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CHAPTER 1
What Is Psychology?
Learning Outcomes
• Define psychology.
• Describe the various fields and subfields of
psychology.
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the origins of psychology and identify
those who made significant contributions to the
field.
• Identify theoretical perspectives of modern
psychologists toward behavior and mental
processes.
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
• Describe modern approaches to research and
practice—critical thinking, the scientific method,
and ethical considerations.
Learning Outcomes
Truth or Fiction?
More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a
book on psychology, with contents similar to
your own textbook.
The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates
suggested a research method that is still used in
psychology.
Truth or Fiction?
Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in
psychology.
Even though she had worked to complete all the
degree requirements, the first female president
of the American Psychological Association
turned down the doctoral degree that was
offered to her.
Truth or Fiction?
You could survey millions of voters and still fail
to predict the outcome of a presidential election.
In many experiments, neither the participants
nor the researchers know who is receiving the
real treatment and who is not.
Psychology as a Science
What is Psychology?
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes.
Goals of Psychology
• Psychology seeks to:
– describe
– explain
– predict
– control behavior and mental processes
What is a Theory?
• A theory allows you to
– propose reasons for relationships
– derive explanations
– make predictions
What Psychologists Do
What Do Psychologists Do?
• Research
– Pure research
– Applied research
• Practice
• Teaching
Fields of Psychology
• Clinical
• Counseling
• School
• Educational
• Developmental
• Personality
• Social
• Environmental
• Experimental
• Industrial
– Organizational
– Human Factors
– Consumer
• Health
• Sport
• Forensic
Where Psychology Comes From:
A History
Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt
• Structuralism breaks conscious experiences into
– objective sensations (sight, taste), and
– subjective feelings (emotional responses, will)
– mental images (memories, dreams)
• Mind functions by combining objective and
subjective elements of experience
Functionalism
• William James
• Functionalism focused on behavior in addition to
mind and consciousness
• Used direct observations to supplement
introspection
• Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
Behaviorism
• John Broadus Watson
• Behaviorism focuses on learning observable
(measurable) behavior
• B.F. Skinner
– Learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced
Gestalt Psychology
• Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler
• Gestalt focused on perception and its influence
on thinking and problem solving
– Perception are more than sum of their parts
– Active and purposeful
– Insight learning
The Importance of Context
Some Insight Into Insight
Psychoanalysis
• Sigmund Freud
• Psychoanalysis
– Influence of unconscious motives and conflicts
– Theory of personality
– Therapy
How Today’s Psychologists View
Behavior and Mental Processes
Biological Perspective
• The approach to psychology that seeks to
understand the nature of the links between
biological processes and structures of the
brain, the endocrine system, and heredity
on one hand, and behavior and mental
processes, on the other.
Cognitive Perspective
• Concerned with ways we mentally represent the
world and process information
– Memory, perceptions, learning, problem
solving, decision making, language, planning
Humanistic — Existential Perspective
• Humanism stresses human capacity for self-
fulfillment
– Role of consciousness, self-awareness,
decision making
• Existentialism stresses free choice and personal
responsibility
– Carl Rogers
– Abraham Maslow
Psychodynamic Perspective
• Neoanalysts focus more on conscious choice and
self-direction then psychoanalysis
– Karen Horney
– Erik Erikson
Perspective on Learning
• Social Cognitive
– People modify and create their environment
– Observation
– A school of psychology in the behaviorist
tradition that includes cognitive factors in the
explanation and prediction of behavior;
formerly termed social learning theory
Sociocultural Perspective
• Focuses on the influence of differences among
people on behavior and mental processes
– Ethnicity, gender, culture, socioeconomic
status
How Psychologists Study
Behavior and Mental Processes
Principles of Critical Thinking
• Be skeptical
• Insist on evidence
• Examine definitions of terms
• Examine the assumptions or premises of
arguments
• Be cautious in drawing conclusions from
evidence
Principles of Critical Thinking (continued)
• Consider alternative interpretations of research
evidence
• Do not oversimplify
• Do not overgeneralize
• Apply critical thinking to all areas of life
The Scientific Method
• Formulate a research question
• State the hypothesis
• Test the hypothesis
• Draw conclusions based on findings
• Publish research
• Replicate study
Scientific Method
Samples and Populations
• Sample
– Segment of population
• Population
– Entire group targeted for study
• Representative samples allow generalization of
findings
Random and Stratified Sampling
• Random sample
– Each member of population has equal chance
of selection
• Stratified sample
– Subgroups are represented proportionally
• Volunteer bias
– Bias represented by studying people who
volunteer to participate
Methods of Observation
• Case Study
– Gather information about individuals or small
groups
– Sometimes used to investigate rarities
• Survey
– Used to collect information that cannot be
observed directly
Methods of Observation
• Naturalistic Observation
– Observe subjects in their natural environment
– Unobtrusive measure
Correlation
• Mathematical method of determining a
relationship between variables
• Correlation
– Expresses strength and direction of
relationship between variables
• Does not prove cause and effect
Positive and Negative Correlations
Experimental Method
• Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method
• a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect
relationships by introducing independent variables and
observing their effects on dependent variables
– Independent variable - a condition in a scientific study
that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed
– Dependent variable - a measure of an assumed effect
of an independent variable
Experimental Method
• Experimental groups – in experiments, groups whose
members obtain the treatment
• Control groups – in experiments, groups whose
members do not obtain the treatment, while other
conditions are held constant
• Placebo – a bogus treatment that has the appearance of
being genuine
• Blind – in experimental terminology, unaware of whether
or not one has received a treatment
• Double-blind study – a study in which neither the
subjects nor the observers know who has received the
treatment
Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study
Ethics of Research with Humans
• Ethical review committee and ethical standards
– Promote individual dignity, human welfare and
scientific integrity
– Ensure no harm will come to subjects
• Informed consent - a participant’s agreement to
participate in research after receiving information about
the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments
• Confidentiality
• Deception
• Debriefing - to explain the purposes and methods of a
completed procedure to a participant
Ethics of Research with Animals
• Animals are used when research cannot be
carried out with humans
• Animals may be harmed, only when:
– there is no alternative, and
– benefits of the research justify the harm

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Chapter i

  • 1. CHAPTER 1 What Is Psychology?
  • 2. Learning Outcomes • Define psychology. • Describe the various fields and subfields of psychology. Learning Outcomes
  • 3. Learning Outcomes • Describe the origins of psychology and identify those who made significant contributions to the field. • Identify theoretical perspectives of modern psychologists toward behavior and mental processes. Learning Outcomes
  • 4. Learning Outcomes • Describe modern approaches to research and practice—critical thinking, the scientific method, and ethical considerations. Learning Outcomes
  • 5. Truth or Fiction? More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology, with contents similar to your own textbook. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method that is still used in psychology.
  • 6. Truth or Fiction? Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology. Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her.
  • 7. Truth or Fiction? You could survey millions of voters and still fail to predict the outcome of a presidential election. In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the real treatment and who is not.
  • 8. Psychology as a Science
  • 9. What is Psychology? • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
  • 10. Goals of Psychology • Psychology seeks to: – describe – explain – predict – control behavior and mental processes
  • 11. What is a Theory? • A theory allows you to – propose reasons for relationships – derive explanations – make predictions
  • 13. What Do Psychologists Do? • Research – Pure research – Applied research • Practice • Teaching
  • 14. Fields of Psychology • Clinical • Counseling • School • Educational • Developmental • Personality • Social • Environmental • Experimental • Industrial – Organizational – Human Factors – Consumer • Health • Sport • Forensic
  • 15. Where Psychology Comes From: A History
  • 16. Structuralism • Wilhelm Wundt • Structuralism breaks conscious experiences into – objective sensations (sight, taste), and – subjective feelings (emotional responses, will) – mental images (memories, dreams) • Mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements of experience
  • 17. Functionalism • William James • Functionalism focused on behavior in addition to mind and consciousness • Used direct observations to supplement introspection • Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
  • 18. Behaviorism • John Broadus Watson • Behaviorism focuses on learning observable (measurable) behavior • B.F. Skinner – Learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced
  • 19. Gestalt Psychology • Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler • Gestalt focused on perception and its influence on thinking and problem solving – Perception are more than sum of their parts – Active and purposeful – Insight learning
  • 20. The Importance of Context
  • 21. Some Insight Into Insight
  • 22. Psychoanalysis • Sigmund Freud • Psychoanalysis – Influence of unconscious motives and conflicts – Theory of personality – Therapy
  • 23. How Today’s Psychologists View Behavior and Mental Processes
  • 24. Biological Perspective • The approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures of the brain, the endocrine system, and heredity on one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other.
  • 25. Cognitive Perspective • Concerned with ways we mentally represent the world and process information – Memory, perceptions, learning, problem solving, decision making, language, planning
  • 26. Humanistic — Existential Perspective • Humanism stresses human capacity for self- fulfillment – Role of consciousness, self-awareness, decision making • Existentialism stresses free choice and personal responsibility – Carl Rogers – Abraham Maslow
  • 27. Psychodynamic Perspective • Neoanalysts focus more on conscious choice and self-direction then psychoanalysis – Karen Horney – Erik Erikson
  • 28. Perspective on Learning • Social Cognitive – People modify and create their environment – Observation – A school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory
  • 29. Sociocultural Perspective • Focuses on the influence of differences among people on behavior and mental processes – Ethnicity, gender, culture, socioeconomic status
  • 30. How Psychologists Study Behavior and Mental Processes
  • 31. Principles of Critical Thinking • Be skeptical • Insist on evidence • Examine definitions of terms • Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments • Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence
  • 32. Principles of Critical Thinking (continued) • Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence • Do not oversimplify • Do not overgeneralize • Apply critical thinking to all areas of life
  • 33. The Scientific Method • Formulate a research question • State the hypothesis • Test the hypothesis • Draw conclusions based on findings • Publish research • Replicate study
  • 35. Samples and Populations • Sample – Segment of population • Population – Entire group targeted for study • Representative samples allow generalization of findings
  • 36. Random and Stratified Sampling • Random sample – Each member of population has equal chance of selection • Stratified sample – Subgroups are represented proportionally • Volunteer bias – Bias represented by studying people who volunteer to participate
  • 37. Methods of Observation • Case Study – Gather information about individuals or small groups – Sometimes used to investigate rarities • Survey – Used to collect information that cannot be observed directly
  • 38. Methods of Observation • Naturalistic Observation – Observe subjects in their natural environment – Unobtrusive measure
  • 39. Correlation • Mathematical method of determining a relationship between variables • Correlation – Expresses strength and direction of relationship between variables • Does not prove cause and effect
  • 40. Positive and Negative Correlations
  • 41. Experimental Method • Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method • a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables – Independent variable - a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed – Dependent variable - a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable
  • 42. Experimental Method • Experimental groups – in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment • Control groups – in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant • Placebo – a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine • Blind – in experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment • Double-blind study – a study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment
  • 43. Experimental Conditions in the Lang Study
  • 44. Ethics of Research with Humans • Ethical review committee and ethical standards – Promote individual dignity, human welfare and scientific integrity – Ensure no harm will come to subjects • Informed consent - a participant’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purposes of the study and the nature of the treatments • Confidentiality • Deception • Debriefing - to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant
  • 45. Ethics of Research with Animals • Animals are used when research cannot be carried out with humans • Animals may be harmed, only when: – there is no alternative, and – benefits of the research justify the harm