Psychology AS Level AQA

3.  Work place stress in one of the major
sources of stress for people and may
cause:
• Poor work performance.
• Absenteeism
• Burnout
• Alcohol and drug abuse.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tvw2VbymKY
s&list=PL6cNh2ygSTqxnDXSdmECveJdiT35W
GSr5&index=2

4. EXAMPLES OF
WORK
PLACE
STRESSORS
DEADLINES
TOO LITTLE/
TOO MUCH
•LIGHTING
•HEATING
•DECORATION

5. KARASEK (1979) MARMOT ET AL (1997)
He produced a outline theory of
the relationship between job
demand (workload) and levels of
control.
HIGH
DEMAND
LOW
DEMAND
LOW
CONTROL
STRESSFUL
JOB
(more
demand is
on you but
no control)
PASSIVE
JOB
(sit down)
HIGH
CONTROL
ACTIVE
JOB
(always
something
to do)
NOT
STRESSFUL
L JOB
(low levels of
stress)
There were 7,000 participants in the
Whitehall 2 study. These participants
were followed up for 5 years, all these
participants were free of heart
problems when the study began.
CONCLUSION:-
•Significant factor- Degree of Control.
•CHD 1.5x greater in lower pay
grade.
ISSUES:-
•Biased Sample.
•Social Desirability Bias.
•Inaccuracies.
•All factors?
•Informed Consent
•Protection from harm
•Debrief

6. Cooper et al.
(1998) -
The occupational
stress indicator
 Findings used to devise
strategies – reduce
negative effects on
individual &
organisation...
 Self-report
questionnaires at
workplace.

8.  Stress is a major factor of everyday life that
can be minor or long lasting.
Every day stress examples include:
• Work
• Exams
• Moving houses
Major life events include:
• Marriage
• Death
• Becoming a parent
• Holidays

9. Holmes and Rahe (1967) : Life changes
Conclusion of findings:
• Death of spouse was rated as the event
that requires most adjustment
therefore most stressful.
• This was followed by divorce and marital
separation
• Last was holidays was seen as the least
stressful
•They constructed a SRRS.
• Examined 5,000 patients
records making a list of 43 life
events that seemed to come
before an illness.
•Asked 4000 participant to rate
each item in terms of the amount
of stress produced .
•Upon this they compared each
event to marriage and averaged
everyone's results divided by 10
to get a measure of individual
events in terms of LCU’s.

10. •Methodological
issues
•Ethical issues
•Culture biased/specific – study based
in US & can not be generalized for
everyone
•Wide range of participants – age,
gender, ethnicity
•Representative data – large sample
size
•Quantitative Data – easy to
analyse/compare/illustrate
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Informed consent
• Debrief
• Protection from harm

11. •Strengths •Weaknesses
• Based on correlations which can
identify the relationship between two
variables
• Representative data as there is a
large sample size so results can be
generalized
• Questionnaire – common way of
measure –used for many studies
• Quantitative data – operationalized so
easy to compare results
• Scale does not consider individual
differences – eg; divorce perceived
differently via primary/ secondary
appraisal
• Results in correlation form – only
shows association between variables
& not cause of stress related illness
• Retrospective/prospective studies –
unreliable and cannot be generalized

12. •Sarason et al. (1978) – Life
events scale
•Kanner et al. (1981)– The
hassles scale
• Allowed rate of 57 life events –
severity of impact – positive
/negative impact
•Allowed individual differences
•Specialized sections for certain
groups –eg; students
•3 scores produced – negative
change, positive change, total change
•Generally, negative life change
scores correlate highest with illness
outcomes
•Original scale – 117 items covering
daily life
•Could be modified for groups eg;
students – study problems/unfriendly
tutors
•Argued life has positive events
(uplifts) – could counteract negative
effects of daily hassles
•Scale correlate with stress-related
problems – especially depression &
anxiety
•Uplifts – unrelated to health
outcomes

14. Researchers have been interested in whether certain
personality characteristics or behaviors may make an
individual more prone to suffering from stress.
TYPE A BEHAVIOUR (TAB)
• A behaviour pattern that has long been
linked to stress related illnesses.
Friedman and Rosenman
BEHAVIOUR
PATTERNS OF
TYPE A
EXAMPLES
TIME PRESSURED • WORKING TO DEADLINES
• MULTI-TASKING
• UNHAPPY DOING NOTHING
COMPETITIVE • FOCUSES ON ACHIEVMENT
• PLAYS TO WIN
• WORK AND LIFESTYLE
HOSTILITY • EASILY IRRITATED
• IMPATIENT AND ANGERED
• PERFECTIONIST
• SELF PROJECTED ANGER
TYPE B BEHAVIOUR
• Opposite of Type A Behaviour
• Relaxed(Not competitive & hostile)
• Not driven to succeed and impress
• Easy going
• Patient

15. • 3454 middle aged men in the
US
• They were characterized as
Type A or B using structured
interviews.
• As Participants answered
questions, trained
interviewers analysed
behaviour to detect signs of
Type A personality (e.g.) fast
paced, finger tapping,
restlessness.
• Participants were followed up
for 8.5 yrs.
• During this time there were
257 heart attacks and 69%
were Type A.
CONCLUSION:
• High TAB individuals were
vulnerable to heart disease
even when lifestyle factors
such as obesity and smoking
were controlled.

16. •Methodological
issues
•Ethical issues •Criticisms
• Culture & gender
specific – study based
on men only in US
• Not all variables
accounted – lifestyle
factors – major events;
eg: moving house
• TAB is based on
western societies;
definition of TAB may
vary in other countries
• Informed Consent
• Debrief
• People with TAB can
prevent heart disease
- by engaging in
sports & having social
support networks
• Likely to be high
achievers – can afford
to reduce negative
effects of stress in life

17. EYSENCK(1988) DENOLLET(2000) TEMSHOK(1987)
He proposed 2 types of
personality:
TYPE C
• Vulnerable to cancer
• Characterized with
difficulties in expressing
emotions and with
social relationships
TYPE D
• Vulnerable to heart
disease
• Characterized with high
levels of anger and
hostility
TYPE D
• More prone to heart
disease
• People with this type of
personality experienced
high levels of negative
emotion and avoid
interacting with others
e.g. shyness
TYPE C
• Linked to cancer
• Describes people who
have difficulty in
expressing emotions

18. ELEMENTS OF
HARDINESS
DESCRIPTION
CONTROL Able to influence life events including
stressors
COMMITMENT Sense of involvement and purpose in life
CHALLENGE Life changes are seen as opportunity
rather than sources of stress
KOBASA(1979)
The concept of hardiness was introduced by Kobasa who was interested in factors
that might protect people against the effects of stress.
WIEBE & SMITH(1992)
ALSO SUPPORTS THIS.

20. Psychological Physiological
Informal
Problem Focused
Coping
CBT
HT
DRUGS
Beta-
Blockers
Alternative Methods
Progressive
Muscle
Relaxation
and
Meditation
Physical
Exercise

21.  Emotion-focussed coping:-
 Targets the emotional impact of
stressors, strategies include:
 Denial
 Seeking support from friends
(moaning to friends)
 Cinema / Drinking/ Smoking.
 Usually used when stressor is
uncontrollable, for example a
bereavement.
 CARVER ET AL. (1993)- THIS
STRATEGY OF DENIAL LED
TO BETTER ADJUSTMENT IN
WOMEN WITH BREAST
CANCER + SOCIAL SUPPORT
HELPS IN COPING WITH
CANCER.
 Problem-focussed coping:-
 Directly reduce the impact of a
stressor in a practical and
systematical manner:
 Revision Timetable
 Work through notes regularly.
 Used when the stressor is
controllable… work-based
problems (The light is irritating
you… change the light bulb?)
 Have a good chance of
removing the stressor through
this strategy.
 Problem-focused is limited as
we can’t control all the stressors
in our lives, for example a
chronic illness.

22.  Cognitive restructuring
 Prepare individuals for future stressors,
promote resilience, consequently reduce the
negative effects of stress.
 Easy as 1,2,3:
1. Conceptualisation
2. Skills Training and Rehearsal
3. Application and Follow Through.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCH8qR-
7OTg

23. 1. Focussing- Think about sources of stress + How to deal
with it.
2. Reliving/Reconstructing- Coping strategies.
3. Self-Improvement- Take on challenges, commit and
control...
=STRESS
MANAGMENT.

24.  SIT requires time, commitment, money – not
suitable for everyone
 Training in relaxation techniques gives clients
some control over stressful situations –can be
emotion focused
1. Meichenbaum’s SIT
2. Kobasa’s Hardiness
Training
 Hardiness Training provides more confidence
within clients – can deal with future stressful
situations
 Studies shown effectiveness of HT – improves
health & performance in adults and children

25.  Beta-Blockers
 https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=CyJlGXw
jRQY
 Benzodiazepines
(BZ’s)
 Act on the brain
increasing the action
of GABA inhibitory
neurotransmitter.
G

26.  Relatively safe in overdose compared to barbiturates
 Do not target source of stress but can be effective coping
strategy if combined with psychological methods
 Side effects – tiredness, impaired motor coordination,
memory impairment if used long-term
 Physical dependence – withdrawal symptoms include:
sleeping patters, increased heart rate, tremors (shaking)
Benzodiazepines
(BZs)
Beta-Blockers  No major side effects – do not penetrate brain easily
 Act rapidly/directly on heart & blood pressure (lifesaving
function)
 Target physiological stress response by lowering bodily
arousal
 Do not target sources of stress – psychological methods
needed

27.  Biofeedback- connected to machines,
combining physiological with psychological.
 Progressive Muscle Relaxation and Meditation-
common component of CBT, reduces arousal,
Jacobson (1938)
 Physical Exercise- Lowers stress, positive
mood says Biddle (2000) or is it enkephalins?
 Social Support- Emotional, practical,
informational and general network support,
Constable and Russell (1996).

28. Biofeedback Progressive Muscle
Relaxation
Physical Exercise
 No side effects –
harmless
 Requires motivation
& commitment for
training programme
to be successful
 Biofeedback can
hold same
effectiveness as
relaxation
techniques
 Muscle Relaxation &
Meditation can
reduce arousal
associated with
stress
 Increased sense of
control over
stressful situations
 Can be extremely
useful when
combined with more
focused/systematic
methods
 Lowers resting heart
rate & blood
pressure
 Positive effects of
raising mood
 Can reduce reported
levels of stress &
depression
 Risk of injury –
vigorous exercise/
starting exercise
programme

29. Evidence Evaluation
 Research – social support
reduces vulnerability to stress-
related arousal
 Vogt et al. – mortality from
heart disease shows as closely
related to social support
 Constable & Russell – social
support within workplace
reduces job-related stress
 Social support reduces
physical effects of stress
 Social networks can provide –
emotional, practical,
informational & self-esteem
support
 Allen et al. – presence of a pet
lowered heart rates during
performance of stressful tests
Social Support...

31. 1. Death
2. Farting
3. Lighting

33. 1. Yes
2. No

35. 1. Stress inoculation therapy.
2. Sometimes ingesting things.

37. 1. Marmot et al.
2. Karasek et al.
3. My dad.

39. 1. Speed
2. Wealth
3. Stress