2. Learning Outcomes
• Define psychology.
• Describe the various fields and subfields of
psychology.
Learning Outcomes
3. Learning Outcomes
• Describe the origins of psychology and identify
those who made significant contributions to the
field.
• Identify theoretical perspectives of modern
psychologists toward behavior and mental
processes.
Learning Outcomes
4. Learning Outcomes
• Describe modern approaches to research and
practice—critical thinking, the scientific method,
and ethical considerations.
Learning Outcomes
5. Truth or Fiction?
More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a
book on psychology, with contents similar to
your own textbook.
The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates
suggested a research method that is still used in
psychology.
6. Truth or Fiction?
Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in
psychology.
Even though she had worked to complete all the
degree requirements, the first female president
of the American Psychological Association
turned down the doctoral degree that was
offered to her.
7. Truth or Fiction?
You could survey millions of voters and still fail
to predict the outcome of a presidential election.
In many experiments, neither the participants
nor the researchers know who is receiving the
real treatment and who is not.
16. Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt
• Structuralism breaks conscious experiences into
– objective sensations (sight, taste), and
– subjective feelings (emotional responses, will)
– mental images (memories, dreams)
• Mind functions by combining objective and
subjective elements of experience
17. Functionalism
• William James
• Functionalism focused on behavior in addition to
mind and consciousness
• Used direct observations to supplement
introspection
• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
18. Behaviorism
• John Broadus Watson
• Behaviorism focuses on learning observable
(measurable) behavior
• B.F. Skinner
– Learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced
19. Gestalt Psychology
• Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler
• Gestalt focused on perception and its influence
on thinking and problem solving
– Perception are more than sum of their parts
– Active and purposeful
– Insight learning
24. Biological Perspective
• The approach to psychology that seeks to
understand the nature of the links between
biological processes and structures of the
brain, the endocrine system, and heredity
on one hand, and behavior and mental
processes, on the other.
25. Cognitive Perspective
• Concerned with ways we mentally represent the
world and process information
– Memory, perceptions, learning, problem
solving, decision making, language, planning
26. Humanistic — Existential Perspective
• Humanism stresses human capacity for self-
fulfillment
– Role of consciousness, self-awareness,
decision making
• Existentialism stresses free choice and personal
responsibility
– Carl Rogers
– Abraham Maslow
28. Perspective on Learning
• Social Cognitive
– People modify and create their environment
– Observation
– A school of psychology in the behaviorist
tradition that includes cognitive factors in the
explanation and prediction of behavior;
formerly termed social learning theory
29. Sociocultural Perspective
• Focuses on the influence of differences among
people on behavior and mental processes
– Ethnicity, gender, culture, socioeconomic
status
31. Principles of Critical Thinking
• Be skeptical
• Insist on evidence
• Examine definitions of terms
• Examine the assumptions or premises of
arguments
• Be cautious in drawing conclusions from
evidence
32. Principles of Critical Thinking (continued)
• Consider alternative interpretations of research
evidence
• Do not oversimplify
• Do not overgeneralize
• Apply critical thinking to all areas of life
33. The Scientific Method
• Formulate a research question
• State the hypothesis
• Test the hypothesis
• Draw conclusions based on findings
• Publish research
• Replicate study
35. Samples and Populations
• Sample
– Segment of population
• Population
– Entire group targeted for study
• Representative samples allow generalization of
findings
36. Random and Stratified Sampling
• Random sample
– Each member of population has equal chance
of selection
• Stratified sample
– Subgroups are represented proportionally
• Volunteer bias
– Bias represented by studying people who
volunteer to participate
37. Methods of Observation
• Case Study
– Gather information about individuals or small
groups
– Sometimes used to investigate rarities
• Survey
– Used to collect information that cannot be
observed directly
38. Methods of Observation
• Naturalistic Observation
– Observe subjects in their natural environment
– Unobtrusive measure
39. Correlation
• Mathematical method of determining a
relationship between variables
• Correlation
– Expresses strength and direction of
relationship between variables
• Does not prove cause and effect
41. Experimental Method
• Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method
• a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect
relationships by introducing independent variables and
observing their effects on dependent variables
– Independent variable - a condition in a scientific study
that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed
– Dependent variable - a measure of an assumed effect
of an independent variable
42. Experimental Method
• Experimental groups – in experiments, groups whose
members obtain the treatment
• Control groups – in experiments, groups whose
members do not obtain the treatment, while other
conditions are held constant
• Placebo – a bogus treatment that has the appearance of
being genuine
• Blind – in experimental terminology, unaware of whether
or not one has received a treatment
• Double-blind study – a study in which neither the
subjects nor the observers know who has received the
treatment
44. Ethics of Research with Humans
• Ethical review committee and ethical standards
– Promote individual dignity, human welfare and
scientific integrity
– Ensure no harm will come to subjects
• Informed consent - a participant’s agreement to
participate in research after receiving information about
the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments
• Confidentiality
• Deception
• Debriefing - to explain the purposes and methods of a
completed procedure to a participant
45. Ethics of Research with Animals
• Animals are used when research cannot be
carried out with humans
• Animals may be harmed, only when:
– there is no alternative, and
– benefits of the research justify the harm