1. P a g e | 1
Surface Characteristics of cotton
Fibbers
I. Introduction 3
II. Chemical Structure of cotton 4
III. Surface Structure and Chemistry 6
IV. Surface Energy And Wetting Contact Angle 8
V. Surface Effects From Fiber Spinning 9
A. The effect of cotton fibre surface characteristic on yarn properties 9
VI. Surface Modification of Cotton Fiber 12
A. For surface modification of cotton fabrics using plasma technology 12
B. For super hydrophobic cotton textile with robust 13
composite film and flame retardancy
C. For fabrication of super hydrophobic cotton fabrics by a simple
chemical modification 13
VII. Conclusion 14
Prepared By
Hasib Sikdar
B.Sc. in Textile Engineering
BUFT

2. P a g e | 2
1. Introduction
Cotton is a vegetable fibre obtained from the mature capsule of the cotton plant, a shrub about
40cm high, with leaves and flowers of a red and yellow colour. When the flower is fecundated
it loses its petals and within 25 days a capsule surrounded by a leaf called bract grows. The
capsule is sustained by a cup and has a drop shape rounded at the lower extremity. Inside the
capsule there are from five to eight seeds on which the fibre developed. When the capsule is
mature it opens into four parts showing the cotton ball. On the same plant the maturation of the
capsules does not occur simultaneously, therefore more passages are required for the harvest
of the cotton. The harvest is carried out a week after maturation. The first operation after
harvesting is husking, which permits the removal of the fibres from the seeds. Then the cotton
is carded and combed so as to eliminate all the impurities.
4000 fibres is the seed average. Staple length for manufacturing yarns = 1/8" - 2.5" (0.32 -
6.35cm), for fabrics = 7/8" - 11/4" (2.22 - 3.18) is standard. The requisites on the basis of
Which to judge the quality of the cotton are the grade, the colour and the length of the fibres
as well as the character.
The grade us given by the external appearance of the cotton and is determined on the basis
 of the major or minor brightness of the fibres
 by its more or less white colour
 by the major or minor presence of particles of the leaf or other extraneous substances
The colour is another imporant element of evaluation of cotton. In fact, the major or minor
whiteness of the cotton is crucial for the facility of later workings and the possibility of
obtaining good yarns.

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The length is the most important attribute of the fiber. In this regard, cotton is divided into
three categories: long fiber cottons (long staple) with measures more than 28mm and short fiber
cotton (short staple) that do not reach a length of 18mm. Long staple cotton originates usually
from the USA, whereas the shorter come from Asian regions. The intermediary category,
cotton fibers between 18mm-28mm, constitute the grand mass of the world production of
around 60%
The character is the attribute determined with more difficulty. It is partly connected with the
cotton's origin, variety and maturity. But at the end, cotton of good character is that whose
fibres are the strongest and most robust. Those properties lead to traction and breakage
resistance as well as uniformity so that they are easy to work with.
Recent studies on cotton have indicated that the pectic substance occurs principally on the
surface of the fibre as part of the primary cell wall. Although this substance is present to the
extent of only approximately 1 percent, it nevertheless accounts for about 85 percent of the
acidic groups in mature fibres. The remainder of the acidic groups, about 15 percent, is
presumably associated with the cellulose itself. The highly acidic nature and the location of the
pectic substance in the naturally occurring fibres would be expected to influence greatly a
number of the properties of the fibre, especially those dependent on surface characteristics.
These surface characteristics are of considerable importance in a number of industrial
processes, as, for example, the scouring, dyeing, and finishing of textile materials.
2. Chemical Structure of cotton:
After scouring and bleaching, cotton is 99% cellulose. Cellulose is a macromolecule –– a
polymer made up of a long chain of glucose molecules linked by C-1 to C-4 oxygen bridges
with elimination of water (glycoside bonds).
The anhydroglucose units are linked together
as beta-cellobiose; therefore, anhydro-beta-
cellobiose is the repeating unit of the polymer
chain. The number of repeat units linked
together to form the cellulose polymer is
referred to as the “degree of polymerization.”
Wood pulp, rayon and cellophane (all three derived from wood cellulose) are also constructed
of cellulose polymers. Cotton cellulose differs from wood cellulose primarily by having a

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higher degree of polymerization and crystallinity. Crystallinity indicates that the fiber
molecules are closely packed and parallel to one another. Table 5 shows the average degree of
polymerization and the average crystallinity of the cellulose fibers cotton, viscose rayon and
wood pulp. Higher degree of polymerization and crystallinity are associated with higher fiber
strengths.
The cellulose chains within cotton fibers tend to be held in place by hydrogen bonding.
These hydrogen bonds occur between the hydroxyl groups of adjacent molecules and
are most prevalent between the parallel, closely packed molecules in the crystalline
areas of the fiber.
The three hydroxyl groups, one primary and two secondary, in each repeating cellobiose
unit of cellulose are chemically reactive. These groups can undergo substitution
reactions in procedures designed to modify the cellulose fibers or in the application of
dyes and finishes for crosslinking. The hydroxyl groups also serve as principal sorption
sites for water molecules. Directly sorbed water is firmly chemisorbed on the cellulosic
hydroxyl groups by hydrogen bonding.
Figure: Amorphous and crystalline Areas of Polymers
Of particular interest in the case of cellulose fibers is the response of their strength to
variations in moisture content. In the case of regenerated and derivative cellulose fibers,
strength generally decreases with increasing moisture content. In contrast, the strength
of cotton generally increases with increased moisture. This difference among fibers in
their response to moisture is explained in terms of intermolecular hydrogen bonding
between cellulose chains and their degree of crystallinity

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Table 5 Degree of polymerization and crystallinity of cellulose fibers
Fiber Average Degree
of Polymerization*
Average
Crystallinity (%)**
Cotton 9,000–15,000 73
Viscose rayon
Regular
250–450 60
High tenacity 500–650
High wet modulus 400–550
Wood pulp 600–1,500 35
Thermoplastic fibers melt at elevated temperatures and have a glass transition temperature at
some point below the polymer’s melting point. At the glass transition temperature, a
thermoplastic fiber becomes brittle and loses its elasticity. Cotton is not a thermoplastic fiber;
therefore, it has no glass transition temperature and remains flexible even at very low
temperatures. At elevated temperatures, cotton decomposes instead of melting. Long exposure
to dry heat above 300°F (149°C) causes cotton fibers to decompose gradually, and temperatures
above 475°F (246°C) cause rapid deterioration.
Cellulose 95%
Protein 1.3%
Ash 1.2%
Wax 0.6%
Sugar 0.3%
Organic acid 0.8%
Other chemical
compound
3.1%
Table: Chemical composition of cotton fiber
3. Surface Structure and Chemistry: The surface structure (chemistry or
morphology) of cotton fibers is not as well understood as the microstructure and macrostructure
of the cotton fibers as a whole. Cotton cellulose is highly crystalline and oriented. a-cellulose
is distinct in its long and rigid molecular structure. The b-1,4-D(+)-glucopyranose building
blocks in long cellulose chain are linked by 1,4-glucodic bonds. The steric effects prevent free
rotation of the anhydrogluco-pyranose C-O-C link. Each anhydroglucose contains three

6. P a g e | 6
hydroxyl groups, one primary on C-6 and two secondary on C-2 and C-3. The abundant
hydroxyl groups and the chain conformation allow extensive inter-molecular and intra-
molecular hydrogen bonding to further enhance the rigidity of the cellulose structure
The structure of cotton fibres can be viewed along the fiber axis and across the fiber section.
Current understanding of cotton fiber structure has been mainly from investigation of the
matured fibers in their dried state. Although the biochemical nature of cotton cell structure,
particularly during early cell growth, has been extensively studied, the development
macrostructure of the main constituent of the fiber, cellulose, is not as well understood.
.
Fig: microscopic view of cotton
Cotton fibers are composed of mostly a-cellulose (88.0–96.5%) (Goldwaith and Guthrie,
1954). The noncellulosics are located either on the outer layers (cuticle and primary cell wall)
or inside the lumens of the fibers whereas the secondary cell wall is purely cellulose. The
specific chemical compositions of cotton fibers vary by their varieties, growing environments
(soil, water, temperature, pest, etc.) and maturity. The noncellulosics include proteins (1.0–
1.9%), waxes (0.4–1.2%), pectins (0.4–1.2%), inorganics (0.7–1.6%), and other (0.5–8.0%)
substances. In less developed or immature fibers, the non-cellulosic contents are much higher.
The primary cell walls of cotton fibers contain less than 30% cellulose, noncellulosic polymers,
neutral sugars, uronic acid, and various proteins (Huwyler et al., 1979; Meinert and Delmer,
1977). The cellulose in the primary cell walls has lower molecular weight, with the degree of
polymerization (DP) between 2,000 and 6,000 and their distributions are broader (Goring and
Timell, 1962; Hessler et al., 1948). The secondary wall of the cotton fiber is nearly 100%
cellulose. The DP of the cellulose in the secondary wall is about 14,000, and the molecular
weight distribution is more uniform (Figini, 1982). The high molecular weight cellulose
characteristic of mature cotton has been detected in fibers as young as eight days old. In the
later stage of elongation or 10–18 days following initiation, the higher molecular weight
cellulose decreases while the lower-molecular weight cell wall components increase, possibly

7. P a g e | 7
from hydrolysis (Timpa and Triplett, 1993). Between the ages of 30 and 45 days, the DPs
estimated from intrinsic viscosities of fibers have been shown to remain constant (Nelson and
Mares, 1965).
4. SURFACE ENERGY AND WETTING CONTACT ANGLE
An experimental method has been described for deriving the wetting contact angle of the fibers
from fabric and yarn measurements 12,161. In this method. the wetting and wicking
components of a steady-state measurement of a fabric are decoupled, allowing the derivation
of the liquid wetting contact angle and retention value.
The modification of a textile surface by atmospheric pressure DBD plasmas mainly depends
on the gas nature and the exposure time or the speed of treatment. According to the literature,
the functionalization of cotton surface with air atmospheric plasma treatment leads to the
improvement of its hydrophilic behavior. The water contact angle WCA and capillarity (%)
measurements were used to evaluate the change in wettability of modified fabrics, which is
directly related to the surface functional groups. Table 2 listed the values of WCA measured
after 1 hour, 1 week and 1 year of surface plasma treatment. It shows that the treatment velocity
has no significant effect on the WCA (°) measured after one hour of plasma treatment. But the
water contact angle measured after 1 week shows that the cotton surface became more and
more hydrophobic. It drastically increases from 60° for the untreated sample to 128° for the

8. P a g e | 8
plasma treated one. The WCA reaches its maximum value with 2 m/min treatment velocity.
After one year, the values remain stable
The air atmospheric pressure plasma activation of cotton fabric, desized and cleaned, induces
surface modification by increasing its hydrophobic behaviour namely in function of time
storage. In fact, after 1 week, the water contact angle increases from 60° and 67° for the
untreated samples to about 128° and 132° for the plasma-treated ones. The values remain stable
after one year of storage; indicating by the way the durability of the surface modification.
However, the zeta potential measurements indicate the presence of ionized groups on the cotton
surface. The XPS analyses have shown the breaking of CAC bonds and the presence of silicon
particles on the untreated cotton surface. Thus, the increase of the surface hydophobicity is
probably due to the oxydation of the silicon Si2p. In fact, the results shown the presence of a
Si2O3 oxidized layer with a binding energy of 102.3 eV which reacts with plasma species to
be converted into a silicon more oxidized SiO2 with a binding energy of 103.3 eV. After storage
of cotton substrates, the increase in hydrophobicity of the surface can be explained by the
oxidation of silicon in air. On the other hand, the cotton surface behaviour after plasma
treatment can be related to the ablation of the functional groups under the treatment condition
studied. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that atmospheric pressure plasma treatment
under a specific condition allows getting a hydrophobic cotton surface without using any
plasma gas
5. SURFACE EFFECTS FROM FIBER SPINNING
A. The effect of cotton fibre surface characteristic on yarn properties
In order to produce high quality yarn, choosing the appropriate cotton for the field of use,
quality of fibre properties and efficient use of fibre blends are priority requirements. Fibre cost
constitutes more than 50% of the producing cost of cotton yarn, and quality properties of yarn
change depending on the fibre quality. Considering this fact, many researchers have studied
the effect of raw materials and spinning condition on yarn properties [1-8]. In this study, the
quality properties of the materials were measured at each stage of production and very thin
cotton compact yarns at different yarn count were investigated differently from the literature.
Materials and methods

9. P a g e | 9
In this study, four different types of cotton compact yarn at different linear densities were
produced on the Saurer Zinser 35 2Impact FX compact spinning machine. The cotton bales
that used in the study were mixed at the same blow room. Trützschler TC11 type carding
machine was used. Two passages drawing process was used with Trützschler TD7 and
Trützschler TD8. Rieter E 80 combing machine was used for combing processes and Saurer
Zinser 670 machine was used to produce roving. The cotton compact yarns that produced in
the study are presented in Table 1
The fibres, slivers and yarns were preconditioned in a conditioning room at standard
atmospheric conditions (20 ± 2°C, 65 ± 2% RH) for 24 hours The fibre properties were
measured on High Volume Instruments (HVI) in accordance with ASTM D4605. By using
Uster Tester 4 and Uster Tensorapid-3, the measurements of breaking strength, elongation,
hairiness and unevenness properties were performed in accordance with Uster and ASTM
D2256 standards. The obtained results were evaluated in 95% confidence interval (α=0.05)
using SPSS 23.0 statistical software and by applying variance and Pearson’s correlation and
regression analyses.
Results and discussion
The fibre properties, carding, draw
and roving sliver properties,
unevenness, imperfections,
hairiness, breaking strength and
elongation properties of the yarns
were measured in the study. Uster
HVI Testing System was used to
determine all the physical and quality properties of the Aegean and South East Anatolian
regions of Turkey’s cotton fibres used in the study. The cotton samples were collected from

10. P a g e | 10
cotton bales of the blends, which were prepared for each of the yarn count. The mean properties
of the cotton fibre blends formed for each yarn count are presented in Table 2.
As seen in the HVI results, the fibre properties improve in finer yarn counts, in general. This
state is also confirmed by SCI, which is a calculation from micronaire, uniformity strength and
reflection and uses for predicting the overall quality and spinnability of the cotton fibre.
Besides, the higher SCI value shows that the better quality yarn can be produced. The
unevenness (CV%) measured by Uster Tester of the carding, draw and roving slivers are shown
in Table 3. As expected, the unevenness of the slivers is decreased from first to second passage
drawing. The highest unevenness value is seen for Ne 40 slivers in roving form
The results of the tenacity (RKM) and elongation at break of the yarns are given in Figure 1
and Figure 2, respectively. As understood from the tensile strength results, Tenacity values of
the yarns decrease with the increase of the yarn count. Similarly, elongation ability of the yarns
decreases when yarns become thinner. Although fibres used for Ne 60 have the highest strength
values, the tenacity of these yarns is lower. The reduction of the number of fibres in the cross-
section of the yarn when yarn becomes thinner may be reason for this result.
The results show that the unevenness of the yarns increases with the increase of yarn count,
while there was an opposite condition in tensile strength values according to the results of
unevenness. As understood from the findings, yarn tenacity increases with the increase of fibre
length, uniformity and strength, whereas it decreases with neps, short fibre index and trash
content. Extensibility of the yarns increase with increase of the fibre fineness and moisture
content, and it decreases with short fibre index in the fibre blend. On the other hand, unevenness
and hairiness of the yarns increase with increase of neps, short fibre index and trash content in
the blend. Besides, the increase of fibre fineness, maturity, length and uniformity causes the
reduction of unevenness and hairiness of the yarn. Moreover, linear regression models were
established to estimate yarn properties from other fibre parameters and valuable estimation
models were obtained.
6. Surface Modification of Cotton Fiber
Cotton fiber is one of the most important natural fibers which provide a wide range of
application in textile materials because of its easy availability, low density, light weight, low

11. P a g e | 11
cost, and above all environment friendly characteristics. But the major problem of the cotton
fiber is its lower flexibility and softness properties which limit an extended use of cotton as
well as other fibers. By these modifications, some new moieties are introduced on the fiber
backbone that can improve its properties. That is why the surface modification of cotton fiber
was successfully carried out by condensation polymerization with 3-
glycidoxypropyltriethoxysilane (GPTES) in an ethanol-water medium to enhance the tensile
strength and softness properties of the cotton, by introducing a more flexible Si-O bond
between the silane coupling agents and the cotton fiber was introduced by Mondal IH, et al.
[1]. Other report in 2014 by Bhat, et al. [2] declare that effect of plasma treatments on the
surface properties of textile fibers by using the radio frequency (RF)-generated plasma in terms
of chemical interactions on the surface modification of cotton fabrics using a variety of gases
and its effects on wetting and dyeing properties. Like other modification hydrophobicity of
cotton can be done by Zhang M, et al. [3] in which the modification can effectively protect the
cotton fabric from pollution, mildew and shrinkage which is greatly restrict the further
application and development of cotton textile by treating cotton surface with zinc oxide film.
Since highly hydrophobic natural textiles due their unique characteristics such as self-cleaning,
anti-contamination and anti-sticking needed so fabrication of super hydrophobic cotton fabrics
by a simple chemical modification using bifunctional polysiloxanes with various contents of
functional groups can be demonstrated by Przybylak M. et al. [4]. Chemical treatment of the
cotton fibers not only reduces their moisture absorption process but also functionalize a cotton
fiber. Mondal IH, et al. [5] investigates the effect of silane treatment on the moisture resistance,
swelling behavior, tensile strength, wrinkle recovery properties, thermal stability and surface
morphology of cotton fibers. Much less has been reported on modification of cotton fiber by
silane coupling agents. In investigation by Kongdee A, et al. [6] modification of Cotton Fibers
with Sericin Using NonFormaldehyde Released Cross linking Agents are done in which the
cotton fibers were selected to keep moisture absorbency; they were modified with sericin for
biomedical purposes.
A. For surface modification of cotton fabrics using plasma technology
The gray cotton fabric with different type of dyes (direct reactive and neutral) used were for
the surface modification of cotton fabrics using plasma treatment with Bhat NV, et al. [2]. A
sample of size 20cm times 20cm was inserted in the chamber and treated by plasma. The main
gases, pressure were air and dichlorodifluoromethane (DCFM) and 20 Pascal was maintained
during the plasma treatments. Gray, as well as desized, scoured, and bleached cotton, fabrics

12. P a g e | 12
were used for further studies and subjected to plasma treatments the surface morphologies of
treated fabrics were examined using a scanning electron microscope (model JEOL, JSM-5400),
absorbency (AATCC 79-2000), contact angles (photographs of the water drops), wicking
action (ISO 9073- 6:2000) and after dyeing of desized, scoured, and plasma-treated fabrics then
the amount of dye absorbed by the sample, color strength using an ultraviolet/visible
spectrophotometer and Nova Scan, Macbeth Color Eye 7000A equipment respectively.
B. For super hydrophobic cotton textile with robust composite film
and flame retardancy
Zhang M, et al. [3], prepare zinc oxide film super hydrophobic cotton textile with robust
composite film and flame retardancy by using cotton sample immersed in amine zinc oxide
solution (zinc oxide added to ethanol in the presence of APDMS), would solidly stick to the
cotton substrate via a chemical bonding of numerous amino and epoxy groups through then the
dried was fluorinated using trimethethoxysilane solution. Ultimately the super hydrophobic
cotton fabrics were obtained at ambient temperature and to enhance the mechanical stability,
polystyrene was introduced to further decorate the super-hydrophobic cotton surface. Then the
morphology of the cotton sample surface and zinc oxide was characterized with scanning
electron microscope (FEI QUANTA200), transmission electrons microscope (JEOL
JEM2100). The pure and amine-functionalized zinc oxide, elemental composition of the film
on the sample surface, water contact angle, abrasion, thermo gravimetric analysis was analyzed
by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (MAGNA-IR560, Nicolet), X-ray photoelectrons
spectroscopy (K-Alpha), contact meter(Powereach,JC2000C), Martindale ,thermo gravimetric
analyzer CTA instrument) to measure abrasions as well as thermogravimetric used.
C. For fabrication of super hydrophobic cotton fabrics by a simple
chemical modification
A cotton fabric with and two types of bifunctional polysiloxanes with different ratios of
functional groups were used by Przybylak M. et al. [4] to fabrication of super hydrophobic
cotton fabrics by a simple chemical modification and was performed by the onestep method
via chemical treatment with solutions of bifunctional polysiloxanes or by the two-step method,
which consisted of the introduction of silica sol at the first stage followed by the chemical
modification. The durability of the hydrophobic properties of fabrics was determined by

13. P a g e | 13
measurements of the WCA on the surface of fabrics after the modification and after one and
ten washing. The analytical balance Ohaus, automatic video contact-angle testing apparatus (
Kruss model DSA 100), was used for determination of the amount of modifiers add-on and the
analysis was carried out by employing the SEM-EDS technique to determine ultimate elements
(Si,F, N and P) and water contact angles. Surface topography was carried out using a Hitachi
S-3400 N scanning electron microscope.
6. Conclusion
Because of the hygroscopic nature of the cottonl fibres used, the dynamic contact angle
measurements were strongly influenced by diffusion of the test liquid in con tact with the fibre
surface. A strong influence of the number of test cycles and diffusion time, respectively, on the
contact angle was characteristic for all test liquids such as water, diiodomethane, and glycerol.
Furthermore, different combinations of polar and non-polar test liquids lead to differences in
the dispersive and non-dispersive part of the free surface energy of the fibres without
significantly affecting the value of total surface energy. Inhomogeneities and fibre surface
roughness give rise to a saw-teeth shaped graph of the tensiograms, which is of slight
significance only when the force-immersion depth curves are evaluated to yield the contact
angle value. Chemical modifications which increase the fiber cross sectional area make the
fiber surface smoother, hut extensive swelling of the cellulose derivative during its preparation
appears to create roughness in some modifications. Crease resistant finishes do not alter the
fiber topography significantly. Electrolytes and sugars present on the surface of cotton fiber,
as well as pectin present in the primary cell wall, exhibit significant correlations with single
fiber friction, and surface wax shows a substantially weaker correlation. Removal of the surface
electrolytes and sugars by water washing the fibers does not result in a significant change in
frictional behavior, and it is concluded that these components do not play a significant role in
inter-fiber friction
Referan
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