropower. Through an
effective MIS and DSS, precious water can be saved by quickly responding to sudden change in
demand. In future, from manual operation of canal system, one could ultimately shift to
automatic regulation as precise discharge measurements and better communication facilities
are available.
2.7.3.6 Lag In Utilization Of Irrigation Potential Created
. Out of the irrigation potential of 92.7 M.ha. created so far, about 82.0 M.ha is beine '':'-=-=-=:':'
which corresponds to about 90 percent utilisation of the created assets. Some gap be:, -~ ~
two is bound to occur when river inflows and consequent irrigation supplies a:"'2 ~ -:- ': ":=-.
The potential area which can be irrigated in a system depends on seyerai ~G. ~-: =-.::":'--"'::::--F.
besidesthe availability of distribution networks. the " olume and seasonal tte..-:-_:: - -~~ '::.::=-=- ~~
the lossesin conveyance, distribution and applicati n, the e_~
is developed and the crop pattern on ground. L € s:s
.t to . .h:.ci: ::.-:= : :-:-­ _ -:r :: ..­
parameters, underlyingthe project design, are nct real:s .:.:::::.:-~ ":' _~~ .:5:" _~ ~ ::::.. : ~ :i:.":ergence
be-tween the actual area irrigated and the poten1:ial cea:-:. · -,e3.~. : _::::-s:::-..:;::-=- :-: i distribution
netWorks, actual cropping pattern being chlfererct ::-C'~_ ::-_E~:-,:= '=-- _~~~ ~ i uring planning,
more diversion of water for domestic / industrial , .G.:~ --.:.~ ~: - ::-.a... ::::z .:-.ed, are some of the .
major reasons for the gap in potential created a.n ..:..!-i' : - _ .:.. _-. _ ':n. : -:-": ._ ridging the gap is being
taken through the Command Area DevelopIT..ent _r 5-ar:-- e. C - truction of field channels /
water courses, land leveling / shaping, ensuring timelin___.:...suFFlies are some of th€ activities
covered under command area development programme. The CAD programme has now been
reconstituted to take care of the deferred mamtEr,a.".ce ami undertaking remedial measures in
the areas affected by waterlogging, soil salinity a..'ld alkalinity. The CAD programme which is
cl,lrrently catering to slightly over 20 Mha of irrigation commands needs to be further strengthened
and rationalised to give focus to those projects ,Illuch have large gaps in potential created and
utillsed even after 5 years of their completion.
17
2.7.3.7 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
Water being a basic human need, water resoutces development and management impinges in
large section of society. Those who have stake in water resources would comprise the people
and organizations that use water to provide such water for use, also all those that would be
affected by decisions relating to water resource management and many others that are concerned
with or have an interest in water resources management could be considered as "Stake holders"
While different groups of stake holders will need different levels of involvement, their appropriate
participation in the process of policy formation, sh'ategy and project management is very
important and also rewarding. Thus, water resources development and management can not
and should not remain a governmental concern.
The trend of undertaking investigation, planning, designing, construction and maintenance of
irrigation of schemes through Government involves no responsibility on the part of the users,
who have thus no involvement on these aspects. On the other hand, there is a lot of load on
Government exchequer along with the problems of utilization, operation, and maintenance. It
would perhaps be worthwhile at this sta8e to allocate some responsibility for operation and
maintenance to the user. Induction of Non Government Organizations could perhaps be
considered in the begiIUling to motivate the users in accepting this responsibility and also to
educate farmers in efficient water use and management of the irrigation system.
The interface between the Government bureaucracies and irrigation farmers admits of many
possible variations and there exists numerous traditional and experimental approaches.
Decentralization by contracting Government involvement and expanding users' participation
in irrigation management particularly in micro network construction and management has
attached considerable attention in recent years.
The National Water Policy also asks for involvement of farmers in various aspects of management
of irrigation system, pa~ticular1y in water distribution and allocation of water rates. The PIM
needs to be taken up on large scale throughout the country for proper and efficient water
management.
2.7.3.8 On Farm Management
• Reducing Application Losses
Most of the area in the country is irrigated by surface application methods such as check basin,
border strip and furrow irrigation. The application efficiency of these methods have been
found to be only 30 to 50 percent as compared to attainable level of60 to 80 percent. This is due
to the fact that these methods are not designed to match the stream size, soil type, slope etc. By
adopting efficient irrigation practices, deep percolation losses can be reduced. By growing row
crops, particularly cotton, maize sugarcane, soyabean, and sunflower under ridge and furrow
irrigation systems, about 30 to 40 percent irrigation water can be saved compared to border
irrigation. .
• Precision Land Leveling
Precision land leveling/grading is essential for efficient application, uniform dish'ibution of
irrigation water, quick removal of excess rain water in humid and sub.;humid areas and
18
conservation ,of rain water in arid and semi-arid areas. In surface irrigation, land leveling is
essential for high application efficiency. It ensures high water useefficiepcy and crop yield
• Irrigation Scheduling
Scheduling of -irrigation in relation to water availability is an important aspect of on-farm
water management for optimizing production_Where irrigation water supplies are plentiful,
irrigation mustbe repeated before a yield or qualitY reducing water stress develops in the field.
In case oj rice; two types ofirrigation practices for scheduling irrigation are followed. These are
continuous submergence, imd intermitt,ent submergence ~hich includes rotational and occasional '
, submergence. Extensive field experiments have been conducted on water inanagem-ent
throughout the counb·yto find -out optimum irrigation schedules forthetwoirrigation practices.
In intermittent irrigation, the saving of irrigation water to the tune of 40 to 60 percent is obtained,
largely from reduction in the-percolation loss, which is dependent upon soil type.
- . '
. . .
Irrigation schedulingfor optimizing production with limited water supplies is a bigger challenge
than that with adequate water supplies. , The concept is also known as deficit irrigation. The
first step for optimally scheduling irrigation with limited water is to assess the relative sensitivity
bf different growth periods of a crop to water stres$. The irrigation with limited water should
be so managed that the inevita,ble stress synchronizes with the less sensitive stages. The principal
aim is to bdngwater costs down below the level required for maximum:yields. With application
of less water than required for _optimum yield, taking care of critical growth period of the crop
somewhat lower yield may be obtained, but more area canbe irrigated with the available quantity
of water and as such overall increase . in produce can beachieved. Field research has shown
that high crop yields are attainable even when water supplies are limited. Data reveal that
reduction in yield of wheat is only 32 percent when watet use is reduced by about 76 percent
agairist ,an optimum value 'of 84 em. '
2;7.4 Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater,
Conjunctive use management of multi-source/multi-quality wafers can be defineci as ~=
management of multiple water l'-esources in a coordinated operation such that the ':_-:= - - -.:;.~
yield of the system over a period of time exceeds the sum of water yields of the ::-:~- -:~
components of th~ system resulting from uncoordinated operation. The roe: :-":'7:: ==. ::-.:.
conJunctive mode is more compared to the net output when each source,' _-~~ ::: - = :--=-~ :.:::­
used separately. As a result of conjunctive use of surface and ground - -a:-=.-:- ~ =--=::: - -.::~ :.: :.::
possible to have optimum utilizati-on of water resources as ground-water .:~:.:.:..:: - _. ::::.:' .:-..::-_-:::_---::-.
as a stoi'age reservoir, regularization 'agent and conveyance mediu::-:.
concept recognizes :
>' the unified nature of water resources as a single _a...£:h : ::::-:..:I:-'::
> it takes advantage of the interactions beh'een the ~-t: ar, .; g:r undwater in planrting
the use from the two resources.
Conjunctive use is planned and practiced with the -:eli iJ: <> o· -ectives:
> Mitigating the effect of the shortage in (ar.al water supplies often subject to steep variations
in river flow during different periods in tl e year.
-> ,Increasing dependability of existing water supplies.
19
> 	Alleviating the problems of high water table and salinity resulting from introduction of
canal irrigation.
> 	Facilitating the use of marginal saline groundwater, which cahnot otherwise be used
without appropriate dilution.
> Storing water in groundwater basins closer to the users. This ensures water supply to
the users in case of interruption of surface water supply. Use of groundwater basin for
storage has many other advantages such as: no construction cost, no silting up, no
evaporation, uniform temperature and no requirement of space except that required for
recharge fields.
2.7.5 Integrated Use of Poor Quality and Good Quality Waters
When canal-water supplies are either unassured or in short supply, such that the farmers are
forced to pump saline ground or drainage waters to meet the crop-water requirements, these
waters from the two sources can be applied either separately or mixed.
The management practices to be followed for optimal crop production with saline irrigation
must aim at preventing the build-up of salinity, sodicity and toxic ions in the root zone to levels
that limit the productivity of soils, control the salt balances in soil-water system as well as·
minimize the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth.
Crops differ considerably in their ability to tolerate salinity/ sodicity. These intergenic differences
can be exploited for selecting the crop that gives satisfactory yields under a given root-zone
salinity. For successful irrigation with saline waters in specific agro-climatic zone, selection of
crops should be such as to suit the salinity of the water because it may not be possible to change
the quality of irrigation water. The cultivation of high-water-requiring crops like sugarcane
and rice should be avoided with brackish waters, as these aggravate the salinity problems.
Rice-wheat system is usually not recommended for alkali water irrigation, late-sown crops, for
example wheat can tolerate only lower levels of salt contents (ECiw) than timely seeded crops.
Furthel~ crops do not tolerate salinity equally at different stages of their growth. In most crops 

germination and aeration in scarcely seeding establishment are the most critical stages Therefore, 

. to increase the plant stands, strategies for minimizing the salinity of the seeding zone should be 

followed. Saline waters should be avoided at some of the sensitive stages to minimize the damage. 

Under saline conditions, irrigation should meet both water requirements of crops and leaching
requirements to maintain a favorable salt balance in the root zone. Therefore, it is usually
opined that irrigation soils should be more frequent, because it reduces the cumulative water
deficits between the irrigation cycles.
2.7.6 Technology Upgradation
.. 	Micro Irrigation System
Several water saving techniques have been perfected including irrigation in alternate
furrows in black soils for water economy as well as better aeration. Considerable savings
in water can also be achieved by adoption of sprinkler, drip/micro-sprinkler irrigation
in water scarcity areas, having conditions conducive to their application. Actual field
20
studies indicated water saving of 25 to 33 per cent and increased yieldupto 35 percent
· with sprinkler system compared with surface irrigation method. Drip irrigation saved
25 to 60 percent water and increased yield of crops by 5 to 60 percent compared with
surface irrigation methods.
.. Micro Sprinkler and Micro Sprayer:
This is a combmation of sprinkler and drip irrigation. Water is sprinkled or sprayed
around the root zone of the trees with a small sprinkler which works under low pressure.
This unit is fixed in a network of tubing but can be shifted from place to place around the
.area. Water is given only to the root zone area as in the case of drip irrigation but not to
the entire ground surface asdone in case of sprinkler irrigation method. This method is
very much suited for tree/orchard crops.
.. Bucket Kit Drip Irrigation System for Small Farm
Simple and inexpensive drip irrigation system called "Bucket Kit" is developed by New
York based Chapin LivingWaters Foundation. These are especially popular in African
countries enabling women to grow vegetables during long dry seasons.
·The Bucket Kit drip system consists of 5 gallonbucket mounted one metre above ground
and total 30 metres drip taps to irrigate two/four or six rows of vegetables. The kit also
includes a filter and necessary fittings. These kits save wafer, labour and are easy to use
for small farms.
.. Auto Irrigation System
Rapid advances in elech;onics and its successful use in developing auto irrigation system 

. has made it possible tQ practice efficient irrigation. This is particularly true in case of 

micro irrigation systems which can be easily automated to schedule irrigation and do 

not depend upon·irrigator's judgement. To maximise crop yield irrigatioT) should be 

applied at appropriate values of soil water stress in the root zone which is dependent on 

soil type, crop and its stage on growth etc. .It is very difficult to control irrigation as per 

the valu.es of soil water stress manually. In automatic irrigation system soil water stress 

·is sensed continuously by tensiometer installed at suitable depth and location. The output
of tensipmeter is converted into an electrical signal with the help of a transducer. The
anticlockwise and clockwise· rotation of the motor ~ctuated through control circuitry
opens or closes the valves for initiation or termination of irrigation. Autoiri-igation system
using ind.igenous technology are reported to have been developed at CSSR.I., Kamal. .
The system which isa low cost unit has been tested in the field with good results.
. 2.7.7 Performance Evaluation
Irrigation projects are constructed with certain assumptions and objectives.
Performance Evaluation is envisaged as an auditirig exercise primarily to look at the performance
at regular intervals not only to assess the actual performance but also to identify deficiencies if
any arid find a viable and economical solution of various problems. Water distribution, which
forms a strong link between·the suppliers and users, has large impact on the performance of the .
21
systems. Efficient and equitable distribution of water is the most important requirement of
management of irrigation projects. Improving irrigation systems from the headworks to outlet
into the farmers' field has to be paid adequate attention. The performance evaluation of system
as a whole or of any of its components will go a long way in enabling the concerned authorities
to take timely and appropriate remedial measures and in enhancing present system performance
and plan a proper strategy for future improvements in management and operation. Performance
evaluation of an irrigation system is a stock-taking exercise to methodically analyze the
functioning of the system and assess the achievements of the system, in which large investment
of money and human efforts have been made. This evaluation process identifies the component
of the system, which is not performing well, and needs upgradation. To decide whether the
system has performed as it should, a set of indicators, which represent the performance of
different components and different aspects, have been identified. A number of projects in different
states have been taken up for Performance Evaluation studies.
2.7.8 Benchmarking of Irrigation System
Despite the fact that productivity in irrigated areas has increased as compared to that ot rain ­
fed areas, the increase is still below the world standards and developing countries like China. ·
There is scope for considerable improvement in productivity and consequent reduction in the
demand for water. Applying the right quantity at the right time and using the right cultivation ·
and irrigation practices can achieve conservation of water on the field. Against the backdrop of
a situation of imminent scarcity and iner-sectoral competition on physical and financial resources,
the water resources management has to undergo a paradigm shift and deep introspection.
Fierce competition, globalisation and development of new information and communication
technologies have forced the country to continuously search for and adopt new processes,
structures and tools in various sectors in order to survive and compete in their respective spheres.
There,was an explosion of management tools and techniques in the 1990s, to help systems
improvement. One among these techniques is benchmarking, which has proved to be valuable
in helping individual systems evaluate their competitive position.
Benchmarking is simply the "introspection" since it is a continuous process of measuring one's
own performance and practices against the best competitors, and is a sequential exercise of
learning from other's experience. Opportunities for improvement are identified by conducting
an internal assessment and making comparative measurements with best practice organizations
to determine the performance gap between current practice and best practice. Selected best
practices can then be suitably adopted to fit into the organisation's needs and implemented.
The cycle of improvement continues, In the irrigation sector that would mean more productive
and efficient use of the water i.e. 'more crop per drop'.
To promote Benchmarking in irrigation sector in India, a Workshop was held at Hyderabad
from 4-6 February, 2002 with the participation of officers from Central and States Governments.
The conclusion of the Workshop was that Benchmarking is relevant for India and we should do
it. Benchmarking would help in appropriate interventions and help in formulation and
implementation of policies for improvement of projects. This would result in bringing
transparency in irrigation sector along with many benefits viz equitable distribution, improvement
in irrigation efficiency, help bringing additional area under irrigation leading to diversification
of crops, enable putting cap on O&M expenditure, increased productivity per unit of water etc,
Some projects have been identified for carrying out benchmarking.
22
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2;8. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF AGRCULTURAL USE OF WATER
Increasing human and livestock population along with significant developments in the various
fields of agriculture has brought more and more lands under irrigation using mOstly canal,
dams, lift and underground water through surface irrigation methods. With these improved
package of practices, the food grain production has increased from 51 Mt in 1950-51 against
208 Mt at present.
During the last three decades, significant·developments have been made in differentfields of
agriculture. Use of irrigation water, fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding varieties and energy
efficient agricultural implements have become common practices to raise the production level.
In order to produce more, the natural resources have been exploited indiscrirninately which
have also aggravated the problems of soil erosion, soil salinity/alkalinity. water logging and
pollution of surface and ground water resources. The environmental degradation in the form
of land resources and also in the form of pollution is threatening health and climate and ·is
reducing biological diversity. .
Fertiliser Pollution
Though chemical fertilizers are the key input for increasing agricultural pl;oduction in India, ·yet
.excess and indiscriminate use of·these fertilizers have caused.some problems especially under
'.irrigated conditions. In'India the consumption of fertilizer .nutrients has increased- from 2.26
'.million tones in 1970-"71 to 16.3 million tones in 1997-98. Out of this N alone shares approximately
70.7 percent, P 20.9 percent and K 8.36 percent. The average growth rate in total fertilizer
'.' consumption in Indian agriculture during eighties has been 8.48 per cent and the same is
.continuing in nineties.' The use of chemical fertilizers at times causes damage to the environment
through air, water and soil pollution.
·Water Pollution
. ' . .
· Various fertililzers especially the nitrogenous fertilisers are the main sOlliLe r.~ _- _
ground water and other water bodies. Nitrate leaching is more  -~ -:::- -:-~
· evapoh·anspiration, where irrigation is practiced, lands are deyoted '::: ~~- -=----_
soil having low water holding capacity and high infiltration rates a. -l - -~~-=---:- :: ~
are applied in amounts and ways that result in tt.e a <::':: ~.~Ij.:':'. -: =-.:::-a -_ ­
nitrate concentration in <Tell water sam.. ~es I:C':::' ::-:~:::-:-:' -=- ::-- .= .:=:-:- , _=- -:-_
'westeren Uttar Pradesh was severalS::>:'::' _-=.:-:- :::- :..:-.::_ :..:-.=::_~ ~ 32": _
of N0 in ground water fro- -: -t='i:"a. ~-.;. :; ': - .'-= .: .: -:-:
. .
. ~ : : __ ~
3
1975. It is also reported that ~ ~~ .==-::-:~ -=_:'=:- ..: - .-",~~,
10 mg/l which is the upper lirr.:" . ~ ' -
Soil Pollution
·The phYSical, chemical and biologic~:;:-- :- ::-::::::5 ~ -: -,.- .::.- ~--:. _ . :..::=-:::=..: =-:. ~o~ g term continuous
use offertilizers. Contamination of 5':: : -::: ~ - ~- --=.a -~ =- .::: ¢.':: _ : _~__ :~ ;; 7e:!S such as cadmium(Cd)
and lead (Pb) from phosphatic fertitz~~:::: .s;:-=-.~ ~:-:'-:----::--.5 ...-..s-:. . n of environmentalists. It
is reported that heavy metals applied - :..:~.: 5=:':' ::-_ : -_~:-: =-2r~ derivatives of rock phosphaten _
accumul<ite almost completely in the _22':-:: ~ :::..: :.:: .: :.:-. : .JrffiS easily available to plants. The 

availability of heavy metals was foun': : 0 ':J.: ::..::e :..-. ~:g textured, acidic soils as compared to 

heavy textured; alkaline soils. 

Pesticidal Pollution - . 

23
With the advent of high yielding crop varieties and adoption of intensive cropping practices,
peculiar pest problems demanding high pesticide use came to the forefront causing the use of
more chemical pesticides. Among the pesticides used in India, insecticides share the maximum
(80 percent) followed by fungicides (10 perce!'t) and herbicides (7 percent). The use of high
doses of agro chemicals in agriculture has accrued to health hazards and ecological imbalances.
2.9 INTER- BASIN TRANSFER OF WATER
Due to topographical and other constraints only 690 BCM of surface water out of available
1953 BCM can be put to beneficial use. One of the reasons for lesser availability of utilizable
flows is the skewed spatial distribution of these flows and that potentially good storage sites are
not available in basins with plenty of water resources. Inter-basin transfer of waters from surplus
to water short regions, where good storage sites are available is considered as one of the options
for augmenting the utilizable water resources. Flood flow canals can be constructed in areas of
surplus water to tap flood water to link them to reservoirs in deficit areas, which normally do
not get filled up. It is estimated that based on proven technology, inter-basin transfer has c..
potential of additional irrigation of about 35 M.ha over and above the ultimate irrigation potential
of 139 M.ha.
National Water Development Authority (NWDA),under the National Perspective Plan has carried
out water balance studies and other feasibility studies for inter-linking of rivers under specific
cO'TIponents namely (a) Himalayan Rivers Development and (b) Peninsular Rivers Development.
Feasibility studies have been completed for five link schemes under the Peninsular Component
. It is programmed to complete feasibility reports of all the links of Peninsular Component by the
year 2004 and those under Himalayan Component by the year 2008.
2.10. RAINFED AGRICULTURE
More than half of the 142 M.ha. of cultivated land in the country continued to be under rainted
farming. It is estimated that even after development of full irrigation potential of 13 M ha.
. against the possible cropped area of 200 M.ha. by the year 2025 AD, about 68 M ha. will be left
as rainfed. Rainfed agriculture is complex, diverse and risk-prone and is characterized by low
levels of productivity and low input usage. Variability in raintall results in wide variation and
instability in yields. The bulk of the rural poor live in the rainted regions. The challenge before
Indian agriculture is to transform rainted farming into more sustainable and productive systems
and to better support the population dependent upon it.
Conservation and management of rainwater hold the key for sustainable agriculture in rainted
area,s. The earlier rain harvesting systems had a pre-eminent position in rural life. With the
emphasis on large dams and canal systems, the emphasis on tanks and other local resources of
rain water harvesting waned over the years. All types of developments, be it creation of large
storges or small scale rainwater harvesting structures are considered to be necessary and are in
fact complimentary. In the recent past there is a move towards adopting local water harvesting
measures also. Efforts are being made to renovate the tanks which have lost their storage
capacity due to siltation over the years. In the case of water resources management the focus
should not be merely on development of new water resources but also on efficient utilization of
already developed resources particularly based on indigenous systems.
2.10.1 Conservation Practices
The strategy should be to conserve every drop of rainfall. This can be done by rain water
harvesting. The basic concept of rainwater harvesting is that instead of allowing runoff to
24
cause erosion, rainwater should be conserved at a place where it falls. This can be achieved
through conservation of water in the soil or by collecting excess runoff during high intensity
rains and recycling it during water scarcity periods. This is a powerful strategy to stabilize
productivity from rainfedj dry land areas. Rain Water Harvesting and Management consists of
In-situ and Ex-situ Harvesting.
In Situ harvestinglLand Treatments
Land treatments are practices that promote maximum conservation of rain water where it 

falls i.e. in situ moisture preservation. Water and land management are inseparable and successful 

sh'ategies on water handling are location specific and dependent on rainfall intensity, slopes, 

soil type and texture. In general in-situ water harvesting can be achieved by increasing infiltration 

rate with the help of deep ploughing, profile modification, vertical mulching and by kepping 

soil surface rough. On lands having slope up to 1 to 2 per cent, water conservation could be 

ensured by field bunding, land leveling, contour ditching, and cultivation along contour. On 

lands having 2 to ·6 percent slope, graded contour bunds can be consh'ucted and on slopes 

ranging from 6 to 33 per cent bench terraces can be made. 

Alfisols and Vertisols, the two predominant soil types of semi-arid tropical regions, need different 

land h'eatment plans. Important land configurations for drylands included the broad bed and 

furrow (BBF) system, flat on grade and ridging later, graded border sh'ips, etc. The BBF system 

developed at ICRISAT is useful with deep Vertisols, while flat sowing and ridging later is a 

simple scheme that works well on Alfisols.Graded border strip, a method developed at Bangalore, 

was rated highly efficient for controlling runoff and stabilizing crop yields in relatively deep 

Alfisols. 

Off-season tillage is another simple practice which is usually employed by ianr_er~ : __

conservation of rain water. Deep tillage is resorted to conserve the monsoon rainfalL -:~...:...: 

shallow tillage by chiseling is considered useful during rabi season. Deep tillage ir ..=.:-: ~.__ ,;­
4 years of shallow tillage is also reported to be useful for moisture retention. It is, t =:,- -~-=: ­
argued that one of the major causes of excessive land degradation in areas : _____~ 

rainfall is conventional soil preparation by plough, which leaves the soil o~_-v-w::a. 

and sun. Conventional tillage may cause long term negative effects as a :-~ _ : ._ 

oxidation of organic matter due to increased aeration and prolonge :::?-::-_~-:c _ ­
solar radiation, increased water and wind erosion etc. Recent esc ~ -..::..:. _ :.._- : 

improvements in crop yields, reduced soil erosion and reduced lat-c--~ __ .. ._ ::.­
introduction of conservation tillage. More research is, howe er. ~t:s:::.=-.: ..

in organic matter vis-a.-vis tillage operation and to establish us.2....:.~-=~~ -:-: .~- =~..........

Ex-situ Rain Water Harvesting
In arid and semi-arid areas, the low and erratic raiJ!a!i =-. : ~---,- ' " . .::-. ::':;:: . =..-;rensity of
short duration resulting in high run-off and poor SC':':' =-,:..:-:.:o-=.:...: ~ ..:; = .-.5 ~ . _ -';':'-, about 50 to
60 percent of rain water. A lost runoff varies freT:"". -:. ~ -:. : : ::-~ . =-=:-: : : =-.-=- ::--c.::-...~ depending on
the' amount and intensity of rain, soil charader.s- --== ::::::. ':' . :;:z~~ :-: : =-.-er. _his surface runoff,
if harvested over a large area can yield consi'::~n::-~-.: ;:-=-.:'~.: ::: - '.5.:eI fer storage providing life
saving irrigation to the crop during the ~· 5': ~::-. ::-.~ ==-. c ~- :- =--. season and also for growing a
second crop in rabi season. The major COPS:::-:l=-.~ ::-..::.: ~-::.:.:. ' :::cit the adoption of this technology
on a macro scale are, the high initial ·ost <L. . ": ~::=--.-.r:a:.:a' ility of cheap and effective sealants
for permeable Alfisols. Additio!1all}~ :onu _ ceaiG :., the monsoon and low intensity rains limit
the runoff flow into the ponds durir g t.~e ~; spells when water is needed most. Despite these
25
difficulties, small water storag€ponds seem to be the most viable strategy to stabilize productivity 

.of the ecoligically disadvantged dryland regions. The surface runoff from an area can also be 

increased by reducing the infiltration capacity of the soil through vegetation management, 

cleaning, chopping surface vegetation and reducing soil permeability by application of chemicals. 

To maximise profitability from the limited quantity of water stored in small ponds, planning for
its judicious use is most crucial. Research conducted at different locations in India established
that a supplemental irrigation of5-10 cm at the critical stage of crop growth substantiallyincreases
the yields of cotton, wheat, sorghum, tobacco, pearlmillet, etc viz-a-viz no ;irrigation.
ill Artificial Ground Water Recharge
It is most essential to take steps for conservation by augmentation of ground water storage
through artificial recharge. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has carried out a number of
artificial recharge and ground water conservation studies to develop the methodologies and
technologies and to assess the economic viability of these measures. These studies have established
the feasibility of various recharge methods such as spreading, recharge thr~ughinjection wells
and induced recharge from surface water bodies, and conservation of subsurface flows through
construction of sub-surface dykes. Percolation tanks have been found to be very effective in
checking the surface run-off during monsoons and conserve the same water for recharging the
underlying aquifers; .
2;10.2 Head Management-Integrated Package for Water Resource Development.
. Realising the fact that soiland water conservation practices alone were insufficient to encourage
the farmers for their adoption, the sttategies of water conservation and crop production were
harmonised on a catchment basis rather than on individual farmer's holdings. The programme
. aims at increasing the watershed retention capacity for rainwater by increasing infiltration,
surface storage at extensive location,litilising rainwater on siteto reduce erosion and consequent
sediment hazard >and promote better crop and plant management. The provision of check dams
in tributaries of river help in stopping unconh'ol1ed transportation of sediment and increases
sustaina:ble cropping on sloping land. Planting along the contour of a hillside provides a vegetative
barrier and slows down this runoff. The sediment trapped behind the plantation forms a
terrace that further helps conserve soil and moisture for crops.
At present very high priority has been accorded by the Govern.rnent of India to the hoEstic and
sustainable development ofrainfed areas based on the Watershed Approach. For watershed
development works, involvement of farmers, WUAs is necessary. Cornmon Guidelines in this
.regard have also been brought out by the Governent of India, which need to be followed. hh
The NWDPRA was laUnched in 1990-91 in 25 States and two Union Territories and th scheme
continued to be implemented during IX Plan. This programme is also being continued during X
plan period. An area of 7 Mha has been developed incurring an expendition of Rs 1871 crore
upto IX plan. The broad objectives of the NWDPRA are as follows:
): 	 Conservation, development and sustainable management of natural resources including
their use.
): 	 Enhancement of agricultural productivity and production in a sustainable'manner.
): 	 Restoration of ecological balance in the degraded and fragile rainfed eco-systems by
greening these areas through appropriate mix of trees, shrubs and grasses.
26
> 	Reduction in regional disparity between irrigated and rainfed areas.
> 	Creation of sustained employment opportunities for the rural community including the
landless.
The approach is preventive, progressive, co'rrective as well as curative. The important initiatives
undertaken for the watershed management are as below:
> 	Conserving soil and water
> 	Improving the ability of land to hold water & productivity
> 	Rainwater harvesting and recharging
> 	Growing greenery - trees, crops & grasses
> 	Optimal utilisationn of marginal lands
> 	Development of rural manpower & energy management systems.
2.10.3 Mass Awareness
UseI's participation in planning, development & management of water resources has been
recognized by all concerned. Several State Governments have initiated programmes for
implementation of PIM. Necessary legal backing has also been provided for this. For bridgin& ..'
the knowledge gap, creation of mass awareness on water preservation and coriservation amongst
farmers/villagers through several measures viz. T.Y.Radio, pamphlets jnJoeal languages is
necessary. Though thi~ asp~ct is covered through ,observation.~.water Resources Day sfuce
1989, concerted efforts ill thIS regard are necessary: . '
India has declared 2003 as year of Fresh Water in keepmg with..the U.N. Resolution declaring
2003 as International Fresh Water Year. The objectives of Fresh Water Year, include increasing
awareness among stake holders regarding scarcity value of water, conservation and efficient
use offresh watel~ preservation of quality of fresh water and community partnership for informal
decision making etc. To achieve these objectives, one of the activities proposes, Fresh Water '
Conservation Campaign. This is in tune with the theine of this year's Water Resources Day and
would thus help in creating awareness amongest farmers/villagers for water conservation in
agriculture. .
2.11 BROAD SUGGESTIONS
Rapid urbanisation and industrialization coupled with continuous increase in population is
putting h'emendous pressure on scarce' water resources. With increasing demand from other
competing sectors, the availability of water for irrigation sector is reducing progressively. Achieving
high water use efficiency in agriculture is the first step along the path towards sustainable
water development and management. Water conservation in agriculture can be achieved by
reducing conveyance losses, efficient canal water management, efficient on-farm water
inanagement including improved water application techniques, rainwater harvesting, artificial
ground water recharge, land treatments, reducing water demand, reuse of waste water,
conjunctive use of surface and ground water etc. Besides the issue of early completion of projects
which are languishing for want of funds, poor maintenance primarily due to low water rates, .
lag in potential utilized etc. also needs to be addressed to improve water uSe efficiency and its
conservation. Encouragement to agro forestry on west land, use' of Govt.~~#vateland for
27
ground water recharge, encouragement through awards like, WATSAVE for water conservation
for some of the other measures which will help in optimal use of water. Excessive application of
water in irrigated commands has caused salinity, soil degradation, soil toxicity associated with
h'ace elementsand increase in pesticide ingredients all causing deterioration of the environment.
Therefore,it is imperative to take a holistic view of the entire,set of inputs applied into agriculture
so that the food production is sustained and environmental security is maintained. .
In order to minimize the pollution of surface and ground water due to irrigated agriculture,
awareness should be created among the concerned officers of the irrigation, agriculture and
command area development department as also in the farmers. They should be educated about
the proper practices of applying fertiliiers and pesticides alongwith irrigation and water
management which would iead to sustainable development of irrigated agriculture. There is
urgent need to use bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides to avoid pollution due to harmful effects of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
28
CHAPTER 3
WATER USE FOR INDUSTRY AND STRATEGIES / MEASURES 

FOR CONSERVATION 

3.1 INTRODUCTION
_~mongst diverse uses of water one important use is in the industrial sector. In India, the water
:equirement of the industries used to be very small compared to other sectoral demands in
::?aTlier years. With the rapid growth in population coupled with overall economic development
jue to industrialisation, the requirement for indush'ial sector is increasing at a fast rate. When
mdush'ial demand is concentrated in specific locations, heavy point loads are created on available
-.-ater resources. Thus water availability is a major factor in industrial location as non-availability
vf quality water and scarce situations have forced some industries to shut down. Industries
require water for various purposes most of which are non-consumptive, thus making reuse
through recycling and other conservation measures possible. The amount of water consumed
for any product, therefore varies widely depending upon the process used, plant efficiency,
echnology employed, the degree to which water is re-circulated and other factors. There are.
:10 fixed norms for water demand for industries but rather a range of values determined by the
technology used, selection of plant and process, practice in providing maximum recycling to
reduce demand and pollution.
tndush'ial e££luents constitute a major source of wastewater discharges; which would contain
different kinds of toxic pollutants. Treatment of indush'ial wastewater and recycling are essential
to meet standards of effluent water quality. With the quality of water becoming poor, availability
of fresh water being scarce and statutory environmental regulations becoming more stringent,
optimization in use of water demands a closer monitoring by indush'ial sector.
3.2 PRESENT USE
The requirement of water for indush'ial use depend upon many factors viz., use of appropriate
technology requiring least quantity of water, quality of raw material and its source, sources of
water i.e. freshwater/ ground water/river, disposal of effluent, policy of re-circulation etc,.
Some of the industries requiring considerable quantity of water for their production can be
broadly classified as small scale indush'ies, chemicals and petrochemicals, sugar, steel, paper,
fertilizer, textile, food processing, coal building, non-ferrous metals, cement etc.
In the small-scale sector (551), the water intensive industries belong to the sectors namely the
food items, hosiery and garments, paper product and printing, chemical and chemical products, .
iron and steel indush'y etc. Water consumption varies depending upon the nature, however, in
the changing global industrial scenario, the growth rate in S5I sector has been estimated to
reduce. The requirement of water in chemical sector by pharmaceutical and pesticides industry
is insignificant due to recycling. However, the major water intensive industries are dyes, caustic
soda, and soda ash.
In sugar industry water is required for cooling purpose and processing. The requirement varies
according to size of the plant; technology being followed and the recycling process. Modernising
29
the plants and updating the processing technology can reduce the future demand!consumption
in sugar production.
Water consumption in steel industries varies depending upon the process and production
technology used. In view of continuous increase in production, the water demand would also
increase in future. In paper industry water is an integral part in paper making and transporting
fibre from raw material however the water demand depend upon the type of raw material
used. In India, the paper and pulp industries extensively use intra plant recycle and reuse of
waste water from washing, screening and bleaching.The water consumption is likely to reduce
due to conservation measures. ­
In the textile industry; the processing sector is one of the major consumers of water. Estimating
the water requirement for textile industry is complex, as the industry is diversified with
heterogeneou,s sh'ucture of production. Sinc-€ water is going to be scarce in coming years, the
strategy for reduc-tion in use of water is necessary. The water demand in fertilizer plants widely
varies depending on the type of plant-product and the process technology employed. A major
portion of the water is used-for cooling purposes and boilerfeed water. The future plants should
be based on latest technology having zero effluent.
Water consumption in coal mining sector is for coal washeries, washing and cleaning of mining
h:1ildings and equipment, dust suppression in mines, drinking watel~ fire fighting etc. In some
groups of mines, the water consumption is very high. The food processingindustry is also a fast
growing sector and besides the organized sector, there are large number of units in unorganized
sector. The requirement of water varies in food processing industry from unit to unit depending
upon the product, technology used etc. - ­
The non-fetrousmetal industry in the counhY is confined to production of aluminium, zinc,
lead and copper. The water demand depends upon location and size of mines/smelter; grade
of metal contained in the ore and technology used. Future demand of water would get reduced
due to recycling process of water in this sector. ­
In building sector, the brick industry is predominantly in the unorganized sector. There is acute
housing shortage in the country at present and therefore the future growth in demand of bricks
for housing is expected to be high. Similarly, Cement which is manufactUred through wet / dry
processing, is also required for construction activities. The cement industry is power intensive
industry and has installed captive power units, as adequate power is not available. Hence, the
water requirement is both for manufacture of cement and for the captive power plant. Thus the
water demand in this sector will also be high in future ­
For estimation ofwater demand for industrial sector, in all seventeen categories of water intensive
industrial groups were identified for understanding industrial scenario of the country induding
the small scale and village industry demand (Report of the National Corrunission for Integrated
Water Resources Development Plan, 1999). The year 1996-97 for which production figures were
available was identified as the baseline year for estimating water requirements in industrial
sector. Based on the rn:illimum per unit water consumption figure and the production figure,
the water requirement for all the 17 categories of industries was assessed as 15 BCM per year in
1997. The demand for smaIi-scale indush'ies was assessed as 7 BCM per year. Thus the total
water consumption in 1997 was around 22 BCM per year. ­
30
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors
Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors

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Conservation of water in agriculture and industrial sectors

  • 1. o I E rr o
  • 2. . THEME PAPER ON CONSERVATION OF WATER IN .. . AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS WATER RESOURCES ·DAY • 2003 IND.IA WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY
  • 3. FOREWORD To focus attention on various issues relating to water resources development and create public awareness, observance of Water Resources Day every year was started inIndia, in 1987. . Subsequently, in 1994: the United Nations OrganiZation declared March 22 every year as "World Day for Water". Since the"rt a joint National Curtain Raiser function is being organized every year on 22nd March at New Delhi, to mark the beginning ofseries of Water Resources Day and World Water Day programmes throughout the country. However this year Curtain Raiser function . . is being held on 21st March. Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS) prepares a theme paper on . a chosen topic every year, which forms the basis for countrywide discussions. This year's theme is "Conservation of Water in Agriculture and Industrial sectors". During the twentieth century, while the world population has increased three folds, the water use has increased by seven times. Besides about one third of the world population is located in .the countries facing water scarcity. The increase in population alongwith increased water-use ' and higher standard of living are bound to result in water scarcity in the coIningyears in many countries of the world. In our country, while the per capita availability was 5.20 Th.cu.m per annum in 1950, it came down to 2.20 Th.cu.m ,in 1991. It was 1.80 Th.cu.m in 2000 and is likely to reduce to about 1.34 Th.cu.m in the year 2025. As per the International Standards, when per capita availability is less than 1 Th.cu.m per year, water scarcity occurs. As such we are likely to reach that stage near about the year 2025. . To face the water crisis that is likely to occur in future, we may have to increase the water storage capacity as well as take all measures for conservation of water and its efficient use in right earnest. Agriculture sector alone utilizes about 80 percent of water. With demand from other sector's rising at a fast pace, the availability of water for irrigation is likely to reduce. It is therefore essentialto improve the water use efficiency and adopt various conserVation measures . in the agriculture sector to meet its requirements. So also with increased water use in industrial sector, conservation measures, including recycling and reuse, would have to be strictly followed. To meet the growing demands of water for food, urban and. rural use,' industri~s including . power, adequate conservation measures are a must. It is an urgent necessity and involvement of all concerned would be required to meet the challenge.The theme paper has attempted to cover all the relevant issues related to the conservation aspects required to be adopted in the agriculture and industrial sectors in the country. . . The paper has been prepared and reviewed by team of experts listed on the following page. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.. . ~,. --~~---- New Delhi (P.L.Diwan) 21, March 2003 Vice President INDIAN WATERRESOURCES SOCIETY (i)
  • 4. Contributions by 1. Er. B.D. Pateria, Life Member, IWRS & Chief Engineer (pOMIO), C1 ·C 2. Er. CD. Khoche, Life Member, IWRS, Former Chief Engineer ewe & Consultant WAPCOS 3. ~r. S.C Sud, Consultant, WAPCOS & Former Chief Engineer (CWO 4. Er. R.P. Saxena, Life Member, IWRS & Director (BP), CWC 5. Er. Y.K Chawla, Life Member, IWRS & Director (IP-S), CWC 6. Er. A.K. Sinha, Life Member, IWRS & DiIector (NWP), CWC 7. Er. P.Y. Rao, Director (WM), CWC . 8. Er. R.K. Khanna, Life Member, IWRS & Director EIA, cwe 9. Er. Som Dutt Gupta, Life Member, IWRS & Director (P&P), CWC - Group Coordinator Reviewers 1. Er. Z. Hasan Former Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, GOI ·2. Er. A.D. Mohile Former Chairman, CWC 3. Er. P.C Mathur, Consultant, WAPCOS & Former Chairman, GFCC 4. Sh. Rakesh Hooja, Jt. Secy., Mlo Home Affairs & Life Member,-IWRS 5. Er. P.L.Diwan, CMD. WAPCOS & Vice President, IWRS (aJ
  • 5. THEME PAPER ON CONSERVATION OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL SECTORS CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGES FOREWORD (i) . EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1-4 1. INTRODUCTION 5-9 2. WATER USE FOR AGRICULTURE AND STRATEGIES; MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION 10-28 3. WATER USE FOR INDUSTRIES AND STRATEGIES/ MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION 29-38 4. LINKAGES, COORDINATION AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS . 39-46 5. R&D EFFORTS REQUIRED 47-51 6. CONCLUSION 52-53 "
  • 6. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PREAMBLE With about four percent of World's Water resources available in the country, the presumption that these are inexhaustible is proving incorrect. With the increase in population, urbanization and industrialization, the demand of water for various uses is increasing continuously, thereby reducing per capita water availability. This calls for water conservation measures to be adopted particularly in irrigated agriculture and industrial sectors which are two major sectors of water use. This would include efficient harvesting of rainwater through storage, efficiency in water use and its distribution. WATER RESOURCES National Commission for Integrated Water Resources D~velopment Plan (NCIWRDP) in their report .(1999) have assessed average annual flow in river system of India as 1953 BCM. The . Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has assessed the quantum of replenishable ground water as 432 BCM. The utilizable water resources assessed by the NCIWRDP are1086 BCM (690 BCM from surface flow and 396 BCM from ground water flow). The return flow of about 169 BCM is expected to be available for utilization in th~ year 2050. WATER REQUIREMENT The NCIWRDP has estimated the water requirementfor various sectors for the years 2010,2025 and 2050 for low and high demand scenarios, linked to low and high population variants of 1346 million and 1581 million in the year 2050. The requirements for low and high demand scenarios for the year 2050 for Irrigation and Industrial Sectors are 628 BCM and 807 BCM and 81 BCM and 81 BCM respectively. WATER CONSERVATION IN AGRICULTURE Keeping in view the water availability, command area, possible storage sites, the ultimate irrigation potential of the country through major, medium and minor projects has been assessed as 139.9 million ha. Mha. The cultivable area of the country is estimated to be about 186 Mha, out of which 142 Mha is under cultivation and it is expected that cultivated area will stabilize at this level. The requirement of total food grains in the year 2050 is assessed as 450 Mt. With the expansion of irrigation and use of modem agronomic practices, food production has increased from 51 Mt in 1950-51 to about 208 Mt in the year 2001-02. Though productivity in irrigated ~eas has increased, there is great scope for its increase through improvement in efficiency in :erms of per unit of land and water. Against the backdrop of imminent scarcity and inter­ sectoral competition, there is no alternative but to adopt the conservation measures in agriculture. - .-.: _ . e increased tempo of water resources development in the planned era, irrigation potential ~ :na€ased from 22.6 Mha in1951 to about 93 Mha in 1997-98 (contribution of major and ..,.....e~:,rm irrigation being 34 mha). The present total water use in agriculture is 525 BCM, which -= .;J - u.: '" percent of total water use in the country. Thus, agriculture sector is the main user of ::- - -. -a:e:- and as earlier reported even in future ·it will be the major consumer (about 807 BCM . -ca.: 1
  • 7. The land use for high demand and low demand scenarios has been assessed by NCIWRDP for the years 2010, 2025 and 2050. For the year 2050, net sown area assessed is 145 Mha, cropping intensity as 150 to 160 percent and percent of Irrigated area to Gross Cropped area as 52 to 64­ percent. It has also assessed that of the total irrigation in 2050, about 3-1 percent will be from surface'w~ter. NCIWRDP has assessed that the average of food crop yields will also go up in Rainfed and Irrigated areas from about 1.0 tonnes per ha to 1.5 tonnes per ha, and from about 3.0 tonnes per ha to 4.0 tonnes respectively in the year 2050. Keeping lL~e above land use and yield projections the water requirements have been worked out by the Commission. The irrigation development has also created problems concerning equity, drainage and water logging, low efficiencies etc. The major problem is of the overall low irrigation efficiencies. The efficiencies obtained are about 35 to 40 percent in surface water and 65 to 70 percent in ground water use and thus there is great scope for their improvement. Also considering that water available for in:igation or agricultural use may go down to 75 percent from about 83 percent as at present and irrigation sector being major consumer of water, maximum conservation measures would be required to be adopted in agriculture use of water to match the demand with supply in future. STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION The sh'ategies which would need to be adopted would be a combination of development and management sh·ategies. Water conservation in agriculture sector could be achieved by creating storages, reducing conveyance losses, efficient water management, land treatments, reducing water demand, reuse of waste water, conjunctive use of surface and ground water, improved O&M of irrigation systems, rationalization of water rates, integrated use of poor quality and good quality waters, technology upgradation etc. Regular performance evaluation of projects and Benchmarking of irrigation systems also need to be carried out for improving performance of irrigation systems. . Besides, early completion of ongoing projects by providing sufficient funds needs to be ensured. The problems of soil salinity, soil degradation, soil toxicity associated with. trace elements and . increase in pesticide ingredients causing deterioration of envirornnentalso need to be tackled in right earnest. Involvement and training of farmers in all these objectives is very essential in achieving the desired objectives. WATER CONSERVATION IN INDUSTRIES . With the increase in population and rapid industrialization in the country, water demands for industries have increased considerably. Water requirement for industries in India although insignificant, when c:ompared to the demand for other uses like agriculture, creates problems by creation of point loads on available resources. The major purposes for which water is utilized in indush'ial plants_are processing, cooling and condensing, boiler feed and other miscellaneous uses such as washing and meeting domestic requirements in the industrial townships. Most of these uses are non-consumptive enabling reuse of water through suitab.E treatment and re­ circulation and other conservation measures. Limited water resources rna,' become a deciding factor in the choice of the manufacturing process or may force a char ge !T m one process to another, as industrial expansion increases the strain on the available -,'-atEi'. 2
  • 8. INDUSTRIAL WATER REQUIREMENTS . ' . The actual requirement of water varies from industry to industry depending on the raw material ' .' used, processing technology followed, recycle and reuse of water, disposal of effluent etc. NCIWRDM has estimated the industrial water requirement for the years 2025 and 2050 as 70 BCM and 103 BCM. However, considering the likely technology upgradation'and adoption of . water conservation measures, the National Commission has recommended adoption of lower figures of 67 BCM and 81 BCM for the years 2025 and 2050 respectively. . WATER CONSERVATION To meet the increased competing demands of various sectors, it is essential to affect economy in industrial use of water. Most of the industrial uses being non-consumptive, recycling and reuse of water plays an important role for economizing water use in industries. For affecting efficient and economical use of water, the tariff rates have to be such as to compel the industry to look . into .technological interventions leading to reduced use per unit production of waste water. Some of the important issues pertaming to water conservation are incorporation of alternate production processes and technologies for reducing water use, recycling and reuse of water, ensuring sound plant maintenance practices and minimizing spills and leaks and appropriate pricing of water. . ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS . . . Pollution of water by effluents discharged by industries is a serious hazard being faced by the' country. Disposal methods currently practised' are not environmentally compatible. Adoption of appropriate technologies for reduction of water use, treatment of industrial effluent to a . certain minimum standard before discharging into surface or ground water bodies arid industrial zoning for notlocating water intensive indush'ies in arid and semi-arid areas need to be done. LINKAGES, COORDINATION .AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS Presently various Ministries/Organizations are handling the schemes pertaining todevelopment, management, conservation and protection of water resources. Also a number of problems have emerged in terms of wide gap inutiIization of created irrigation potential,low irrigation efficiency, . madequacy in operation and maintenance of the systems, lack of equity in water distribution, resource degradation through water logging and soil salinisation and poor crop productivity in irrigated areas, For indush'ial projects including Power project also even though consumptive water requirements are less as compared to non-consumptive use, water availability and environment aspects are required to be verified by the concerned State and Central Deparfn1ents/ ).finistries. These problems threaten the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. There isa need .or a holistic and Integrated Water Resources Development and Management to conserve and gment the net water availability by optimally harnessing the available waterto match with -':'.e increasing demands of various sectors. This calls for either bringing all water related subjects '..:::-.::e:r one umbrella or to be dealt with by River Basin Organizations, when set up for integrated =-"agernent of water resources. However, to start with there is a need for Inter-Departmental! :"':~-. :ini.sterial Coordination Committees at State and Central level to tackle these problems ~ -~- . 1 . ~~ ;-'--:.:he1inkag~s/coordination between various concerned Departments/ Ministries, there '.i ;. :- ..:-:::-~ '. ol 'e the stakeholders in these activities. Though PIM has been recognized as an :::::.s-::-=.a:. :_='~ :':r efficient and proper irrigation water management, it needs to be implemented 3
  • 9. as a mass movement amongst·the Politicians, Policy Makers and other Goverriment Officials, farmers through mass media and other means so as to create awareness about its benefits. Necessary legal measures under the existing constitutional provision, as outlined in Chapter 4, also need to be taken for the purpose. . . R&D EFFORTS REQUIRED Due to water scarcity and the increasing pollution the problems of matching the demands with available supplies, as also using poor quality water or its recycling before use would have to be tackled. The research efforts would thus need to be focussed on various aspects of these problems in different regions of the country. R&D efforts·in agriculture sector would need to be directed to deal with savings in agricultural use, improved irrigation practices, conjunctive use of multi-source and multi-quality waters, techno:-economic improvements in micro irrigation systems, water shed management, Bio­ Drainage, crop planning for flood aIfecteci areas, environmental protection and reuse of irrigation water. R&D efforts in industr·ial sector would need to be oriented towards development of appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process water, development of pollution control mechanism, cost effective technologies for treatment of waste water for reuse and recycling of water. As the R&D efforts ·so far made did not have desired impact it may be necessary to avail the technical and financial support of various international agencies like World Bank,IPTRID (International Programme for Technology and..Research in Irrigation and Drainage), IWMI (International Water Management Institute) etc. An action plan for research for next 25 to 30 years may be drawn through cooperation of all agencies viz. Government, Academic Institutes, Organizations. Programme for application of results/research findmgs fmm lab to fields for, . wider application may be formed. Private sector participation in R&D efforts also needs to be encouraged. CONCLUSION To achieve the objective of conservation of water in the agricultural and industrial sectors focus of attention will have to be on-augmentation and creation of additional resources,performance improvement of existing systems, coordination amongst various agencies, provision of adequate funds· for creation of additional resources and conservation measures, ensuring users' participation, giving impetus for Benchmarking of irrigation system, creating mass awareness ·for better management of availability and demand and environment protection. Strategies will need to focus on augmentations and optimum utilization "vithout s-acrificing on quality with peoples participation.. 4 _ ._-- ----- -----~ -~~~-
  • 10. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 OVERVIEW India is one of the few countries in the world endowed with abundant land and water resources. But this resource is very unevenly distributed over time and space, as most of the runoff occurs during the four monsoon months of June to September. India possesses about 4 percent of world's water resources and ranks 5th in the world for availability of water, after Canada, China, ErsrNhile USSR & old Brazil. In the early stages of development in the country, it was generally taken for granted that our large water resources were almost inexhaustible. Most of the water resources were earlier being lised primarilyfor irrigated agriculture, with demands in other sectors insignificant relative to resource availability. Although the total quantity of water available on an average may be enough to meet all our demands put together, yet water shortage is felt as its availability is highly uneven and irregular. Also, with the increase in population, urbanization, and industrialisation, the demands for water for various uses have now increased considerably and would continue to do so in the coming years.The Economic Survey released by Minish'y of Finance on 27th Feb,2003 also highlights the water shortages being faced by various sectors and stresses the need for taking urgent measures for conservation and efficient management of the available water. This scenario of rising.competing demands for various sectors and mismatch of water availability and demand highlights the need for conservation of water. VVaterconservation has three dimensions: i) Water resources conservation- efficient management of rainwater through storage, allocati'6n and transfer for use and preservation of the quality of the resource including its supporting ecosystem. ii) Water use conservation -water supply and distribution with minimum losses and consumption through prevention of wastage. iii) Efficient l.lse of water through adoption of water saving technologies and cropping patterns. 1.2 INDIA'S WATER RESOURCES 1.2.1 Surface Water Resources India with a geographical area of 329 Mha experiences vast spatial and temporal variations in precipitation. Variability ·of rainfall from year to year and from season to season within a year is also very high. The average annual rainfall in India is 1170 mm, which corresponds to an annual precipitation of 4000 billion cubic metre (BCM). National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP) in its report has assessed the average annual flow in the river systems of India as 1953 BCM. However, over 90 percent of the annual runoff in the peninsular rivers and over 80 percent of the annual runoff in Himalayan rivers occurs during the four monsoon months of June to Oct. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meglma system is a major contributor to India's Water Resources representing more than 60 percent of the total runoff. Many of the small rivers totally dry up during the summer. Due to this spatial and temporal variation of runoff, most of the water not only flows unutilised to the sea, but also causes immense flood losses. To meet the demands for various purposes throughout the year, it is therefore, essential to conserve the excess monsoon flows for utilization during the lean season. 5
  • 11. 1.2.2 Groundwater Resour.ces . The quantum of dynamic groundwater which can be annually extracted economically is generally reckoned as the ground water potential of the country. Water extracted·from an aquifer in any year should be capable of being replenished through recharge from the succeeding precipitations, so that over a cycle of 2,3 or 5 years, the groundwater table does not go down. The Central Ground Water Board(CGWB) has assessed the quantum of replenishable ground water as 432 BCM. 1.2.3 Utilizable Water Resources · Due to the constraints of hydrology, topography and geological limitationS, water resources will be 1086 BCM, comprising of 690 BCM from surface flow and 396 BCM from the replenishable ground water. In addition to the above availability, as per figure estimated, return flow from irrigation,domestic, municipal and industrial uses would increase from 90 BCM to about 169 BCM in the year 2050 and would.be available for utilization. 1.3 WATER REQUIREMENT Water is. required for agriculture production, municipal and industrial needs, energy and navigation development, recreation, preserving ecology etc. Being faced with monsoon season- . with a few rainy days, agriculture·in India is heavily dependant on irrigation. Irrigation sector . consumes as much as 83 percent of available water resources followed by drinking and municipal use (4.5 percent), energy development (3.5 percent) and industries (3.0 percent). Other uses account for approximately 6 percent of the total use. The net sown area in the country is expected to stabilise at about 145 M.ha. It is unlikely that net sown area will increase in the future. The only way to meet the increasing food requirementofgrowing populationwill therefore be increasing the gross cropped area by .expandirig.irrigation facilities and facilitate multi - . qopping. . Although irrigation will continue to be the majorconsumer of water even in future, its share in the total'water use may reduce, while the share of domestic, industrial and energy.water use will rise due to urbanization and industrialisation. The requirement of water for other uses such as navigation, ecological, recreation etc, although not so sigrUficant in terms of consumptive use, will continue to be important and will have specific quantity and temporal needs. The NCIW·RDP has estimated the water requirement for various sectors for the years 2010, 2025 and 2050 for 19w and high demand scenarios, linked to low and high population variants of 1346 million and 1581 million in year 2050. These requirements.are given be~ow in Table-I. 6
  • 12. Table -I REQUIREMENT OF WATER FOR DIFFERENT USES [BCM] .. Use Year - .1997-98 2010 2025 2050 il ! Low High <Yo Low High °It) Low High % II ! . - Irrigation 524 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 68 ~ -­ Domestic 30 42 43 6 55 62 7 90 111 9 ~ . - Industries 30 37 37 5 67 67 8 81 81 7 4_ Power 9 18 19 3 31 33 4 63 70 6 :J . Inland 0 7 7 1 10 10 1 15 15 1 Navigation 6. Flood Conh'ol 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7. Environment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Afforestation 8. Environment 0 5 5 1 10 10 1 20 20 2 Ecology 9. Evaporation 36 42 42 6 50 50 6 76 76 7 . Losses Total 629 694 710 100 784 843 100 973 1180 100 - ."" Source: Report of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (Vol..:I, Sept, 1999.) 1.4 WATER CONSERVATION There is large variation in rainfall from region to region, season to season and year to year. This leads .to complex situations like the distinctly different monsoon and non-monsoon seasons, high-low rainfall areas, drought -flood syndrome and wastage of water to the sea. Due to this, the water may not be available in places where we want it, at times when we want it and in quantities in which we want it. Water conservation is thus required to change the time and space availability of water to suit the demands. Conservation is defined as prevention against loss or waste. Briefly stated, it means putting the water resources of the country for the best possible beneficial use with all the technologies at our command. In other words, surface water flowing waste to the sea should be stored to the maximum possible extent, evaporation, seepage and other losses minimized and benefits spread with the sole criteria of maximum benefits to as large a number as possible, having due regard to priorities like drinking, irrigation, industrial, navigation, ecological etc. 7
  • 13. 1.4.1 Water Conservation in Agriculture Since irrigated agriculture consumes .most of the available water resources, it is necessary to .improve the performance of the existing irrigation systems and highest degree of efficiencies in .water use in irrigation sector may have to be achieved to meet the increasing demands. However, reduction of losses and water saving alone would not be enough. Additional sources of water, including conservation of water through creation of storages,ramwater harvesting and transfer of water from surplus to water short basin, would also be needed. . Since bulk of the flows in the river systems of India are received during the 3·to 4 monSoon months, whereas the demand for water is throughout the year, storage dams in India are inevitable for conservation of excess monsoon flows for beneficial use during the lean season,. Minor storages and use of groundwater are supplementary to major storages and not alternatives. Since the possible storage sites are limited and spatial and temporal variations considerable, the country needs to develop all possible storages; big as well as small, surface or ground. Water conservation measures comprise not only creation of reservoirs for storing the water that would . otherwise be flowing waste, but also reduction of evaporation losses, control of soil moisture· losses by mulching of soil, improving water use efficiency and recycling and reuse of waste water etc. Improved water management through evolving a suitable cropping pattern iIi. conformity with soil and climatic conditions, prevention of losses, improved on farm water application practices, involvement of farmers in water distribution and maintenance of distribution.network, conjunctive .use of surface and groundwater, pricmg of water, reuse of drinking water etc, alongwith adoption of water saving technologies like sprinkler and drip methods of. irrigation, would help in conserving and optimally utilising this valuable resource. Water conservation with respect to crop diversification is very essential as paddy can not be increased in a straight line manner from the present level of production to a higher level when meeting with the cereal demand at 350 M.t; in 2025. It is to be limited at a level where complete crop water requirement is managed to the revised water allocation for irrigai.ion sector by 2025 and beyond, similarly sugarcane can not be increased beyond a certain percentage among the irrigated crops. 1.4.2 Water Conservation in Industries Most of the industrial production processes require large quantities of water.Apart from ensuring leakage control, water conservation strategy in industries should include introduction of appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process water and necessary . pollution control mechanisms. . . The quantum of water consumed by industries depends upon the raw materials used and the processing technology followed. Water conservation measures in industries should include: i) review of alternate productionprocesses and technologies from consumption point ofview; . ii) ensuring sound plant maintenance practices ·and good house keeping, minimising spills and leaks; . iii) optimization of treatment to achieve maximum recycling. As water and waste water treatment costs go up, recycling will begin to pay. 8
  • 14. iv) for medium & large industries, where use of processed or recycled water is permissible, use of fresh water should not be allowed. v) For industries located near the coast, uSe of sea water _with or without treatment may be considered in lieu of fresh water. 1.4.3 Mass Awareness For implementation of water conservation measure1? in these two important sectors, involvement of end users or stake holders would be essential. For creating mass awareness about the water scarcity being faced and likely to occur in future and the measures required to be taken, it is essential to provide necessary information in this regard through mass media viz., T.Y. Radio, infro-brouchers /literature/ pamphlets, advertisement in local newspapers. The existing efforts in this regard need to be given requisite inputs by all concerned. 9
  • 15. CHAPTER · 2 WATER USE IN AGRICULTURE AND STRATEGIES/MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources, water being one of them. Its development and management plays a vital role in agricultural production. Average annual water resources potential of the country is estimated as 1953 BCM. However considering the constraints of hydrology, topography and geological limitations, only 690 BCM of surface water can be utilized by conventional storage and diversion structures. Besides, replenishable ground water to the extent of 432 BCM is available on annual basis for exploitation. Thus, total, utilizable water available in the country is 1122 BCM. With this availability of water and keeping in view the possible storagesites, corrunand available etc. the ultimate irrigation potential of the country through major, medium and minor irrigation projects has been assessed as 140 million ha by conventional storage and diversion works. The cultivable area of the counh'y is estimated to be about 186 M.ha out of which about 142 M.ha is under cultivation. There has practically been no increase in the cultivated area in the last 3-4 yeat·s. With rise in population and indush'ialisation putting pressure on land, it is expected that cultivated area will stabilise atthis level. With continuous growth in population iUs estimated that 450 M.T. of total foodgrains will be required by the year 2050. Since productitrity of rain-fed agriculture is low and ulU'eliablE~, it is imperative to bring more area under irrigation. Available land and water resources therefore should invariably be put to optimum use to support agricultural production. The needEor water resources development for overall social and economic development was duly recognised at the very outset of commencement of the plan period. Accordingly. systematic water resources development works have been carried out through successive Five Year Plans that followed since the year 1950. The expansion of irrigation system alongwith the increased use of fertilizers, seeds of high varieties, and modern agronomic practices has increased the production of food grain from 51 M.t. in 1950-51 to about 208 M.t. and made the country not only self sufficient, but in a position to· export the food grains. Despite the fact that productivity in irrigated areas has increased, such increases are still way below the world standards and of developing countries like China and Brazil. Large and widespread prograrrune of implementation of irrigation development taken up during the plan era has created some problems also concerning equity, environment, drainage, lag in potential created and utilised, low irrigation efficiencies etc. There is great scope for improvement in efficiency both ill terms of per unit of land and of water. Against the backdrop . of asituation of imminent scarcity, need for sustainability and inter-sectoral competition on .physical and financial resources, water resources management has to undergo a paradigm shift and deep Introspection. . 2.2. PRESENT WATER USE Water requirements for irrigation mainly depend upon requirement of foodgrains as well as non-'foodgrains. Thepopulation of the country is continuously on the rise and presently is reported to have crossed a billion mark. In India, average food grain consumption at present is 550 gm. per capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China and USA are 980 gni. and 2850 10
  • 16. gm respectively. Present annual requirement on the basis of present consumptionievel (550. gm) ' for the country is about 210. M.t. which is almost equal to the current production. To'achieve the self-sufficiency in food, the country embarked on a massive programme of systematic water resources development Accordingly, during the Plan eta (upto end of 20.0.2) construction of 30.8 major, 10.0.4 medium and millions of minor irrigation projects and modernisation of 10.8 old projects (ERM schemes) was undertaken. Of these, 149 major projects, 753 medium projects and 14 ERM projects are reported to have been completed and remaining projects are under construction . .As a result of this development, irrigation potential by the end of 1997-98 has gone upto 92.7 M. ha. against 22.6 M.ha in 1951. Out of this, contribution of major and medium projects is about 34 M.ha. Total water use in agriculture at current level of development is of the' .order of about 525 BCM which is about 83 percent of total present water use in the country. 2.3 FUTURE WATER NEEDS The population of the country is increasing year after yeqr. The National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP) has assessed the water demand for irrigation sector considering low and high variant population of 1346 million and 1581 million respectively by 20.50.. Considering the rising trend in economy and food consumption and socio-economic factors, the Commission has expressed the view thatper capita economic growth rate of 4.5 percent peryear is reasonable as~umption. As such 284 kg. of foodgrain per head per year or 382 Mt ( low demand) and .450. MT(high demands) of total foodgrains will be .required by the year 20.50. . For assessing the future water demand to meet this requirement of food grains the Commission has adopted the projection as given in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 LAND USE (HIGH DEMAND SCENARIO AND LOW DEMAND SCENARIO) J S.No. . Particulars Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050 1. Net Area Sown--Mha 143.0. 144.0. 1-15.(' 2. Cropping Intensity -percent 135 140.-142 150--:. ~_ 3. .. Percent of Irrigated to Gross C!'opped Area ' 40.-41 45-48 --'­ - ­ 4. Percent of Irrigated Foodcrops Area to Gross Irrigated Area 0 70 I - ' S. Percent of Rainfed Foodcrops Area. . .to Gross Rainfed Cropped Area 6" r ' - - 'I . . - 6. P~rcent of Surface Watex Irrigation to Total Irrigation. 47 I -=;"-: ­ 54.3 The national level average yields in the year 1991-92 for all food gra':1S under rain fed and irrigation conditions were 1~ O and 2.33 tonne/ha respectively. In view of national and international experience, the Cominission has been of the view that good probability exists for achieving food crop yieldsa$ given in. following Table 2.2 11
  • 17. Table 2.2 FOOD CROP YIELD PROJECTIONS Year 2010 2025 2050 , Rainfed food crop yield (T /Ha) 1.1 1.25 1.5 Irigated food crop yield (T/Ha.) 3.0 3.4 4.0 Keeping the above projections of land use and yield in view, the Commission has estimated that the total irrigated area will have to be increased to 139 M.ha. and 146 M.ha for low demand and high demand scenario respectively and the corresponding water requirement will be of the order of 628 BCM and 807 BCM respectively by the year 2050. Source wise requirement of water for irrigation use is given in Table 2.3 Table 2.3 WATER REQUIREMENT FOR IRRIGATION USE (BCM) S1. No. .. Irrigation Use Year 2010 Year 2025 Year 2050 Low High % Low .High % Low High % 1. Surface Water 330 339 48 325 366 43 375 403 39 2. Ground Water 213 218 31 236 245 29 253 344 29 Total Water Use I 543 557 78 561 611 72 628 807 I 68 2.4 IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE Construction of irrigation projects is not an end by itself. Despite the fact that productivity in irrigated areas has increased, such increases are still way below the world standards and of developing countries like China and Brazil. Besides , large and widespread programme of implementation of irrigation development taken up during the plan era has created some problems also concerning equity, environment, drainage,lag in potential created and utilised, low irrigation efficiencies etc. All this has ultimately led to low productivity of irrigated land which ranges from around 1.5 tonnes per ha to 4 tonnes per ha for cereal crops as compared to an achievable target of about 5 tonnes per ha This can squarely be attributed to inefficiency in management and operation of irrigation systems. . Major pait of failure is attributable to inability of the conveyance system to carry the required discharge, poor maintenance of the system, large losses during conveyance and distribution, inequitable and untimely delivery of water to the fields, poor on-farm development, lack of field channels, lack of flexibility of operation, inappropriate methods of field application such as continuation of flood irrigation system, etc. The present irrigatio~system suffers from lack of flexibility of operations in the system for optimal water utilization. . 12
  • 18. However, problems of existing irrigation systems may not be limited to those relatedto irrigation efficiency and equity alone. At times the water availability itself may be inadequate or may have become inadequate due to upstream development. The cropping pattern may have changed from those for which the system was planned. . . . 2.4.1. Irrigation Efficiencies While all the problems associated with poor performance of irrigation sector need consideration, uhnost . problem which is required to be addressed is the improvement in efficiencies, defined as the ratio of volume of water delivered to the volume of water received. Some studies have been carried out to have a general idea about the factors which infl~ence the irrigation efficiencies. General conclusion of these studies were: >. The average conveyance efficiency for the group of schemes with a combined supply by gravity and pumping was higher than the group of schemes with gravity supply only; .~ In schemes where the area served by one lateral ranged between 400 to 3,000 ha. conveyance efficiency was higher than in schemes where this area was larger or smaller. > In schemes where the tertiary Units were larger than 200 ha. the average conveyance efficiencywas higher than in schemes with tertiary units bern~een 5 and 100 ha. > In schemes where the size of flow per farm inlet was more than 50 l/s, the distribution efficiency was higher than in schemes where the size of flmv "vas 50 1/s or less. >.In schemes where water had to be lifted to the fields, the field application efficiency was '. higher than in schemes where the water was not lifted. There is no national level assessment of overall irrigation efficiencies obtained from surface a..l1d ground water. ' However, in general, the overall effidencies obtained are of the order of 5-:1.. percent in surface water and 65-70 percent in ground water schemes which are conside:ro =be very low. It should be our endeavor to improye the irrigation efficiencies in surface ~ c;> "=- :­ about 60 percent. 2.4.2. The Basin Efficiency concept The efficiency discussed in the preceding para. rela: :c a . :'-c a ?:-~:.a:- :-. ~ ::2:~:- > of water.from the project is taken as a contribu~o.:: : -':cc ~ ':::S5:: : cE ~=€::".~· .~-. ~-=:S :-.•. a realization that this need not be so. Recycling &: reu..'€ c:~.''''''=:- ";..~ _ =: :.~~ ----.: _:":"'::aTI '(as in case of conjunctive use or an integrated systerr, ,,;.,:...:. ~ a:.:...,..'~ :-.2:.S2 ~::-~ ,c:-arion) or in other downstream areas is not a loss. ca..TU10t be used because say there are, no downstream projects or !­ Thus, upper limit of effective water supply ;:;:: Only that par: -::-: ::.:: ::--2 ;~.~::'::':-' ---'-~ rn:.:"':a:: -.;::..=­ . -:._..:::-a-;'iL There are three major implications of this conce. i) Where recycling is possible, pollution CQ:1ty; ::s a basic way of increasing water supply. ii). The amount of actual water supply :5 ~ ely to be underestimated if the recycling process is not accounted for. 13
  • 19. iii) Recycling does not create any new water. If the original withdrawal can be used with 100 percent efficiency, the same irrigation needs would be met as those theoretically possible through numerous recycling. The overall project efficiency comprise conveyance efficiency operational efficiency and field application efficiency. Distribution efficiency which is a component of overall conveyance efficiency depends upon type of conveyance system upto the outlet. Substantial saving in water loss and distribution system can be achieved by adoption of pipe distribution system or by living of water courses. There are two distinct paths of increasing effectiveness, one by improving the system or project efficiency, and the other by allowing increased and repeated use of return flows (with low efficiency). The optimum combination of these two paths is what one needs to attempt. For example, in the Indian alluvium, it is often found that lining of canals, and thus improving conveyance efficiency does not increase the total water supply, but reduces the need for lifting the seeped water. Thus lining is effectively not a water saving but an energy saving device. If one accounts for all'usable returns and their use any where, the resultant basin efficiency can be computed as total use of water from an initial. diversion divided by the overall efficiency. Such basin efficiency are likely to be much higher than average project efficiency of 30 percent to 40 percent and may often reach above 70 percent in water scarce region. While system irrigation efficiencies are no doubt important indicators of proper use of the system waters, they do not fully depict the overall usability of the basin waters. 2.5 NEED FOR CONSERVATION It is estimated that with increasing demand from other competing sectors, the availability of water for irrigation sector is likely to reduce progressively to about 75 percent in future. Irrigated agriculture which consumes the major part of the total water being used should be the focus and fore-runner for achieving maximum conservation in its use. Even a marginal improvement in the efficiency of water use in this area will result in the saving of a large volume of water which can be utilized either for extending the irrigated area or for diverting to other beneficial purposes. The inevitable reduction in loss in avai1ability of total wa~er for irrigation sector has to be offset by improvement in irrigation efficiencies. However, improvement in water application efficiencies and productivity levels alone will not be sufficient and it is an imperative to create additional potential and bring more area under irrigation. Therefore, there is urgent need to create more storages for conserving water which is available during monsoon period only, for its use during lean period. 2.6 WATER CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Water conservation strategies in any sector include development and management strategies. Water conservation in agriculture can be achieved by creating storages (medium and major), reducing conveyance losses, efficient canal water management, efficient on-farm water management, including improved water application techniques, land treatments, reducing water demand, reuse of waste water, conjunctive use of surface and ground water etc. Maximum conservation in water use has to be achieved in irrigated as well as rainfed agriculture. 2.7 ~ONSERVATION MEASURES 2.7.1 Creation of Surface Storage Traditional methods like small scale local water harvesting are necessary and are to be encour-aged but alone they are not sufficient to meet the future needs of water requirements in the country. 14
  • 20. , To ensure sustainable food security, water storage in big dams for fuller utilization of the surface water is the only answer for making water available for use during the non-monsoon seasons. Till date, a total of about 174 BCM built up storage had been created. By adding 76 BCM of storage capacity from projects under construction, and 3 BCM in small tanks, a total of 253 BCM of storage is estimated to be available. Identified future projects would add another 132 BCM of storage making a total of 385 BCM. It is estimated that the task of completing the capacity under construction and creation of the remaining identified future capacity, are not taken up on an urgent basis and completed within a finn time-frame in order that the objective of harnessing the water resources optimally can be fulfilled without waiting for the predicted water stress situation to overtake us, the existing utilizable flows are likely to be insufficient in future. The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD; 1999) has suggested to enhance the utilizable flows by all possibilities. The country, which has now 4300 dams would need many more dams in the next 50 years. 2.7.2 Early Completion of Ongoing Projects. A large number of major and medium projects could not be completed due to thin spreading of resources, plan after plan and have consequently been depriving farmers from getting ultimate benefits from the projects. With abundance availability of water as earmarked for the project, the upper reaches which start getting irrigation supplies tend to over irrigate and indulge in wasteful use of water. Acceleratefi Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) was launched by the Government of India in 1996-97 with a view to help the States in ensuring early completion of ongoing irrigation projects through Central Loan Assistance (CLA) The AIBP has undergone considerable change over the last six years. Its implementation is now linked to the reforms in irrigation sector. The Government of India has also initiated a Fast Track Programme under AIBP with effect from lsi February, 2002. The approved major and medium irrigation projects, which will be completed in one year are to be entitled to get 100 percent CLA under the Fast Track Programme of AIBP. As per the modified guidelines of the programme with effect from the year 2002-2003, the Reforming States under general category, which agree to revise their water rates so as to recover full O&M cost within a period of 5 years will get CLA in the ratio 4:1 (Centre: State, ) instead of existing 2:1 and under special category in the ratio 1:0 (Centre: State, ) instead of existing 3:1. 2.7.3. Performance Improvement Many of the irrigation systems have become dilapidated due to silting of canal system, weed growth, and breakage of regulatory structures leading to over-use of water. Maintenan~e of irrigation systems are generally inadequate. The low water rates also encourage misuse of water. The dilapidated condition of the systems is also responsible for lukewarm response of the farmers towards participatory irrigation management (PIM). Improving water use efficiency . is the first step along the path towards sustainable water development and management. Measures to conserve water and use it more effi~iently are now the most economically and environmentally sustainable water demand and supply options. It should be our endeavor to achieve the low demand scenario for which it is imperative that considerably higher level of efficiency is brought about in irrigation use. The issue of low water efficiency, water rates, O&M, dilapidation of system and PIM are all inter-related and need to be tackled as complementary measures to improve the water use efficiency. 2.7.3.1 Reducing conveyance losses Water is lost during conveyance through seepage from main canals, branches, distributaries, minors, water courses and field channels. Conveyance loss accounts for 40 to 50 per cent of the 15 "
  • 21. water delivered into a canal. Almost half of these losses occur in field channels. While the seepage is a net loss of water in areas with poor quality groundwater, it can be retrieved for irrigation in areas having good quality ground water. As mentioned elsewhere in this section part of this water which is retrieved and reused, should not be counted as a seepage loss. In order to reduce these losses lining of canal network should be done selectively based on these factors together with economic considerations. 2.7.3.2 Operation and Maintenance Of Irrigation System Adequate and timely maintenance of an irrigation system is imperative for proper irrigation management. Efficient water management cannot be achieved unless the infrastructure for water conveyance and delivery system is in a reasonably good condition to retain its operational efficiency. A serious impediment to irrigation system reliability and performance is, therefore, infrastructural deterioration from inattentive and absent maintenance regime. The worst affected areas are the secondary and tertiary systems. One of the main reasons for poor maintenance is the non-availability of funds With the State Govts. 2.7.3.3 Rationalisation of Water Rates Prior to independence, the irrigation rates had generally been adequate to meet the working expenses and the interest charges. However, the water rates being charged at present are low and are not able to meet even the operation and maintenance charges of the irrigation projects. Therefore, there has been progressive deterioration in the return of irrigation projects imposing. a growing burden on the general revenues of the State. The under pricing of water adversely affects the availability of resources for the maintenance of irrigation systems. ·This consequently leads to deterioration of system and is responsible for the poor quality of services. Low water rates also encourages excess and wasteful use of water. Alongside heavy subsidies in electricity/ free electricity for agriculture has encouraged wasteful use of energy and water. The O&M cost ne.eds to be reassessed every five years. It is imperative that the tariff structure ofboth irrigation and energy are reviewed and revised to restore the efficiencies of the irrigation and power sectors. In addition to normal maintenance, an amourit of 20 percent equivalent of O&M cost should be allowed to take care of special repair costs. Water tariff for Lift irrigation schemes should be fixed on the basis of capital and O&M cost of the scheme and delivery should be on volumetric basis. 2.7.3.4 Equitable Water Distribution One of .the reasons' for theinequitable water distribution has to do with the design concept of · spreading water to the large nun:tber of farmers possible. This is responsible for poor water management at the scheme leveL The appropriation of water by the head end farm~rshasalso to do with .the sheer size and complexity of irrigation schemes. Schemes of more than: 100,000 ha. are common and full development of such large schemes often takes 10 to 20 years or more. Throughout the development period, the excess water available is used by the head end farmers. Thus, during an extendednumber of years, head end farmers grow commerciarcrops on the full size of their farms with irrigation intensity much higher than those considered in· the designs. But, during the same period~ construction of the tail end of the scheme continues as per their initial design concept without taking any accoUnt of the ·actual ·situation which has developed in the upper reaches. . As a result, at tUnes irrigation potential is created in places where water ultimately does not reach. In addition there is lack of operational plan for 16
  • 22. distribution of irrigation water through the various irrigation systems/projects. In absence of these, and even where these are available and not being followed in practice, the command area in the head reaches generally gets the water while tail areas of the command are deprived of precious water for irrigation. To overcome this situation, in areas where no specific system of distribution is being followed, "Warabandi" or other system of distribution shall be followed. 2.7.3.5 Dynamic Regulation When schemes and canals stretch over hundreds of kilometres, it is very difficult to adjust supply and demand without proper advanced communications and control systems. Such large schemes are subject to large variations in water demand. . During the kharif season, rainfall is a major factor. While It may be raining in one part of the scheme, the other/part may be dry. Besides, during each season, water requirements increase to reach a peak and then decrease depending on the type of crop grown and the locations. The efficient operation of the schemes would require that canal flows are adj,usted to these variations in water demand. However, the level of technology used in the Indian irrigation schemes to control water flows does not permit such quick adjustments and there is always a large gap between the two. There is a need for canal system to respond quickly to flow changes. Computer technology is being recognised as a special tool for monitoring and analysing the data and acts as a decision support system(DSS). Special efforts by computer engineers and communication groups have helped in establishing management information system(MIS) for operation of reservoir and canal which helped in improvement in flood control, irrigation and hydropower. Through an effective MIS and DSS, precious water can be saved by quickly responding to sudden change in demand. In future, from manual operation of canal system, one could ultimately shift to automatic regulation as precise discharge measurements and better communication facilities are available. 2.7.3.6 Lag In Utilization Of Irrigation Potential Created . Out of the irrigation potential of 92.7 M.ha. created so far, about 82.0 M.ha is beine '':'-=-=-=:':' which corresponds to about 90 percent utilisation of the created assets. Some gap be:, -~ ~ two is bound to occur when river inflows and consequent irrigation supplies a:"'2 ~ -:- ': ":=-. The potential area which can be irrigated in a system depends on seyerai ~G. ~-: =-.::":'--"'::::--F. besidesthe availability of distribution networks. the " olume and seasonal tte..-:-_:: - -~~ '::.::=-=- ~~ the lossesin conveyance, distribution and applicati n, the e_~ is developed and the crop pattern on ground. L € s:s .t to . .h:.ci: ::.-:= : :-:-­ _ -:r :: ..­ parameters, underlyingthe project design, are nct real:s .:.:::::.:-~ ":' _~~ .:5:" _~ ~ ::::.. : ~ :i:.":ergence be-tween the actual area irrigated and the poten1:ial cea:-:. · -,e3.~. : _::::-s:::-..:;::-=- :-: i distribution netWorks, actual cropping pattern being chlfererct ::-C'~_ ::-_E~:-,:= '=-- _~~~ ~ i uring planning, more diversion of water for domestic / industrial , .G.:~ --.:.~ ~: - ::-.a... ::::z .:-.ed, are some of the . major reasons for the gap in potential created a.n ..:..!-i' : - _ .:.. _-. _ ':n. : -:-": ._ ridging the gap is being taken through the Command Area DevelopIT..ent _r 5-ar:-- e. C - truction of field channels / water courses, land leveling / shaping, ensuring timelin___.:...suFFlies are some of th€ activities covered under command area development programme. The CAD programme has now been reconstituted to take care of the deferred mamtEr,a.".ce ami undertaking remedial measures in the areas affected by waterlogging, soil salinity a..'ld alkalinity. The CAD programme which is cl,lrrently catering to slightly over 20 Mha of irrigation commands needs to be further strengthened and rationalised to give focus to those projects ,Illuch have large gaps in potential created and utillsed even after 5 years of their completion. 17
  • 23. 2.7.3.7 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Water being a basic human need, water resoutces development and management impinges in large section of society. Those who have stake in water resources would comprise the people and organizations that use water to provide such water for use, also all those that would be affected by decisions relating to water resource management and many others that are concerned with or have an interest in water resources management could be considered as "Stake holders" While different groups of stake holders will need different levels of involvement, their appropriate participation in the process of policy formation, sh'ategy and project management is very important and also rewarding. Thus, water resources development and management can not and should not remain a governmental concern. The trend of undertaking investigation, planning, designing, construction and maintenance of irrigation of schemes through Government involves no responsibility on the part of the users, who have thus no involvement on these aspects. On the other hand, there is a lot of load on Government exchequer along with the problems of utilization, operation, and maintenance. It would perhaps be worthwhile at this sta8e to allocate some responsibility for operation and maintenance to the user. Induction of Non Government Organizations could perhaps be considered in the begiIUling to motivate the users in accepting this responsibility and also to educate farmers in efficient water use and management of the irrigation system. The interface between the Government bureaucracies and irrigation farmers admits of many possible variations and there exists numerous traditional and experimental approaches. Decentralization by contracting Government involvement and expanding users' participation in irrigation management particularly in micro network construction and management has attached considerable attention in recent years. The National Water Policy also asks for involvement of farmers in various aspects of management of irrigation system, pa~ticular1y in water distribution and allocation of water rates. The PIM needs to be taken up on large scale throughout the country for proper and efficient water management. 2.7.3.8 On Farm Management • Reducing Application Losses Most of the area in the country is irrigated by surface application methods such as check basin, border strip and furrow irrigation. The application efficiency of these methods have been found to be only 30 to 50 percent as compared to attainable level of60 to 80 percent. This is due to the fact that these methods are not designed to match the stream size, soil type, slope etc. By adopting efficient irrigation practices, deep percolation losses can be reduced. By growing row crops, particularly cotton, maize sugarcane, soyabean, and sunflower under ridge and furrow irrigation systems, about 30 to 40 percent irrigation water can be saved compared to border irrigation. . • Precision Land Leveling Precision land leveling/grading is essential for efficient application, uniform dish'ibution of irrigation water, quick removal of excess rain water in humid and sub.;humid areas and 18
  • 24. conservation ,of rain water in arid and semi-arid areas. In surface irrigation, land leveling is essential for high application efficiency. It ensures high water useefficiepcy and crop yield • Irrigation Scheduling Scheduling of -irrigation in relation to water availability is an important aspect of on-farm water management for optimizing production_Where irrigation water supplies are plentiful, irrigation mustbe repeated before a yield or qualitY reducing water stress develops in the field. In case oj rice; two types ofirrigation practices for scheduling irrigation are followed. These are continuous submergence, imd intermitt,ent submergence ~hich includes rotational and occasional ' , submergence. Extensive field experiments have been conducted on water inanagem-ent throughout the counb·yto find -out optimum irrigation schedules forthetwoirrigation practices. In intermittent irrigation, the saving of irrigation water to the tune of 40 to 60 percent is obtained, largely from reduction in the-percolation loss, which is dependent upon soil type. - . ' . . . Irrigation schedulingfor optimizing production with limited water supplies is a bigger challenge than that with adequate water supplies. , The concept is also known as deficit irrigation. The first step for optimally scheduling irrigation with limited water is to assess the relative sensitivity bf different growth periods of a crop to water stres$. The irrigation with limited water should be so managed that the inevita,ble stress synchronizes with the less sensitive stages. The principal aim is to bdngwater costs down below the level required for maximum:yields. With application of less water than required for _optimum yield, taking care of critical growth period of the crop somewhat lower yield may be obtained, but more area canbe irrigated with the available quantity of water and as such overall increase . in produce can beachieved. Field research has shown that high crop yields are attainable even when water supplies are limited. Data reveal that reduction in yield of wheat is only 32 percent when watet use is reduced by about 76 percent agairist ,an optimum value 'of 84 em. ' 2;7.4 Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater, Conjunctive use management of multi-source/multi-quality wafers can be defineci as ~= management of multiple water l'-esources in a coordinated operation such that the ':_-:= - - -.:;.~ yield of the system over a period of time exceeds the sum of water yields of the ::-:~- -:~ components of th~ system resulting from uncoordinated operation. The roe: :-":'7:: ==. ::-.:. conJunctive mode is more compared to the net output when each source,' _-~~ ::: - = :--=-~ :.:::­ used separately. As a result of conjunctive use of surface and ground - -a:-=.-:- ~ =--=::: - -.::~ :.: :.:: possible to have optimum utilizati-on of water resources as ground-water .:~:.:.:..:: - _. ::::.:' .:-..::-_-:::_---::-. as a stoi'age reservoir, regularization 'agent and conveyance mediu::-:. concept recognizes : >' the unified nature of water resources as a single _a...£:h : ::::-:..:I:-':: > it takes advantage of the interactions beh'een the ~-t: ar, .; g:r undwater in planrting the use from the two resources. Conjunctive use is planned and practiced with the -:eli iJ: <> o· -ectives: > Mitigating the effect of the shortage in (ar.al water supplies often subject to steep variations in river flow during different periods in tl e year. -> ,Increasing dependability of existing water supplies. 19
  • 25. > Alleviating the problems of high water table and salinity resulting from introduction of canal irrigation. > Facilitating the use of marginal saline groundwater, which cahnot otherwise be used without appropriate dilution. > Storing water in groundwater basins closer to the users. This ensures water supply to the users in case of interruption of surface water supply. Use of groundwater basin for storage has many other advantages such as: no construction cost, no silting up, no evaporation, uniform temperature and no requirement of space except that required for recharge fields. 2.7.5 Integrated Use of Poor Quality and Good Quality Waters When canal-water supplies are either unassured or in short supply, such that the farmers are forced to pump saline ground or drainage waters to meet the crop-water requirements, these waters from the two sources can be applied either separately or mixed. The management practices to be followed for optimal crop production with saline irrigation must aim at preventing the build-up of salinity, sodicity and toxic ions in the root zone to levels that limit the productivity of soils, control the salt balances in soil-water system as well as· minimize the damaging effects of salinity on crop growth. Crops differ considerably in their ability to tolerate salinity/ sodicity. These intergenic differences can be exploited for selecting the crop that gives satisfactory yields under a given root-zone salinity. For successful irrigation with saline waters in specific agro-climatic zone, selection of crops should be such as to suit the salinity of the water because it may not be possible to change the quality of irrigation water. The cultivation of high-water-requiring crops like sugarcane and rice should be avoided with brackish waters, as these aggravate the salinity problems. Rice-wheat system is usually not recommended for alkali water irrigation, late-sown crops, for example wheat can tolerate only lower levels of salt contents (ECiw) than timely seeded crops. Furthel~ crops do not tolerate salinity equally at different stages of their growth. In most crops germination and aeration in scarcely seeding establishment are the most critical stages Therefore, . to increase the plant stands, strategies for minimizing the salinity of the seeding zone should be followed. Saline waters should be avoided at some of the sensitive stages to minimize the damage. Under saline conditions, irrigation should meet both water requirements of crops and leaching requirements to maintain a favorable salt balance in the root zone. Therefore, it is usually opined that irrigation soils should be more frequent, because it reduces the cumulative water deficits between the irrigation cycles. 2.7.6 Technology Upgradation .. Micro Irrigation System Several water saving techniques have been perfected including irrigation in alternate furrows in black soils for water economy as well as better aeration. Considerable savings in water can also be achieved by adoption of sprinkler, drip/micro-sprinkler irrigation in water scarcity areas, having conditions conducive to their application. Actual field 20
  • 26. studies indicated water saving of 25 to 33 per cent and increased yieldupto 35 percent · with sprinkler system compared with surface irrigation method. Drip irrigation saved 25 to 60 percent water and increased yield of crops by 5 to 60 percent compared with surface irrigation methods. .. Micro Sprinkler and Micro Sprayer: This is a combmation of sprinkler and drip irrigation. Water is sprinkled or sprayed around the root zone of the trees with a small sprinkler which works under low pressure. This unit is fixed in a network of tubing but can be shifted from place to place around the .area. Water is given only to the root zone area as in the case of drip irrigation but not to the entire ground surface asdone in case of sprinkler irrigation method. This method is very much suited for tree/orchard crops. .. Bucket Kit Drip Irrigation System for Small Farm Simple and inexpensive drip irrigation system called "Bucket Kit" is developed by New York based Chapin LivingWaters Foundation. These are especially popular in African countries enabling women to grow vegetables during long dry seasons. ·The Bucket Kit drip system consists of 5 gallonbucket mounted one metre above ground and total 30 metres drip taps to irrigate two/four or six rows of vegetables. The kit also includes a filter and necessary fittings. These kits save wafer, labour and are easy to use for small farms. .. Auto Irrigation System Rapid advances in elech;onics and its successful use in developing auto irrigation system . has made it possible tQ practice efficient irrigation. This is particularly true in case of micro irrigation systems which can be easily automated to schedule irrigation and do not depend upon·irrigator's judgement. To maximise crop yield irrigatioT) should be applied at appropriate values of soil water stress in the root zone which is dependent on soil type, crop and its stage on growth etc. .It is very difficult to control irrigation as per the valu.es of soil water stress manually. In automatic irrigation system soil water stress ·is sensed continuously by tensiometer installed at suitable depth and location. The output of tensipmeter is converted into an electrical signal with the help of a transducer. The anticlockwise and clockwise· rotation of the motor ~ctuated through control circuitry opens or closes the valves for initiation or termination of irrigation. Autoiri-igation system using ind.igenous technology are reported to have been developed at CSSR.I., Kamal. . The system which isa low cost unit has been tested in the field with good results. . 2.7.7 Performance Evaluation Irrigation projects are constructed with certain assumptions and objectives. Performance Evaluation is envisaged as an auditirig exercise primarily to look at the performance at regular intervals not only to assess the actual performance but also to identify deficiencies if any arid find a viable and economical solution of various problems. Water distribution, which forms a strong link between·the suppliers and users, has large impact on the performance of the . 21
  • 27. systems. Efficient and equitable distribution of water is the most important requirement of management of irrigation projects. Improving irrigation systems from the headworks to outlet into the farmers' field has to be paid adequate attention. The performance evaluation of system as a whole or of any of its components will go a long way in enabling the concerned authorities to take timely and appropriate remedial measures and in enhancing present system performance and plan a proper strategy for future improvements in management and operation. Performance evaluation of an irrigation system is a stock-taking exercise to methodically analyze the functioning of the system and assess the achievements of the system, in which large investment of money and human efforts have been made. This evaluation process identifies the component of the system, which is not performing well, and needs upgradation. To decide whether the system has performed as it should, a set of indicators, which represent the performance of different components and different aspects, have been identified. A number of projects in different states have been taken up for Performance Evaluation studies. 2.7.8 Benchmarking of Irrigation System Despite the fact that productivity in irrigated areas has increased as compared to that ot rain ­ fed areas, the increase is still below the world standards and developing countries like China. · There is scope for considerable improvement in productivity and consequent reduction in the demand for water. Applying the right quantity at the right time and using the right cultivation · and irrigation practices can achieve conservation of water on the field. Against the backdrop of a situation of imminent scarcity and iner-sectoral competition on physical and financial resources, the water resources management has to undergo a paradigm shift and deep introspection. Fierce competition, globalisation and development of new information and communication technologies have forced the country to continuously search for and adopt new processes, structures and tools in various sectors in order to survive and compete in their respective spheres. There,was an explosion of management tools and techniques in the 1990s, to help systems improvement. One among these techniques is benchmarking, which has proved to be valuable in helping individual systems evaluate their competitive position. Benchmarking is simply the "introspection" since it is a continuous process of measuring one's own performance and practices against the best competitors, and is a sequential exercise of learning from other's experience. Opportunities for improvement are identified by conducting an internal assessment and making comparative measurements with best practice organizations to determine the performance gap between current practice and best practice. Selected best practices can then be suitably adopted to fit into the organisation's needs and implemented. The cycle of improvement continues, In the irrigation sector that would mean more productive and efficient use of the water i.e. 'more crop per drop'. To promote Benchmarking in irrigation sector in India, a Workshop was held at Hyderabad from 4-6 February, 2002 with the participation of officers from Central and States Governments. The conclusion of the Workshop was that Benchmarking is relevant for India and we should do it. Benchmarking would help in appropriate interventions and help in formulation and implementation of policies for improvement of projects. This would result in bringing transparency in irrigation sector along with many benefits viz equitable distribution, improvement in irrigation efficiency, help bringing additional area under irrigation leading to diversification of crops, enable putting cap on O&M expenditure, increased productivity per unit of water etc, Some projects have been identified for carrying out benchmarking. 22
  • 28. l f ,7 s t . e :i ;. o :i g It n 2;8. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF AGRCULTURAL USE OF WATER Increasing human and livestock population along with significant developments in the various fields of agriculture has brought more and more lands under irrigation using mOstly canal, dams, lift and underground water through surface irrigation methods. With these improved package of practices, the food grain production has increased from 51 Mt in 1950-51 against 208 Mt at present. During the last three decades, significant·developments have been made in differentfields of agriculture. Use of irrigation water, fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding varieties and energy efficient agricultural implements have become common practices to raise the production level. In order to produce more, the natural resources have been exploited indiscrirninately which have also aggravated the problems of soil erosion, soil salinity/alkalinity. water logging and pollution of surface and ground water resources. The environmental degradation in the form of land resources and also in the form of pollution is threatening health and climate and ·is reducing biological diversity. . Fertiliser Pollution Though chemical fertilizers are the key input for increasing agricultural pl;oduction in India, ·yet .excess and indiscriminate use of·these fertilizers have caused.some problems especially under '.irrigated conditions. In'India the consumption of fertilizer .nutrients has increased- from 2.26 '.million tones in 1970-"71 to 16.3 million tones in 1997-98. Out of this N alone shares approximately 70.7 percent, P 20.9 percent and K 8.36 percent. The average growth rate in total fertilizer '.' consumption in Indian agriculture during eighties has been 8.48 per cent and the same is .continuing in nineties.' The use of chemical fertilizers at times causes damage to the environment through air, water and soil pollution. ·Water Pollution . ' . . · Various fertililzers especially the nitrogenous fertilisers are the main sOlliLe r.~ _- _ ground water and other water bodies. Nitrate leaching is more -~ -:::- -:-~ · evapoh·anspiration, where irrigation is practiced, lands are deyoted '::: ~~- -=----_ soil having low water holding capacity and high infiltration rates a. -l - -~~-=---:- :: ~ are applied in amounts and ways that result in tt.e a <::':: ~.~Ij.:':'. -: =-.:::-a -_ ­ nitrate concentration in <Tell water sam.. ~es I:C':::' ::-:~:::-:-:' -=- ::-- .= .:=:-:- , _=- -:-_ 'westeren Uttar Pradesh was severalS::>:'::' _-=.:-:- :::- :..:-.::_ :..:-.=::_~ ~ 32": _ of N0 in ground water fro- -: -t='i:"a. ~-.;. :; ': - .'-= .: .: -:-: . . . ~ : : __ ~ 3 1975. It is also reported that ~ ~~ .==-::-:~ -=_:'=:- ..: - .-",~~, 10 mg/l which is the upper lirr.:" . ~ ' - Soil Pollution ·The phYSical, chemical and biologic~:;:-- :- ::-::::::5 ~ -: -,.- .::.- ~--:. _ . :..::=-:::=..: =-:. ~o~ g term continuous use offertilizers. Contamination of 5':: : -::: ~ - ~- --=.a -~ =- .::: ¢.':: _ : _~__ :~ ;; 7e:!S such as cadmium(Cd) and lead (Pb) from phosphatic fertitz~~:::: .s;:-=-.~ ~:-:'-:----::--.5 ...-..s-:. . n of environmentalists. It is reported that heavy metals applied - :..:~.: 5=:':' ::-_ : -_~:-: =-2r~ derivatives of rock phosphaten _ accumul<ite almost completely in the _22':-:: ~ :::..: :.:: .: :.:-. : .JrffiS easily available to plants. The availability of heavy metals was foun': : 0 ':J.: ::..::e :..-. ~:g textured, acidic soils as compared to heavy textured; alkaline soils. Pesticidal Pollution - . 23
  • 29. With the advent of high yielding crop varieties and adoption of intensive cropping practices, peculiar pest problems demanding high pesticide use came to the forefront causing the use of more chemical pesticides. Among the pesticides used in India, insecticides share the maximum (80 percent) followed by fungicides (10 perce!'t) and herbicides (7 percent). The use of high doses of agro chemicals in agriculture has accrued to health hazards and ecological imbalances. 2.9 INTER- BASIN TRANSFER OF WATER Due to topographical and other constraints only 690 BCM of surface water out of available 1953 BCM can be put to beneficial use. One of the reasons for lesser availability of utilizable flows is the skewed spatial distribution of these flows and that potentially good storage sites are not available in basins with plenty of water resources. Inter-basin transfer of waters from surplus to water short regions, where good storage sites are available is considered as one of the options for augmenting the utilizable water resources. Flood flow canals can be constructed in areas of surplus water to tap flood water to link them to reservoirs in deficit areas, which normally do not get filled up. It is estimated that based on proven technology, inter-basin transfer has c.. potential of additional irrigation of about 35 M.ha over and above the ultimate irrigation potential of 139 M.ha. National Water Development Authority (NWDA),under the National Perspective Plan has carried out water balance studies and other feasibility studies for inter-linking of rivers under specific cO'TIponents namely (a) Himalayan Rivers Development and (b) Peninsular Rivers Development. Feasibility studies have been completed for five link schemes under the Peninsular Component . It is programmed to complete feasibility reports of all the links of Peninsular Component by the year 2004 and those under Himalayan Component by the year 2008. 2.10. RAINFED AGRICULTURE More than half of the 142 M.ha. of cultivated land in the country continued to be under rainted farming. It is estimated that even after development of full irrigation potential of 13 M ha. . against the possible cropped area of 200 M.ha. by the year 2025 AD, about 68 M ha. will be left as rainfed. Rainfed agriculture is complex, diverse and risk-prone and is characterized by low levels of productivity and low input usage. Variability in raintall results in wide variation and instability in yields. The bulk of the rural poor live in the rainted regions. The challenge before Indian agriculture is to transform rainted farming into more sustainable and productive systems and to better support the population dependent upon it. Conservation and management of rainwater hold the key for sustainable agriculture in rainted area,s. The earlier rain harvesting systems had a pre-eminent position in rural life. With the emphasis on large dams and canal systems, the emphasis on tanks and other local resources of rain water harvesting waned over the years. All types of developments, be it creation of large storges or small scale rainwater harvesting structures are considered to be necessary and are in fact complimentary. In the recent past there is a move towards adopting local water harvesting measures also. Efforts are being made to renovate the tanks which have lost their storage capacity due to siltation over the years. In the case of water resources management the focus should not be merely on development of new water resources but also on efficient utilization of already developed resources particularly based on indigenous systems. 2.10.1 Conservation Practices The strategy should be to conserve every drop of rainfall. This can be done by rain water harvesting. The basic concept of rainwater harvesting is that instead of allowing runoff to 24
  • 30. cause erosion, rainwater should be conserved at a place where it falls. This can be achieved through conservation of water in the soil or by collecting excess runoff during high intensity rains and recycling it during water scarcity periods. This is a powerful strategy to stabilize productivity from rainfedj dry land areas. Rain Water Harvesting and Management consists of In-situ and Ex-situ Harvesting. In Situ harvestinglLand Treatments Land treatments are practices that promote maximum conservation of rain water where it falls i.e. in situ moisture preservation. Water and land management are inseparable and successful sh'ategies on water handling are location specific and dependent on rainfall intensity, slopes, soil type and texture. In general in-situ water harvesting can be achieved by increasing infiltration rate with the help of deep ploughing, profile modification, vertical mulching and by kepping soil surface rough. On lands having slope up to 1 to 2 per cent, water conservation could be ensured by field bunding, land leveling, contour ditching, and cultivation along contour. On lands having 2 to ·6 percent slope, graded contour bunds can be consh'ucted and on slopes ranging from 6 to 33 per cent bench terraces can be made. Alfisols and Vertisols, the two predominant soil types of semi-arid tropical regions, need different land h'eatment plans. Important land configurations for drylands included the broad bed and furrow (BBF) system, flat on grade and ridging later, graded border sh'ips, etc. The BBF system developed at ICRISAT is useful with deep Vertisols, while flat sowing and ridging later is a simple scheme that works well on Alfisols.Graded border strip, a method developed at Bangalore, was rated highly efficient for controlling runoff and stabilizing crop yields in relatively deep Alfisols. Off-season tillage is another simple practice which is usually employed by ianr_er~ : __ conservation of rain water. Deep tillage is resorted to conserve the monsoon rainfalL -:~...:...: shallow tillage by chiseling is considered useful during rabi season. Deep tillage ir ..=.:-: ~.__ ,;­ 4 years of shallow tillage is also reported to be useful for moisture retention. It is, t =:,- -~-=: ­ argued that one of the major causes of excessive land degradation in areas : _____~ rainfall is conventional soil preparation by plough, which leaves the soil o~_-v-w::a. and sun. Conventional tillage may cause long term negative effects as a :-~ _ : ._ oxidation of organic matter due to increased aeration and prolonge :::?-::-_~-:c _ ­ solar radiation, increased water and wind erosion etc. Recent esc ~ -..::..:. _ :.._- : improvements in crop yields, reduced soil erosion and reduced lat-c--~ __ .. ._ ::.­ introduction of conservation tillage. More research is, howe er. ~t:s:::.=-.: .. in organic matter vis-a.-vis tillage operation and to establish us.2....:.~-=~~ -:-: .~- =~.......... Ex-situ Rain Water Harvesting In arid and semi-arid areas, the low and erratic raiJ!a!i =-. : ~---,- ' " . .::-. ::':;:: . =..-;rensity of short duration resulting in high run-off and poor SC':':' =-,:..:-:.:o-=.:...: ~ ..:; = .-.5 ~ . _ -';':'-, about 50 to 60 percent of rain water. A lost runoff varies freT:"". -:. ~ -:. : : ::-~ . =-=:-: : : =-.-=- ::--c.::-...~ depending on the' amount and intensity of rain, soil charader.s- --== ::::::. ':' . :;:z~~ :-: : =-.-er. _his surface runoff, if harvested over a large area can yield consi'::~n::-~-.: ;:-=-.:'~.: ::: - '.5.:eI fer storage providing life saving irrigation to the crop during the ~· 5': ~::-. ::-.~ ==-. c ~- :- =--. season and also for growing a second crop in rabi season. The major COPS:::-:l=-.~ ::-..::.: ~-::.:.:. ' :::cit the adoption of this technology on a macro scale are, the high initial ·ost <L. . ": ~::=--.-.r:a:.:a' ility of cheap and effective sealants for permeable Alfisols. Additio!1all}~ :onu _ ceaiG :., the monsoon and low intensity rains limit the runoff flow into the ponds durir g t.~e ~; spells when water is needed most. Despite these 25
  • 31. difficulties, small water storag€ponds seem to be the most viable strategy to stabilize productivity .of the ecoligically disadvantged dryland regions. The surface runoff from an area can also be increased by reducing the infiltration capacity of the soil through vegetation management, cleaning, chopping surface vegetation and reducing soil permeability by application of chemicals. To maximise profitability from the limited quantity of water stored in small ponds, planning for its judicious use is most crucial. Research conducted at different locations in India established that a supplemental irrigation of5-10 cm at the critical stage of crop growth substantiallyincreases the yields of cotton, wheat, sorghum, tobacco, pearlmillet, etc viz-a-viz no ;irrigation. ill Artificial Ground Water Recharge It is most essential to take steps for conservation by augmentation of ground water storage through artificial recharge. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has carried out a number of artificial recharge and ground water conservation studies to develop the methodologies and technologies and to assess the economic viability of these measures. These studies have established the feasibility of various recharge methods such as spreading, recharge thr~ughinjection wells and induced recharge from surface water bodies, and conservation of subsurface flows through construction of sub-surface dykes. Percolation tanks have been found to be very effective in checking the surface run-off during monsoons and conserve the same water for recharging the underlying aquifers; . 2;10.2 Head Management-Integrated Package for Water Resource Development. . Realising the fact that soiland water conservation practices alone were insufficient to encourage the farmers for their adoption, the sttategies of water conservation and crop production were harmonised on a catchment basis rather than on individual farmer's holdings. The programme . aims at increasing the watershed retention capacity for rainwater by increasing infiltration, surface storage at extensive location,litilising rainwater on siteto reduce erosion and consequent sediment hazard >and promote better crop and plant management. The provision of check dams in tributaries of river help in stopping unconh'ol1ed transportation of sediment and increases sustaina:ble cropping on sloping land. Planting along the contour of a hillside provides a vegetative barrier and slows down this runoff. The sediment trapped behind the plantation forms a terrace that further helps conserve soil and moisture for crops. At present very high priority has been accorded by the Govern.rnent of India to the hoEstic and sustainable development ofrainfed areas based on the Watershed Approach. For watershed development works, involvement of farmers, WUAs is necessary. Cornmon Guidelines in this .regard have also been brought out by the Governent of India, which need to be followed. hh The NWDPRA was laUnched in 1990-91 in 25 States and two Union Territories and th scheme continued to be implemented during IX Plan. This programme is also being continued during X plan period. An area of 7 Mha has been developed incurring an expendition of Rs 1871 crore upto IX plan. The broad objectives of the NWDPRA are as follows: ): Conservation, development and sustainable management of natural resources including their use. ): Enhancement of agricultural productivity and production in a sustainable'manner. ): Restoration of ecological balance in the degraded and fragile rainfed eco-systems by greening these areas through appropriate mix of trees, shrubs and grasses. 26
  • 32. > Reduction in regional disparity between irrigated and rainfed areas. > Creation of sustained employment opportunities for the rural community including the landless. The approach is preventive, progressive, co'rrective as well as curative. The important initiatives undertaken for the watershed management are as below: > Conserving soil and water > Improving the ability of land to hold water & productivity > Rainwater harvesting and recharging > Growing greenery - trees, crops & grasses > Optimal utilisationn of marginal lands > Development of rural manpower & energy management systems. 2.10.3 Mass Awareness UseI's participation in planning, development & management of water resources has been recognized by all concerned. Several State Governments have initiated programmes for implementation of PIM. Necessary legal backing has also been provided for this. For bridgin& ..' the knowledge gap, creation of mass awareness on water preservation and coriservation amongst farmers/villagers through several measures viz. T.Y.Radio, pamphlets jnJoeal languages is necessary. Though thi~ asp~ct is covered through ,observation.~.water Resources Day sfuce 1989, concerted efforts ill thIS regard are necessary: . ' India has declared 2003 as year of Fresh Water in keepmg with..the U.N. Resolution declaring 2003 as International Fresh Water Year. The objectives of Fresh Water Year, include increasing awareness among stake holders regarding scarcity value of water, conservation and efficient use offresh watel~ preservation of quality of fresh water and community partnership for informal decision making etc. To achieve these objectives, one of the activities proposes, Fresh Water ' Conservation Campaign. This is in tune with the theine of this year's Water Resources Day and would thus help in creating awareness amongest farmers/villagers for water conservation in agriculture. . 2.11 BROAD SUGGESTIONS Rapid urbanisation and industrialization coupled with continuous increase in population is putting h'emendous pressure on scarce' water resources. With increasing demand from other competing sectors, the availability of water for irrigation sector is reducing progressively. Achieving high water use efficiency in agriculture is the first step along the path towards sustainable water development and management. Water conservation in agriculture can be achieved by reducing conveyance losses, efficient canal water management, efficient on-farm water inanagement including improved water application techniques, rainwater harvesting, artificial ground water recharge, land treatments, reducing water demand, reuse of waste water, conjunctive use of surface and ground water etc. Besides the issue of early completion of projects which are languishing for want of funds, poor maintenance primarily due to low water rates, . lag in potential utilized etc. also needs to be addressed to improve water uSe efficiency and its conservation. Encouragement to agro forestry on west land, use' of Govt.~~#vateland for 27
  • 33. ground water recharge, encouragement through awards like, WATSAVE for water conservation for some of the other measures which will help in optimal use of water. Excessive application of water in irrigated commands has caused salinity, soil degradation, soil toxicity associated with h'ace elementsand increase in pesticide ingredients all causing deterioration of the environment. Therefore,it is imperative to take a holistic view of the entire,set of inputs applied into agriculture so that the food production is sustained and environmental security is maintained. . In order to minimize the pollution of surface and ground water due to irrigated agriculture, awareness should be created among the concerned officers of the irrigation, agriculture and command area development department as also in the farmers. They should be educated about the proper practices of applying fertiliiers and pesticides alongwith irrigation and water management which would iead to sustainable development of irrigated agriculture. There is urgent need to use bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides to avoid pollution due to harmful effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. 28
  • 34. CHAPTER 3 WATER USE FOR INDUSTRY AND STRATEGIES / MEASURES FOR CONSERVATION 3.1 INTRODUCTION _~mongst diverse uses of water one important use is in the industrial sector. In India, the water :equirement of the industries used to be very small compared to other sectoral demands in ::?aTlier years. With the rapid growth in population coupled with overall economic development jue to industrialisation, the requirement for indush'ial sector is increasing at a fast rate. When mdush'ial demand is concentrated in specific locations, heavy point loads are created on available -.-ater resources. Thus water availability is a major factor in industrial location as non-availability vf quality water and scarce situations have forced some industries to shut down. Industries require water for various purposes most of which are non-consumptive, thus making reuse through recycling and other conservation measures possible. The amount of water consumed for any product, therefore varies widely depending upon the process used, plant efficiency, echnology employed, the degree to which water is re-circulated and other factors. There are. :10 fixed norms for water demand for industries but rather a range of values determined by the technology used, selection of plant and process, practice in providing maximum recycling to reduce demand and pollution. tndush'ial e££luents constitute a major source of wastewater discharges; which would contain different kinds of toxic pollutants. Treatment of indush'ial wastewater and recycling are essential to meet standards of effluent water quality. With the quality of water becoming poor, availability of fresh water being scarce and statutory environmental regulations becoming more stringent, optimization in use of water demands a closer monitoring by indush'ial sector. 3.2 PRESENT USE The requirement of water for indush'ial use depend upon many factors viz., use of appropriate technology requiring least quantity of water, quality of raw material and its source, sources of water i.e. freshwater/ ground water/river, disposal of effluent, policy of re-circulation etc,. Some of the industries requiring considerable quantity of water for their production can be broadly classified as small scale indush'ies, chemicals and petrochemicals, sugar, steel, paper, fertilizer, textile, food processing, coal building, non-ferrous metals, cement etc. In the small-scale sector (551), the water intensive industries belong to the sectors namely the food items, hosiery and garments, paper product and printing, chemical and chemical products, . iron and steel indush'y etc. Water consumption varies depending upon the nature, however, in the changing global industrial scenario, the growth rate in S5I sector has been estimated to reduce. The requirement of water in chemical sector by pharmaceutical and pesticides industry is insignificant due to recycling. However, the major water intensive industries are dyes, caustic soda, and soda ash. In sugar industry water is required for cooling purpose and processing. The requirement varies according to size of the plant; technology being followed and the recycling process. Modernising 29
  • 35. the plants and updating the processing technology can reduce the future demand!consumption in sugar production. Water consumption in steel industries varies depending upon the process and production technology used. In view of continuous increase in production, the water demand would also increase in future. In paper industry water is an integral part in paper making and transporting fibre from raw material however the water demand depend upon the type of raw material used. In India, the paper and pulp industries extensively use intra plant recycle and reuse of waste water from washing, screening and bleaching.The water consumption is likely to reduce due to conservation measures. ­ In the textile industry; the processing sector is one of the major consumers of water. Estimating the water requirement for textile industry is complex, as the industry is diversified with heterogeneou,s sh'ucture of production. Sinc-€ water is going to be scarce in coming years, the strategy for reduc-tion in use of water is necessary. The water demand in fertilizer plants widely varies depending on the type of plant-product and the process technology employed. A major portion of the water is used-for cooling purposes and boilerfeed water. The future plants should be based on latest technology having zero effluent. Water consumption in coal mining sector is for coal washeries, washing and cleaning of mining h:1ildings and equipment, dust suppression in mines, drinking watel~ fire fighting etc. In some groups of mines, the water consumption is very high. The food processingindustry is also a fast growing sector and besides the organized sector, there are large number of units in unorganized sector. The requirement of water varies in food processing industry from unit to unit depending upon the product, technology used etc. - ­ The non-fetrousmetal industry in the counhY is confined to production of aluminium, zinc, lead and copper. The water demand depends upon location and size of mines/smelter; grade of metal contained in the ore and technology used. Future demand of water would get reduced due to recycling process of water in this sector. ­ In building sector, the brick industry is predominantly in the unorganized sector. There is acute housing shortage in the country at present and therefore the future growth in demand of bricks for housing is expected to be high. Similarly, Cement which is manufactUred through wet / dry processing, is also required for construction activities. The cement industry is power intensive industry and has installed captive power units, as adequate power is not available. Hence, the water requirement is both for manufacture of cement and for the captive power plant. Thus the water demand in this sector will also be high in future ­ For estimation ofwater demand for industrial sector, in all seventeen categories of water intensive industrial groups were identified for understanding industrial scenario of the country induding the small scale and village industry demand (Report of the National Corrunission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan, 1999). The year 1996-97 for which production figures were available was identified as the baseline year for estimating water requirements in industrial sector. Based on the rn:illimum per unit water consumption figure and the production figure, the water requirement for all the 17 categories of industries was assessed as 15 BCM per year in 1997. The demand for smaIi-scale indush'ies was assessed as 7 BCM per year. Thus the total water consumption in 1997 was around 22 BCM per year. ­ 30