2. Moderators:
Professors:
Prof. Dr. G. Sivasankar, M.S., M.Ch.,
Prof. Dr. A. Senthilvel, M.S., M.Ch.,
Asst Professors:
Dr. J. Sivabalan, M.S., M.Ch.,
Dr. R. Bhargavi, M.S., M.Ch.,
Dr. S. Raju, M.S., M.Ch.,
Dr. K. Muthurathinam, M.S., M.Ch.,
Dr. D. Tamilselvan, M.S., M.Ch.,
Dr. K. Senthilkumar, M.S., M.Ch.
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai. 2
3. PROSTATE TUMOUR MARKERS
Prostatic acid phosphatase: high
concentrations in semen, prostate
Neither protate tissue nor tumour specific
Increased in prostate,breast,stomach,colon ca
Less stable than PSA
Overall poor specificity
3
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
4. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
34-kD glycoprotein /237 aminoacids
Produced by epithelial cells forming acini/ducts of
prostate gland
Chromosome 19
Proteolytic enzyme of kallikrein family-liquify human
semen
First identified in 1969-Hara-seminal fluid
4
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
5. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
Free /complexed form –α₁-anti chymotrypsin,
α₂ macroglobulin
• Free:complexed PSA=1:4
Tissue specific but not cancer specific
Periurethral glands,some breast cancers also produce
PSA
5
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
6. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
BPH/protatitis/significant elevations in older men
after ejaculations
No studies have shown significant elevation in serum
PSA after routine DRE
Four fold rise in serum PSA after cystoscopy with
prostatic massage (stamey )
6
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
7. PSA-SCREENING GUIDELINES
Men >50 yrs with >10 yrs life expectancy
Men >45 yrs considered at high risk (african descent
,family h/o cancer in first degree relative )
7
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
8. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
In early detection of prostate cancer
PSA>4 ng/ml-detected 82% of tumour
DRE detected 55%
75% of tumour detected by PSA –organ
confined ,56% by DRE ,78% if both are
used
(Catalona,J Urol 1994;151:1283-90 )
8
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
9. PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN
Carter and colleagues concluded that curable
prostate cancer is not likely to be missed with
2 year testing interval, in men >55 yrs having
normal DRE and initial PSA <2ng/ml
Carter,JAMA 1997;277,1456-60
9
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
10. AGE-SPECIFIC PSA REFERENCE
RANGES
40-49 yrs -0 to 2 ng/ml
50-59yrs- 0 to 3 ng/ml
60-69yrs- 0 to 4 ng/ml
70-79yrs- 0 to 5 ng/ml
Detected 18% more tumours in men< 60 yrs
81% of tumours detected in young had favourable
patologic findings
Partin,J Urol 1996:47:518-24
10
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
11. FREE/TOTAL PSA
% of free PSA of <25% in men with total PSA
between4-10ng/ml was 95% sensitive and had
improved specificity for detecting ca and avoiding
biopsies in 20% BPH
Catalona,JAMA 1998;279:1542-7
11
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
12. FREE/TOTAL PSA
Complexed PSA has superior specificity over total PSA
and free to total PSA with only slight reduction in
sensitivity (81% vs 83% )
Brawer ,Urology 1998;52;372-8
12
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
13. PSAV
Carter in 1992
Most useful for assessing risk of prostate cancer in
individual with normal yet rising total PSA
PSAV-0.75 ng/ml/year (sensitivity 72%,
specificity 90% )
13
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
14. PSAV
3 consecutive PSA measurements over 1.5 -2 year
period
PSA2-PSA1/time in years+PSA3-PSA2/time in years
Overall <5% of men without prostate ca will have
PSAV 0.75 ng/ml/yr and 70% of men will have
prostate cancer (UCNA 1993,20;653-63)
14
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
15. PSA-DENSITY
Total serum PSA(ng/ml)/prostatic volume cm³
>0.15 enhanced prostate cancer detection in men
between 4-10 ng/ml (52% sensitivity )
PSAT-0.35 ng/ml/cc
Limitations-operator dependant
15
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
16. HUMAN KALLIKREIN 2
Hk2 and PSA share 80% amino acid homology
Activate Ppsa to active PSA
IHC revealed differential expression pattern for hk2
and PSA
Hk2/fPSA ratio
16
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
18. PSMA
Folate hydratase found in cell membrane of prostate
epithelium,brain small bowel
PSMA m RNA expression within protate cancer
,highest in hormone deprived state
PSMA/PSM’ ratio upregulated 3-6 fold in prostate
cancer
Immuno-SELDI assay
18
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
19. NEW MARKERS
Ki-67 labelling index (LI )
P53 and BCL2 staining
MVD-CD31 staining
AMACR staining
19
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
20.
21. AFP
70 kD glycoprotein first found normal human fetal
serum in 1954
Dominant serum protein of early embryo
Concentrations peak at 12-14 wks ofgestation, decline
after 16 wks,fall by 1 year of age <10ng/dl which is
usually seen in adults
21
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
22. AFP
Cells of yolk sac origin is responsible for its production
Elevated in benign liver disease, pregnancy,ataxia
telangiectasia , tyrosenemia and in HCC ,ca
pancreas,stomach and lung
Elevated in embryonal carcinoma, teratocarcinoma
and yolk sac tumours
Never present in pure seminoma or choriocarcinoma
22
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
23. HCG
38kD hormone - by syncitiotrophoblasts
α and β subunits
β subunit is antigenically and structurally
distinct /biologically active
Only minute amounts are detectable in healthy adults
( <5 IU/ml )
23
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
24. HCG ELEVATIONS
Pregnancy ,gestational disorders
Hepatic, pancreatic, gastric, pulmonary, breast, renal,
bladder tumours and in multiple myeloma
In GCT, 40-60% of patients will have elevated levels
• All pts with choriocarcinoma
• 80% of pts with embryonal carcinoma
• 10-25% of those pts with seminoma
24
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
25. LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE
134 KD cellular protein
Expressed in skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle, liver,
kidney and brain
Specificity for testicular tumours is extremely poor
,not particularly useful in diagnosis
Extremely useful prognostic marker
25
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
26. LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE
Important role in monitoring response to treatment &
recurrence in pts with advanced disease
Five isoenzymes
LDH-1 MC elevated isoenzyme
26
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
27. PLACENTAL ALKALINE
PHOSPHATASE
Fetal isoenzyme of adult alkaline phosphatase
Normally expressed in utero,children < 1 yr
Protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase
Widely accepted as a reliable histologic marker for
seminoma
Merit as a serum tumour marker is uncertain
Elevated in 50-72% of pts with higher stages of
seminoma
27
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
28. PLACENTAL ALKALINE
PHOSPHATASE
PLAP have higher sensitivity for detecting metastases
/specificity is poor
Elevated in smokers, ca lung ,ovary, breast, GI
malignancies
Overall,not a proven beneficial serum marker for
testicular neoplasms
28
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
29. OTHER SERUM MARKERS
Neuron specific enolase
Carcinoembryonic antigen
Pregnancy specific B1 glycoprotein (SP-1 )
29
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
30. OTHER SERUM MARKERS
Terato-related antigen (TRA )-1-60
Keratan sulphate proteoglycan
Expressed on surface of embryonal carcinoma
progenitor cells
Elevated in 80% of disseminated GCT,fall with
chemotheraphy
Failure to return to normal 17% of NSGCT &13% GCT
30
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
31. CYTOGENETIC MARKERS
ATKIN & BAKER -1983
Duplication of short arm of chromosome 12 designated as
i(12p)
Found in 83% male GCTs (89% SGCT, 81%NSGCT) in all
histologic types
Presence of more than 3 copies of i(12p) predicts poor
response to chemotheraphy
Exact clinical value is still evolving
31
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
32. PROTO-ONCOGENES
hst-1 gene-long arm of chromosome 11
Encodes FGF
Expressed in 63%NSGCT, 4% seminomas
c-kit gene –expressed in 80% seminoma,7% NSGCT
32
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
33. .TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENE
Retinoblastoma gene (RB)
Mutated p53 protein –detected in 77% of GCT
33
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
34. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
Diagnosis-screening not practical –poor specificity
Extragonadal GCT –positive IHC staining for
AFP/HCG
i(12p) expressed in >80% GCT
NSGCT-↑AFP or HCG in 85% (AFP alone 40%,HCG
alone 50-60%)
Seminoma-no AFP,10-25%HCG
34
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
35. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
PROGNOSIS: LDH acts as a prgnostic factor for
growth rate and disease specific survival
STAGING
RISK STRATIFICATION
35
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
36. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
MONITORING RESPONSE TO THERAPY
After surgery -4.5 days-AFP
16-24 hours for HCG
1 day-LDH
After chemotheraphy -10 fold decrease in markers over
3 week period is consistent with good response
36
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
37. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
Recurrence-AFP and HCG –first indication in 50%
(sensitivity 86%,specificity-100%)
LDH-in 10% NSGCT
37
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
38. URINE BASED BLADDER TUMOUR
MARKERS
Non invasive
Rapid
Objective
Easy to perform & interpret
High sensitivity & specificity
38
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
39. NMP22
Evaluates urinary levels of nuclear mitotic apparatus
protein, found in nuclear matrix of all cells
Quantitative analysis-ELISA or point -of –care test,
bladderchek test
10 IU/ml is the threshold for a positive test
39
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
40. NMP22
False positive in
Cystitis
Haematuria
Pyuria
NMP22 BladderChek had higher sensitivity than
cytology (55% vs 16% ) but less specificity (86%vs
99%)
40
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
41. NMP22
In combination with cystoscopy it detects 99% of
recurrence,during surveillance .
NMP22 always best used as an adjunct and might not
have the ability to fuction as stand alone test in place
of cystoscopy
41
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
42. BTA –STAT & BTA TRAK
Enzyme immuno assays to measure human
complement factor H-related protein in urine by
using MAB X13.2 & X52.1
BTAstat is a qualitative point of care diagnostic test
(sensitivity-68% ; specificity 74% )
BTA TRAK –quantitative test-sensitivity62% ;
specificity 74%
42
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
43. BTA –STAT & BTA TRAK
More sensitive than cytology for low grade tumours ;
equivalent sensitivity for high grade tumours
False positive in
Haematuria
Nephrolithiasis
Recent instrumentation
Intra vesical BCG /inflammation /
43
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
44. IMMUNOCYT
Fluorescent labelled antibodies to three cell surface
glycoprotein antigens commonly found on malignant
urothelial cells
M344 (71% Ta-T1 tumours )
LDQ10
19A211 (90% Ta-T1 tumours )
44
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
45. IMMUNOCYT
Sample is positive –if atleast one cell has red or green
fluorescense
Negative declared only after countig 500 cells
Usually used with cytology to improve sensitivity
Limitations: 500 cells/slide ,difficulty in detecting
green fluorescence,need for trained person
45
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
48. UROVYSION
Detects increased copy numbers of chromosomes
3,7,17 and homozygous deletions of loci 9p21 using
FISH
Test positive- 5 or more cells have two or more
chromosomal gains(3,7,17) or
if more than 12 cells gain a single chromosome
homozygous deletion 9p21 in >12cells
48
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
50. UROVYSION
Sensitivity-81%;specificity-96% for high grade
tumours & ca in situ , but low sensitivity 36-57% for
low grade/stage tumours
Positive test can predict disease ahead upto 6-20
months in 60% of patients
Complex aneuploidy of chromosome 7&17-high risk of
recurrence
Isolated 9p21/chromosopme3 aberration-low risk
50
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
51. UROVYSION
Better adjunct to cystoscopy than cytology but more
expensive
Urovysion FISH useful in predicting recurrence after
intravesical theraphy
Also very effective in arbitrating equivocal urine
cytology results
Cytology scores over urovysion for detecting 2nd
primary who had cystectomy &urine diversion
51
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
52. CYTOKERATINS
Intracellular cytoskeletal proteins (8,18,19,20)
For cytokeratin 8 & 18 –threshold is 12ng/ml
Cytokeratin 19 measured with CYFRA 21-1
test,sensitivity-75-96%;specificity 67-74%
False positive cytokeratin19 –BPH,nephrolithiasis ,UTI
,previous BCG treatments
52
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.
54. RCC associated antigen
G250/MN/CAIX
Present in >85% of all RCC, 99% of the clear-cell
subtype
No expression in normal kidney
High CA-9 expression correlated with improved
survival
54
Dept of Urology, GRH and KMC, Chennai.