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Induction Hardening of
Gears & Sprockets
Dr. Valentin Nemkov
A Joint Class of AGMA and ASM
Gear Expo 2013
September 19, 2013
Indianapolis
Overview
• Specifics and methods of induction gear hardening
• Single-shot aka Spin hardening
 Single Frequency hardening
 Dual Frequency hardening

 Simultaneous Dual Frequency hardening
• Tooth Scan hardening (Delapena process)

• Tooth-by-Tooth simultaneous hardening
• Computer simulation
• Conclusions
SDF Hardened Gear, Eldec Induction
Induction Gear Hardening
Optimal case pattern is
a continuously
hardened layer on the
whole surface:
CONTOUR (PROFILE)
HARDENING

Gear tooth loading patterns

Source: Inductoheat
How to Achieve Contour Hardening
with Induction Hardening?
1. Austenization by induction heating and
quenching of required surface layer
2. Hardening after thermochemical surface
treatment (carburizing, etc.)
3. Use of steels with limited hardenability
In cases 2,3 the whole gear or tooth area may be
heated to austenization temperature and quenched
Methods of Induction Gear Hardening
Contour Hardening:
1. Single-shot heating at “optimal” frequency
2. Dual frequency heating
3. Simultaneous Dual Frequency (SDF) heating
Local Hardening:
1. Flank heating
2. Simultaneous tooth-by-tooth hardening
3. Tooth-by-tooth scan hardening (Delapena
process)
4. Others
Iron-Carbon Diagram
Induction heating intensity
and heat distribution
depends on properties of
heated material.
For a significant part of
the heating process (up to
50%) the surface
temperature is above
Curie temperature, i.e. the
surface layer is nonmagnetic.
Main Principle of Induction Heating
Chain of phenomena:
1. Power supply delivers current (I1) to
induction coil
Magnetic
Flux lines

2. Coil currents (ampere-turns) generate
magnetic field. Lines of field always go
around the coil turns
3. Alternating magnetic field flowing through
the part cross-section (coupled to the
part) induces voltage in the part
4. Induced voltage creates eddy currents
(I2) in the part

5. Eddy currents generate heat in the part
6. In each induction system there are at
least 3 closed loops: 1. Induction coil;
2. Eddy current loop in the part; 3. Magnetic flux loop
7

Power
Supplying
Circuitry
Skin-Effect in Induction Heating
Induced current tends to take the
shortest path under the coil turns but it
does not penetrate into the metal to a
depth >1.5 δ, where δ is a skin or
reference depth. δ depends upon
material properties and frequency. For
hot steel (non-magnetic state)
δ = 500/√f, mm = 20/√f, in.
F, kHz

10

20

50

100

200

δ, mm

5

3.5

2.2

1.6

1.1

δ, mil

200

140

87

63

43

Example: spur gear M = 4 mm, i.e. p = 0.49”
and tooth thickness s = 245 mil
To heat tooth well, δ must be less than s/2,
i.e. δmax = 122 mil and min frequency is 27 kHz

Source of photo:
www.denkikogyo.co.jp
Eddy Current Flow Path in Gear
HF current flows along
the gear contour
LF current “cuts” the teeth
and the gear roots are
much more intensively
heated
At temperature below
Curie point (material is
magnetic) skin effect is
high even at “low”
frequency and current
path is similar to HF case

Icoil
HF

LF
Heat Delivery Requirements
1. Appr. 3 times more heat
must be delivered to the
root area than to tooth
inn order to have the
same temperature
2. Power density must be
high and heating time
“short” to avoid temperature equalization in the
tooth and thru hardening
3. Smaller the module (or
circular pitch), shorter
time and higher specific
power required

Heat flow in tooth and root areas
Parameters of Induction Gear
Hardening Process
P

f

t
0

Major parameters of the process: Frequency f, Power P and heating Time t.
Process is dynamic and only a combination of these parameters plus
optimal induction coil design can give good results
Frequency Selection

Power distribution pattern:
Top – Low Frequency
Bottom – High Frequency

Hardened layer pattern:
1 – Low Frequency
2 – High Frequency
3 – Optimal Frequency, Power and Time
Single-Shot Hardening
aka
Spin Hardening
Optimal Frequency for Single-shot
Contour Hardening
Metric system:
Fopt = K/M2, kHz
with M – gear module in mm
K = 350-600 depending on gear
tooth geometry, case depth and
material

Depth

British system:
Fopt = (6-10)/p2, kHz
with p – circular pitch in inches
Relation: M = 25.4 p/𝜋 = 8.085p
with p in inches and M in mm
Process Parameters
Process is characterized by combination of frequency
F, specific power P0 and heating time t. P0 and F can
vary during the process.
Total power Pp = Sp*P0 with Sp - heated surface.
Module, mm

3

4

5

6

Circ. Pitch, in

0.37

0.49

0.62

0.75

Fopt, kHz

40-65

20-30

10-17

7-12

Time, sec

0.2-0.25 0.6-0.7

0.9-1.1

1.2-1.4

Specific power,
kW/sq.in

20-24

12-14

7.5-8.5

14-16

This table gives you only estimate values; they must be corrected for a
particular gear
Induction Hardening Pattern

Good contour hardening pattern

Source: www.gearsolutions.com

Non-uniform contour
hardening due to
longer than optimal
heating at relatively
high frequency

Through hardening of
the whole teeth area
due to too long heating
Example of Gear Optimally
Hardened by Single-shot Process
Optimal induction hardening
provides:
• High surface hardness and
contact strength
• High wear resistance
• Favorable distribution of
compressive stresses
• High bending strength
• Slow progression rate of
pitting

A 6150 spur gear profile hardened
using single-frequency single-shot
technique
Source: Inductoheat
Gear Contour Hardening

Gear heating: optimal combination of frequency, power and time
Slight overheating of root end areas (may be attributed to the coil design)
Source: www.denkikogyo.co.jp
Heating for Less Than 2 Seconds

Source: Ajax Tocco Magnethermic
Case Hardening of ID Gear Surface

Source: Ajax Tocco Magnethermic
Machined Coil with Integral Quench
Magnetic flux
concentrators are
highly recommended
for ID coils
They dramatically
reduce coil current
demand, improve
process efficiency
and part quality
ID coil with Fluxtrol Soft Magnetic
Composite core (concentrator)
Dual Frequency Hardening
P

t

Dual frequency hardening is more flexible and reliable
process than single-frequency one
Two Types of Dual Frequency
Heating

Dual frequency heating with part
transportation

Simultaneous Dual Frequency
(SDF) heating. Typical frequencies:
10 kHz and 100 - 200 kHz
Dual Frequency Hardening
Dual frequency hardening may
be made by sequential heating
at Low and High frequency in
two inductors or in the same
inductor.
LF heating brings teeth to a
temperature slightly higher than
Curie point and the roots - to
temperature close to a final
value.
HF heating must be short. It
forms a required austenitized
layer on the whole gear
circumference

LF heating

HF heating

Quenching
Simultaneous Dual Frequency
Hardening

SDF hardened bevel gear:
Heating time 0.2 sec
Frequencies 10 kHz and 230 kHz
Total power 580 kW

1000 kW SDF machine,
Eldec Induction

Source: Book of A. Muehlbauer “History of Induction…”
New Generation of SDF Induction
Machines

Total power of
SDF machines is
up to 3000 kW

The MIND—Modular INDuction—machine.
Source: Eldec Induction
Scanning: Delapena Process
Delapena Style Coil

Inductor and Current Flow Print
Source: Book of A. Muehlbauer “History of
Induction Heating and Melting, Vulkan, 2008”

Used inductor for large gear hardening
Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
Coil Positioning with Contact Guide
Difficulties:
- Small gaps “coil-gear”
and accurate positioning
are required
- Overheating of flanks
and underheating of root
bottom near the end of
gear may occur
- Water sprays required
for correction of heat
pattern on the tooth tips
and at the end of gear.
Flank Sprays Prevent Temper Back
on Adjacent Tooth
Double Coil of Delapena Style

This coil allows better temperature control at the beginning and
the end of scanning path
Source: www.thermalprocessing.com
Installation for Tooth by Tooth Scan
Hardening
Scan Hardening of Large Gear

Gear OD = 750 mm
(29.5”)
Weight M = 0.75 t
Teeth number N = 7

Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
Other Methods
Flank Hardening

1 – coil turn; 2 – magnetic controller

Hardness pattern
Root by Root Hardening

1,2 – active coil turns; 3,4 – magnetic controllers;
5 – cooling shower; 6 – return coil legs
Example: hardening of tractor satellite gear M = 6.5 mm;
process is sensitive to design and setup
Design: VNIITVCh, Russia, 1966
Large Sprocket Hardening

Coil with magnetic controller

Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
Large Gear and Slewing Rings
Hardening

GH Induction machine for large wind generator gear
hardening using “tooth-by-tooth” technology
Using Steels with Controlled
Hardenability
Gears from Steels with Controlled
Hardenability
Technology was developed by Prof.
Konstantin Shepelyakovskiy in 1960s,
Moscow Automotive plant “ZIL”.
It is used in automotive and rail road
industries for gears and other components in Russia and Belorussia

1972
Microstructure of Hardened Gears
Truck gear:
M = 6 mm or
p = 0.74”
DP = 4.2
Miscellaneous Gears:
1 – martensite
2 – sorbite
3 - initial structure

Sorbite X 500

1

2
3
Special Features of the Method
• Low alloyed steels made according to a special
technology
• Deep induction or even furnace heating may be
used
• Very intensive water quenching is required to
achieve optimal results
• Sorbite layer formation under the martensite layer
improves gear performance
• Method is low sensitive to heating process

Source: Prof. K. Shepelyakovskiy
Computer Simulation
Simulation of Gear Hardening
Computer simulation of induction gear hardening is one of the most
difficult tasks of induction heating due to:
- 3D nature geometry of the system
- Strong coupling of Electromagnetic and Thermal phenomena
- High frequency and large gradients of magnetic and thermal fields
require fine meshing
- Frequency variation or application of two different frequencies (in
the case of SDF heating)
- System geometry variation in the case of scan hardening (at the
extremities of the gear)
In spite of these difficulties at present time we have successful
examples of computer simulation of Electromagnetic, Thermal and
Structural phenomena and even Stress and Distortion distributions.
3D Simulation of Power Density
Distribution in Gear
Current Density Distribution in Gear
Tooth

Sketch of gear heating in a
single-turn inductor

3D simulation of ¼ of gear
tooth; program Flux3D
Source: Fluxtrol. Inc.
Simulation of Dual Frequency
Hardening of Worm Gear

Right – simulated temperature distribution (ETP, Hanover)
Left – experimental sample (Eldec Induction)
Conclusions
Advantages:
• Fast processing with individual control
• Carbon and low alloyed steels may be used
• Favorable stress distribution may be created
• Low distortion due to local heating
• Big energy savings
• Environment friendly process
• Possibility of in-line processing
• Very large parts may be treated

Disadvantages:
• Process must be individually developed for each type
• Difficult to harden complicated gear types
Quote
“I have been amazed at the testing results of

the components that have broken many of the
established rules of structure, carbon level,

hardness, etc., of the component attributes” –
Dick Collins, Borg Warner Automotive, talking
about induction hardened parts

1388 Atlantic Blvd, Auburn Hills, MI, 48326, ph. +1 248 393 2000, www.fluxtrol.com

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Induction Hardening of Gears and Sprockets

  • 1. Induction Hardening of Gears & Sprockets Dr. Valentin Nemkov A Joint Class of AGMA and ASM Gear Expo 2013 September 19, 2013 Indianapolis
  • 2. Overview • Specifics and methods of induction gear hardening • Single-shot aka Spin hardening  Single Frequency hardening  Dual Frequency hardening  Simultaneous Dual Frequency hardening • Tooth Scan hardening (Delapena process) • Tooth-by-Tooth simultaneous hardening • Computer simulation • Conclusions SDF Hardened Gear, Eldec Induction
  • 3. Induction Gear Hardening Optimal case pattern is a continuously hardened layer on the whole surface: CONTOUR (PROFILE) HARDENING Gear tooth loading patterns Source: Inductoheat
  • 4. How to Achieve Contour Hardening with Induction Hardening? 1. Austenization by induction heating and quenching of required surface layer 2. Hardening after thermochemical surface treatment (carburizing, etc.) 3. Use of steels with limited hardenability In cases 2,3 the whole gear or tooth area may be heated to austenization temperature and quenched
  • 5. Methods of Induction Gear Hardening Contour Hardening: 1. Single-shot heating at “optimal” frequency 2. Dual frequency heating 3. Simultaneous Dual Frequency (SDF) heating Local Hardening: 1. Flank heating 2. Simultaneous tooth-by-tooth hardening 3. Tooth-by-tooth scan hardening (Delapena process) 4. Others
  • 6. Iron-Carbon Diagram Induction heating intensity and heat distribution depends on properties of heated material. For a significant part of the heating process (up to 50%) the surface temperature is above Curie temperature, i.e. the surface layer is nonmagnetic.
  • 7. Main Principle of Induction Heating Chain of phenomena: 1. Power supply delivers current (I1) to induction coil Magnetic Flux lines 2. Coil currents (ampere-turns) generate magnetic field. Lines of field always go around the coil turns 3. Alternating magnetic field flowing through the part cross-section (coupled to the part) induces voltage in the part 4. Induced voltage creates eddy currents (I2) in the part 5. Eddy currents generate heat in the part 6. In each induction system there are at least 3 closed loops: 1. Induction coil; 2. Eddy current loop in the part; 3. Magnetic flux loop 7 Power Supplying Circuitry
  • 8. Skin-Effect in Induction Heating Induced current tends to take the shortest path under the coil turns but it does not penetrate into the metal to a depth >1.5 δ, where δ is a skin or reference depth. δ depends upon material properties and frequency. For hot steel (non-magnetic state) δ = 500/√f, mm = 20/√f, in. F, kHz 10 20 50 100 200 δ, mm 5 3.5 2.2 1.6 1.1 δ, mil 200 140 87 63 43 Example: spur gear M = 4 mm, i.e. p = 0.49” and tooth thickness s = 245 mil To heat tooth well, δ must be less than s/2, i.e. δmax = 122 mil and min frequency is 27 kHz Source of photo: www.denkikogyo.co.jp
  • 9. Eddy Current Flow Path in Gear HF current flows along the gear contour LF current “cuts” the teeth and the gear roots are much more intensively heated At temperature below Curie point (material is magnetic) skin effect is high even at “low” frequency and current path is similar to HF case Icoil HF LF
  • 10. Heat Delivery Requirements 1. Appr. 3 times more heat must be delivered to the root area than to tooth inn order to have the same temperature 2. Power density must be high and heating time “short” to avoid temperature equalization in the tooth and thru hardening 3. Smaller the module (or circular pitch), shorter time and higher specific power required Heat flow in tooth and root areas
  • 11. Parameters of Induction Gear Hardening Process P f t 0 Major parameters of the process: Frequency f, Power P and heating Time t. Process is dynamic and only a combination of these parameters plus optimal induction coil design can give good results
  • 12. Frequency Selection Power distribution pattern: Top – Low Frequency Bottom – High Frequency Hardened layer pattern: 1 – Low Frequency 2 – High Frequency 3 – Optimal Frequency, Power and Time
  • 14. Optimal Frequency for Single-shot Contour Hardening Metric system: Fopt = K/M2, kHz with M – gear module in mm K = 350-600 depending on gear tooth geometry, case depth and material Depth British system: Fopt = (6-10)/p2, kHz with p – circular pitch in inches Relation: M = 25.4 p/𝜋 = 8.085p with p in inches and M in mm
  • 15. Process Parameters Process is characterized by combination of frequency F, specific power P0 and heating time t. P0 and F can vary during the process. Total power Pp = Sp*P0 with Sp - heated surface. Module, mm 3 4 5 6 Circ. Pitch, in 0.37 0.49 0.62 0.75 Fopt, kHz 40-65 20-30 10-17 7-12 Time, sec 0.2-0.25 0.6-0.7 0.9-1.1 1.2-1.4 Specific power, kW/sq.in 20-24 12-14 7.5-8.5 14-16 This table gives you only estimate values; they must be corrected for a particular gear
  • 16. Induction Hardening Pattern Good contour hardening pattern Source: www.gearsolutions.com Non-uniform contour hardening due to longer than optimal heating at relatively high frequency Through hardening of the whole teeth area due to too long heating
  • 17. Example of Gear Optimally Hardened by Single-shot Process Optimal induction hardening provides: • High surface hardness and contact strength • High wear resistance • Favorable distribution of compressive stresses • High bending strength • Slow progression rate of pitting A 6150 spur gear profile hardened using single-frequency single-shot technique Source: Inductoheat
  • 18. Gear Contour Hardening Gear heating: optimal combination of frequency, power and time Slight overheating of root end areas (may be attributed to the coil design) Source: www.denkikogyo.co.jp
  • 19. Heating for Less Than 2 Seconds Source: Ajax Tocco Magnethermic
  • 20. Case Hardening of ID Gear Surface Source: Ajax Tocco Magnethermic
  • 21. Machined Coil with Integral Quench Magnetic flux concentrators are highly recommended for ID coils They dramatically reduce coil current demand, improve process efficiency and part quality ID coil with Fluxtrol Soft Magnetic Composite core (concentrator)
  • 22. Dual Frequency Hardening P t Dual frequency hardening is more flexible and reliable process than single-frequency one
  • 23. Two Types of Dual Frequency Heating Dual frequency heating with part transportation Simultaneous Dual Frequency (SDF) heating. Typical frequencies: 10 kHz and 100 - 200 kHz
  • 24. Dual Frequency Hardening Dual frequency hardening may be made by sequential heating at Low and High frequency in two inductors or in the same inductor. LF heating brings teeth to a temperature slightly higher than Curie point and the roots - to temperature close to a final value. HF heating must be short. It forms a required austenitized layer on the whole gear circumference LF heating HF heating Quenching
  • 25. Simultaneous Dual Frequency Hardening SDF hardened bevel gear: Heating time 0.2 sec Frequencies 10 kHz and 230 kHz Total power 580 kW 1000 kW SDF machine, Eldec Induction Source: Book of A. Muehlbauer “History of Induction…”
  • 26. New Generation of SDF Induction Machines Total power of SDF machines is up to 3000 kW The MIND—Modular INDuction—machine. Source: Eldec Induction
  • 28. Delapena Style Coil Inductor and Current Flow Print Source: Book of A. Muehlbauer “History of Induction Heating and Melting, Vulkan, 2008” Used inductor for large gear hardening Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
  • 29. Coil Positioning with Contact Guide Difficulties: - Small gaps “coil-gear” and accurate positioning are required - Overheating of flanks and underheating of root bottom near the end of gear may occur - Water sprays required for correction of heat pattern on the tooth tips and at the end of gear.
  • 30. Flank Sprays Prevent Temper Back on Adjacent Tooth
  • 31. Double Coil of Delapena Style This coil allows better temperature control at the beginning and the end of scanning path Source: www.thermalprocessing.com
  • 32. Installation for Tooth by Tooth Scan Hardening
  • 33. Scan Hardening of Large Gear Gear OD = 750 mm (29.5”) Weight M = 0.75 t Teeth number N = 7 Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
  • 35. Flank Hardening 1 – coil turn; 2 – magnetic controller Hardness pattern
  • 36. Root by Root Hardening 1,2 – active coil turns; 3,4 – magnetic controllers; 5 – cooling shower; 6 – return coil legs Example: hardening of tractor satellite gear M = 6.5 mm; process is sensitive to design and setup Design: VNIITVCh, Russia, 1966
  • 37. Large Sprocket Hardening Coil with magnetic controller Source: VNIITVCh, Russia
  • 38. Large Gear and Slewing Rings Hardening GH Induction machine for large wind generator gear hardening using “tooth-by-tooth” technology
  • 39. Using Steels with Controlled Hardenability
  • 40. Gears from Steels with Controlled Hardenability Technology was developed by Prof. Konstantin Shepelyakovskiy in 1960s, Moscow Automotive plant “ZIL”. It is used in automotive and rail road industries for gears and other components in Russia and Belorussia 1972
  • 41. Microstructure of Hardened Gears Truck gear: M = 6 mm or p = 0.74” DP = 4.2 Miscellaneous Gears: 1 – martensite 2 – sorbite 3 - initial structure Sorbite X 500 1 2 3
  • 42. Special Features of the Method • Low alloyed steels made according to a special technology • Deep induction or even furnace heating may be used • Very intensive water quenching is required to achieve optimal results • Sorbite layer formation under the martensite layer improves gear performance • Method is low sensitive to heating process Source: Prof. K. Shepelyakovskiy
  • 44. Simulation of Gear Hardening Computer simulation of induction gear hardening is one of the most difficult tasks of induction heating due to: - 3D nature geometry of the system - Strong coupling of Electromagnetic and Thermal phenomena - High frequency and large gradients of magnetic and thermal fields require fine meshing - Frequency variation or application of two different frequencies (in the case of SDF heating) - System geometry variation in the case of scan hardening (at the extremities of the gear) In spite of these difficulties at present time we have successful examples of computer simulation of Electromagnetic, Thermal and Structural phenomena and even Stress and Distortion distributions.
  • 45. 3D Simulation of Power Density Distribution in Gear
  • 46. Current Density Distribution in Gear Tooth Sketch of gear heating in a single-turn inductor 3D simulation of ¼ of gear tooth; program Flux3D Source: Fluxtrol. Inc.
  • 47. Simulation of Dual Frequency Hardening of Worm Gear Right – simulated temperature distribution (ETP, Hanover) Left – experimental sample (Eldec Induction)
  • 48. Conclusions Advantages: • Fast processing with individual control • Carbon and low alloyed steels may be used • Favorable stress distribution may be created • Low distortion due to local heating • Big energy savings • Environment friendly process • Possibility of in-line processing • Very large parts may be treated Disadvantages: • Process must be individually developed for each type • Difficult to harden complicated gear types
  • 49. Quote “I have been amazed at the testing results of the components that have broken many of the established rules of structure, carbon level, hardness, etc., of the component attributes” – Dick Collins, Borg Warner Automotive, talking about induction hardened parts 1388 Atlantic Blvd, Auburn Hills, MI, 48326, ph. +1 248 393 2000, www.fluxtrol.com