Pcog and plant chemistry review

PHARMACOGNOSY AND
PLANT CHEMISTRY REVIEW
Honeylene B. Paloma, RPh.

Pharmacognosy
• Principally concerned with plant materials
however, there are small number of animal
products w/c are traditionally encompassed
within the subject;
• Examples
– Produced from wild (whale, musk, deer)
– Fish (cod and halibut)
– Domesticated animals (hog, sheep, cattle) – lanolin,
milk products, hormones, endocrine products and
some enzymes
– Wild insects (cantharides)
– Cultivated (beeswax)
• Marine organisms, both plant and animal, with
potent pharmacological actions are receiving
increasing attention in the search for new
drugs

Pharmacognosy
• Drugs from natural sources
• Study of drugs from natural sources
– Plants
– Animals
– microbes
Pharmakon Gnosis
Drugs Knowledge

Pharmacognosy
• Materials having no pharmacological action
which of interest to pharmacognosists are
natural fibers, flavoring and suspending
agents, colorants, disintegrants, stabilizers and
filtering and support media
• Other areas that have natural associations with
the subject are poisonous and hallucinogenic
plants, allergens, herbicides, insecticides and
molluscicides

Pharmacognosy
• The study of drugs used by traditional healers
is an important object of pharmacognostical
research
It may be defined as an important branch
of Pharmacy which deals with the study of
structural, physical, chemical, biochemical
and sensory characters of natural drugs of
plant and animal origin. It also includes a
study of their history, distribution,
cultivation, collection, identification,
preparation, evaluation, preservation, use
and commerce.

Pharmacognosy - History
• The first or beginning of pre-history on use of
medicinal plants or herbs or animals, and the
place where and how used were not well
known, and those information were unwritten
for a long time. As a result, the pre-history on
herbs was almost lost.
• However, some information was recorded by
oral transmission from generation to generation.
Pre-history:
History of pharmacognosy is actually the history of
medicine that is medicinal plants.

• The written history has originated which was based
on region, religion and culture etc.
The written history was divided into the following:
1. The western medicine
2. The Unani (Islam)
3. The Ayurveda (Indian)
4. The orient
5. The Greek History
6. The African System
7. The European exploration
Written History:

 This is originated in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Mesopotamia is considered as the first origin of human
civilization. The Sumerians (peoples of ancient
Mesopotamia) developed cuneiform tablet of herbal
medicines. Those tablets is preserved in British museum.
 In Egypt, information had written on paper – Papyrus
ebers (1550BC). It consisted of 800 prescriptions,
mentioning 700 drugs.
 The first pharmacopoeia named London Pharmacopoeia
was published in 1618 and then British Pharmacopoeia
was published in 1864.
1. The western medicine:

HISTORY - SUMERIANS AND
AKKADIANS (3RD MILLENNIUM BC)

HISTORY – Egyptians (Ebers
papyrus, 1550 BC)

• This herbal system was developed by Arabian
Muslim Ibn Sina (980 – 1037 AD). He was a
prince and ruler. He was a very brilliant
pharmacist and physician who wrote a book –
“Kitab-Al-Shifa”, means ‘Book of Healing’.
• The book was written on Arabic language. This is
a great contribution of Ibn Sina on medical and
pharmaceutical sciences.
2. The Unani (Islam)

The Islamic era Ibn Altabari
(770850) ”‫الحكمه‬ ‫فردوس‬“

Ibn Sina (980-1037)
”‫الطب‬ ‫في‬ ‫القانون‬“

Ibn Albitar (1148-1197)
”‫واألغذية‬ ‫األدوية‬ ‫لمفردات‬ ‫الجامع‬“

Ayurveda is the term for traditional medicine of
ancient India.
The word “Ayur” means ‘Life’ and “veda” means
‘The study of’ that is “Study of Life”.
The Ayurvedic writings were divided into three
systems:
1) Charaka Samhita, 2) Sushruta Samhita and 3)
Astanga samhita.
The oldest writing was Charaka Samhita (six to
seven century before Christ).
The book describes uses of many metallic drugs
eg., iron, mercury, sulphur, cupper etc with herbs.
3. The Ayurveda (Indian, 2500-600 BC):

 This is originated from Chinese, Japanese and
Tibet etc. The orient herbalism was very old (142
– 220 BC) and called “Kampo”. The written
documents were made by the King ‘Shen Nung’
(2700 BC) and Shang (1766 – 1122 BC) etc.
 Shen Nung investigated medicinal value of
several herbs and written a book – “Pen T-Sao”
or native herbal.
4. The orient (2700 BC):

 Hippocrates (Father of Medicine, 460-370 BC):
He was the first natural doctor who utilized simple remedies
such as vinegar, honey, herbs etc in healing. He is also known
to have collected and identified a number of medicinal plants.
 Aristotle (384-322 BC):
He gave the philosophy of medicine. He listed more than 500
plants of medicinal importance.
 Theophrastus (340 BC): Father of Botany
gave scientific basis of use of plants as medicine.
 Galen (131-200 AD):
a Greek pharmacist-physician. He developed the methods of
preparing and compounding medicines by mechanical means.
He was the originator of the formulae for a cold cream.
5. The Greek History:

Authors of antiquity
Hippocrates (460-370 BC)
“The Father of Medicine”

Dioscorides (40-80 AD)“De
Materia Medica” (600 medicinal plants)

HISTORY
•Greeks
–Pedanius Dioscorides
•Wrote the book De Materia Medica
•Father of Pharmacology
–Aloe Ergot
–Colchicum Opium
–Belladonna

HISTORY
• Greeks
–Claudius Galen
•Father of Pharmaceutical
Compounding
•Prepared formula of drugs
containing plant and
animal constituents
•Galen’s Cerate

 They keep information in their groups or
tribes. The information transmitted from one
generation to another.
 These regions are richest sources of medicinal
plants and needs to explore for new drug
discovery.
6. The African System (Tropical Africa,
North and South America):

7. The era of European exploration
overseas (16th and 17th century)

HISTORY
•Germans
– C.A. Seydler  coined the term
pharmacognosy
– J.A. Schmidt  wrote Lehrbuck de
Materia Medica
– F.A. Fluckiger  described the most
comprehensive scope of
pharmacognosy

The 18th century, Pharmacognosy
• Johann Adam (1759-1809)
• Linnaeus (naming and classifying plants)
• At the end of the 18th century, crude
drugs were still being used as powders,
simple extracts, or tinctures

The era of pure compounds
(In 1803, a new era in the history of
medicine)
• Isolation of morphine from opium
• Strychnine (1817)
• Quinine and caffeine (1820)
• Nicotine (1828)
• Atropine (1833)
• Cocaine (1855)

HISTORY
– F.A. Fluckiger  described the most
comprehensive scope of pharmacognosy
• Scope:
– Biologic  a pharmacognosist should be
familiar with the biologic sources of the drug
*Father of Taxonomy  Carolus Linnaeus
- Economic
- Biochemical
- Constituents:
Pharmaceutically active
Pharmacologically active

Historical Milestones of TradMed in the
Philippines
• Spanish Period
- Earliest document is an unpublished
treatise on indigenous medicinal pants
written by a Franciscan around 1611
- Fr. Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas (1737,
1845,1877)
- Dr. Pardo de Tavera’s Plantas
Medicinales de Filipinas (1892)

Philippines
Percent of Children with Mothers receiving
two or more doses of TTV during
pregnancy has been decreasing, from 42.2
percent in 1993 to 32 percent in 2002. One
reason for the decline is the campaign of the
Catholic Church against Tetanus Toxoid in
1995.

Philippines
• American Period
- characterized by scientific vigor
- establishment of the Government
Laboratories (Bureau of Science)
- intensive research on chemical
constituents, pharmacology and
therapeutics of medicinal plants by
UP

Philippines
• Commonwealth Period
- extension of surveys to regions not
previously explored
- clinical and chemical
investigations were made though in a
limited scale

Philippines
• Japanese Occupation
- Impetus given to the cultivation of
medicinal plants
- E.O. 14 creating a committee on
medicinal plants for the purpose of
local production and manufacture
of medicines from herbs

Philippines
• Immediate Post World War II Period
- First major exhaustive work on
medicinal plants by a Filipino -
Quisumbing’s Medicinal Plants of the
Philippines, 1951

Philippines
• Contemporary Period (1970 – present)
- establishment of Community-Based
Health Programs (CBHPs) in the early 70s
which promoted the use of indigenous
knowledge and resources for primary health
care
- creation of the National Integrated
Research Program on Medicinal Plants
(NIRPROMP) in 1977

Philippines
Technology transfer from NIRPROMP to
the private sector for the production of 7
herbs into commercial form
Creation of TradMed Unit at DOH in 1992
RA 8423 creating the Philippine Institute of
Traditional and Alternative Health Care
(PITAHC)
Inclusion of survey questions towards
TradMed in the 1998 and 2003 National
Demographic and Health Surveys of NSO

SURVEY OF LITERATURE
A. Socio-Cultural Aspects of Indigenous
Medicine
1. F.L. Jocano’s Folk Medicine in a
Philippine Municipality (1973)
- an ethnographic account of folk
medicine among peasants in Bay, Laguna
2. M. L.Tan’s Usog, Kulam, Pasma (1987)
- formulated theoretical typologies of
illness causation based on the literature

SURVEY OF LITERATURE: Socio-
Cultural Aspects of Indigenous
Medicine
3. Department of Health (DOH)-Community
Medicine Foundation (COMMED), Filipino
Traditional Medicine Comprehensive Database
Project, 1995
- included an annotated bibliography consisting
of ethnographic, historical and pharmacological
literatures
- derived six major themes in traditional
medicine in the Philippines based on literature and
results of the mapping of 191 TradMed
practitioners, their demographics, healing practices
and philosophy, as well as their distribution and
networking

Medicine
4. Isidro Sia and NIH Study Group
Documentation of 15 Ethnolinguistic
Groups and their Traditional Medicine
Practices
- focused on 15 ethnolinguistic groups in
the Cordilleras, Palawan, other parts of
Luzon, and Mindanao

Medicine
5. Int’l. Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR),
Indigenous Knowledge and Practices on
Mother and Child Care: Experiences from
Southeast Asia and China (2000)
- contains extensive discussions of
maternal and child care in different
cultural settings in the Philippines as well as
other parts of Asia
- chapter on retrieval, documentation and
use of IK, with most of the cases based on
community level initiatives in the Philippines

Medicine
6. Planta’s master’s thesis on the development
of traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia
in the 16th to the 19th centuries (1999)
- attempts to portray Filipino culture and
society through its traditional medical
and healing practices

SURVEY OF LITERATURE – Medicinal
Plants Inventory
B. Medicinal Plants Inventory
1. E. Quisumbing’s Medicinal Plants of the
Philippines, 1951
- regarded as one of the earliest and most
authoritative texts on medicinal plants
2. UP Botanical Society’s Manual on Some
Philippine Medicinal Plants (1977)
- sought to enlighten people of the potential
healing properties of local medicinal plants, with
sections divided according to medicinal properties
of plants

Plants Inventory
2. M. L. Tan’s Philippine Medicinal Plants in
Common Use: Their Phytochemistry and
Pharmacology (1977)
- discusssed more than 200 plants; each
plant entry is accompanied by its scientific
and local name, a brief description of the
plant and suggested preparations and uses

Plants Inventory
3. Leonardo Co’s Common Medicinal Plants
of the Cordillera Region (1984)
- covers 122 species of common medicinal
plants found in the Cordillera region
4. Quintana’s Philippine Medicinal Plant:
Abstract and Bibliography (1989)
- collated and organized references on
medicinal plants resources from the
UPLB campus’ libraries as well as other
private I libraries

Plants Inventory
5. Ludivina de Padua’s Medicinal Plants (1996)
- conceived to be a series of several
booklets that “approaches plant science from
the ecological perspective rather than purely
taxonomic”

SURVEY OF LITERATURE –
Pharmacological Studies of Philippine
Medicinal Plants
1. Jaime Zaguirre’s Some Emergency Bedside
Preparations of Most Common Local
Medicinal Plants (1955)
- written in 1944 and re-circulated in 1949
primarily among the Medical Field Service
of the AFP
2. Dr. Jocelyn Cruz, Herbal Medicine-A Viable
Alternative for the Filipino People (1985)
- documents early pharmacologic tests
undertaken by Dr. Alfredo C. Santos in
1927

3. NIRPROMP-led pharmacologic research
- documentation of rapid screening process to
study the efficacy and safety of medicinal plants,
then the agricultural, pharmaceutical and clinical
trials of plants that have passed initial screening
4. Departments of Pharmacology of the University
of the East and UP Manila, Pharmacologic studies
done by students
Medicinal Plants

4. PCHRD-HERDIN bibliographic
database of health literature in the
Philippines
- includes 2,000 records on traditional
medicine comprising mainly of journal
articles, research reports, paper and
conference proceedings
Medicinal Plants

1. Segismundo’s Filipino Traditional Medicine and
the Development of a Relevant Health Care
System (1994)
- critiqued the weaknesses of the health care
system and cited efforts through NGOs and the
CBHPs for the integration of TradMed
2. Castro-Palaganas, et. al., Mainstreaming
Indegenous Health Knowledge and Practices
(2001)
- specific focus on indigenous notions of
health or kasalun-alan and the women’s life cycle
Mainstreaming Traditional Medicine

3. M. L. Tan’s Traditional Medical
Practitioners (1992)
- showed the different types of traditional
medical practitioners, their socio-
geographic characteristics, skills acquisition,
methods of diagnosis and healing
4. NSO’s National Demographic and Health
Surveys (1998, 2003)
- included questions on the knowledge,
attitude and practices of Filipinos towards
traditional medicine

5. Various handbooks on medicinal
plants produced by government,
NGOs and academic institutions
- information on medicinal plants
and their therapeutic uses aimed at
re- educating health
workers, trainors and community
members

Plants are grouped into about 383
families (Woodland 2000). Members
of the same family are similar. Thus,
apples, pears and roses are in the
same family (Rose Family,
Rosaceae), crabgrass, Kentucky
bluegrass and seagrasses are in the
same family (Grass Family,
Poaceae) and sunflowers, asters and
calendulas are all in another family
(Sunflower Family, Asteraceae).

All plant families are based on the
name of one genus in the family,
with –ceae added to the
stem. Aster Asteraceae, Juglans Jugl
andaceae; Lilium Liliaceae;Malva M
alvaceae; Orchis Orchidaceae; Rosa
Rosaceae; Salix Salicaceae… etc…
383 families…

EXCEPT
There was a system before this system was
imposed (International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature Article 18). The family
names of the biggest most common plant
families in the old system were in such
wide use that there was a battle among the
delegates at the International Botanic
Congress over whether ALL families had to
conform to the new system. The reformists
did not win, they compromised. For 6 big
families BOTH the new name or the
traditional name are EQUALLY
acceptable. Thus

Scientific Name: Mentha cordifolia /
Clindopodium douglasii

Formation of Constituents
Biogenesis or Plant Biosynthesis
Primary Metabolites Secondary Metabolites
Carbohydrates Glycosides, Gums and
Metabolites
Fats Fixed oil, fats, waxes,
and volatile oils
Proteins Alkaloids
Affected by: (OHE)
1. Ontogeny or the Stage of Development
2. Heredity
3. Environment

Formation of Constituents:
Other Examples:
1. Codeine – Pierre Robiquet
2. Morphine – Friedrich Serturner
• Named after the Greek God of
Sleep  Morpheus
3. Quinine – Pelletier and
Caventou

Crude Drugs
• Drugs that are collected and
dried.
• Undergone only the process of
collection and drying.

Ethnobotany
• It is a broad term referring to the
study of plants by humans

Ethnomedicine
• It refers to the use of plants by
humans as medicine

TradMed –
Traditional Medicine
• It is the sum total of all non-
mainstream medical practices,
usually excluding so called
“western” medicine

Crude Extract
• Mixture of constituents isolated
from Crude Drugs.
NAME THE 7 WAYS ON HOW TO
PREPARE CRUDE DRUGS IN THE
MARKET?

Preparation of Crude Drugs
1. Collection (in small scale)
- To ensure the true natural source of
the drugs
- Collection time  to isolate the right
type and right amount of
constituents
Examples:
Digitalis lanata – white flower
Digitalis purpurea – purple flower
Protopectin – unripe fruits
Pectin – for just ripe fruits
Pectic acid – for over riped fruits

2. Harvesting (in large scale)
- maybe mechanical or manual
*if the drug collected is potent  manual
harvesting
3. Drying – to ensure good keeping
qualities
4. Garbling – the final step in the
preparation of crude drugs;
sorting; removal of extraneous
portion

5. Packaging
6. Storage
- to prevent insect attack
a. simplest method
b. fumigation
c. add a drop of preservative
7. Preservation

Methods of Extraction
1. Percolation
Menstruum
Marc
Percolate
Substance Menstruum
Fats
Resins
Chlorophyll
Solanine
Chrysarobin
Hexane
Ethanol
Acetone
Acetic Acid
Hot Benzene
Hexane
Ethanol Acetone
Acetic Acid
Hot Benzene

2. Maceration – solid ingredient are
placed in a stoppered container
with the prescribed menstruum
and allowed to stand for a
period of 2 – 3 days in a warm
place with frequent agitation,
until soluble matter is dissolved.

3. Infusion – macerate solids for a
period of time in either hot or
cold water.
4. Decoction – drugs are subjected
to boiling in water for 5 – 10
mins; cooling, straining, and
passing sufficient cold water
through the drug.

Indigenous vs Naturalized
Plants
– plants growing in their
native countries
Aloe barbadensis
Prunus armeniaca
Acacia senegal
– plants that grow in
foreign land other than their native
country
Indigenous
Naturalized

Evaluation of Crude Drugs
1. Organoleptic evaluation
Aka macroscopic examination
Use of the senses
2. Microscopic evaluation
Use of microscope to determine the
purity and identity of the drug

3. Pharmacologic evaluation
aka bioassay: using living things
DRUG ANIMAL
Digoxin Pigeon
Atropine Cat
Oxytocin Young adult
domesticated chicken
(female)
Heparin Sheep’s blood
Cod liver oil Rachitic rat
Parathyroid hormone Dog
Tubocurarine (aka
Head drop assay)
Rabbit, Rat

4. Chemical evaluation
- best method to determine
official potency
- evaluate, identify the purity of
substance
5. Physical evaluation
- use of physical constants
- ex. Boiling points, melting
points

What are the FOUR
General
Classification of Drugs?
1. Morphology  based on form
2. Taxonomy  based on phylogeny
3. Pharmacologic  based on drug
action
4. Chemical  based on chemical
type of constituents

Important Scientific Names
ANIS
Foeniculum vulgare

APPLE
Pyrus malus / Malus domestica

ATIS
Anona squamosa

ATSUETE/ACHUETE
Bixa orellana

AVOCADO
Persea americana

BALANOY
Ocimum basilicum

BALIMBING
Averrhoa carambola

BANANA
Musa paradisiaca

CHICHIRIKA
Catharanthus roseus

CARROTS
Daucus carota

CHICO
Achras zapota

COTTON
Gossypium hirsutum

DALANGHITA
Citrus nobilis

DAMONG MARIA
Artemisia vulgaris

DRAGON FRUIT
Hylocereus undatus

DUHAT
Syzygium cumini

GUGO
Entada phaseoloides

IKMO
Piper betle

IPIL-IPIL
Leucaena leucocephala

KALAMANSI
Citrus microcarpa

KASOY
Anacardium occidentale

LABANOS
Raphanus sativus

KAMIAS
Averrhoa bilimbi

KANGKONG
Ipomea aquatica

JACKFRUIT
Artocarpus heterophyllus

LANSONES
Lansium domesticum

LEMON
Citrus limon

LINGA
Sesamum indicum

LUYA
Zingiber officinale

CORN
Zea mays

MAKABUHAY
Tinospora rumphi / Tinospora
crispa

MAKAHIYA
Mimosa pudica

MALUNGGAY
Moringa oleifera

MANGOSTEEN
Garcinia mangostana

MORAS
Vetiveria zizanioides /
Andropogon zizanioides

NIYOG
Cocos nucifera

NONI/APATOT
Morinda citrifolia

ORANGE
Citrus aurantium

PAKWAN
Citrulus vulgaris

POTATO
Solanum tuberosum

PATOLA
Lufa acutangula

PINEAPPLE
Ananas comosus

SAMPALOK
Tamarindus indica

SIBUYAS
Tamarindus indica

SILI
Capsicum annuum

SQUASH
Cucurbita maxima

SUHA
Citrus grandis / Citrus maxima

EGGPLANT
Solanum melongena

TALUMPUNAY
Datura metel

TANGLAD
Cymbopogon citratus

TEA
Camellia sinensis

CARBOHYDRATES
• These are polyhydroxy aldehydes
or polyhydroxyketones
CLASSIFICATION OF CHO:
•Monosaccharides – aka. Simple Sugars
•Disaccharides – 2 sugars
•Oligosaccharides – few sugars
•Polysaccharides
•Homoglycans
•Heteroglycans

Monosaccharides
# of C Name Example
2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde
3 Triose Glyceraldehyde; dihydoxyacetone
4 Tetrose Erythrose
5 Pentose Ribose, 2 – deoxyribose; xylose
6 Hexose Glu, Fru, Gal, Man
7 Heptose Heptulose
8 Octose D – glycero D- mannoctulose
9 Nonose Neuraminic acid or also known as
sialic acid

Monosaccharides
(monos)
The Most Important
Monosaccharide Is
• A Monosaccharide is
made up of 1 sugar unit.
• Monos are reducing
sugars.
HEXOSES

Monosaccharides
Aldoses (e.g., glucose)
have an aldehyde group at
one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose)
have a keto group, usually
at C2.
C
C OHH
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
D-glucose
OH
C HHO
C OHH
C OHH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
D-fructose

Monosaccharides
(monos)
The Most Important Hexose Is
An aldohexose
Aka physiologic sugar, blood sugar,
dextrose, grape sugar
Uses: nutrient and sweetening agent
GLUCOSE
1 gram = 4 calories

Fructose
A ketohexose
Identification test: Seliwanoff’s test
Aka. Fruit sugar or levulose
Uses: food for diabetics, nutrient,
sweetening agent

Galactose
An aldohexose
Identification test: mucic acid test

Mannose
An aldohexose
Identification test: osazone test
Monosaccharide that readily forms
osazone crystals

Disaccharides
• Formed by dehydration rxns
1. Sucrose (From Glu + Fru)
Aka table sugar
- Non – reducing sugar
Sources:
a. sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum)
b. sugar beets (Beta vulgaris)
c. sugar maple (Acer saccharum)

Disaccharides
1. Sucrose (From Glu + Fru)
Uses:
Demulcent
Sweetening agent
Manufacture of syrups
Coating agent
Preservative

Disaccharides
2. Maltose (From Glu + Glu)
aka malt sugar
produced during the germination of
barley (Hordeum vulgare)
3. Lactose (From Glu + Galactose)
aka milk sugar
isolated from Cow’s milk (Bos taurus)
Lactose intolerance  inability to secrete the
enzyme lactase
Uses: stable diluent, in feeding formula

Disaccharides
3. Lactose (From Glu + Galactose)
Lactulose  produced by the alkaline
rearrangement of lactose
Brand names: Lilac, Duphalac, Movelax
Uses: cathartic
prevent portal systemic
encephalopathy

Oligosaccharides
• Raffinose
• Gentianose
• Maltotriose
• Sucralose

Polysaccharides
Homoglycan
- one phase system
Heteroglycan
- different
- Same type of sugar unit - Different type of sugar
Examples:
Starch
Inulin
Dextran
Cellulose
Examples:
Gums
Mucilages
Glycosides

Polysaccharides
• Starch - GLUCOSAN
• Sources:
– Corn
– Rice
– Potato
– Wheat
– Cassava

• Starch - GLUCOSAN
Properties Amylose Amylopectin
Chemical
composition
Composed of 250 –
300 glucose units
linked by alpha 1, 4
glycosidic linkage
Aka LINEAR
STARCH
Composed of 1000
or more glucose
units linked by
alpha 1,4 and alpha
1,6, glycosidic
linkage
Aka BRANCHED
STARCH
Water
solubility
soluble insoluble
Iodine Test Blue Violet
Percentage 25% 75%

General Uses of Starch
1. Nutritive.
2. Demulcent.
3. Pharmaceutical uses as tablets
filler and binder.
4. Antipruritic: Baby paste®-
(Vitamed company) used in case of
diaper rash, skin irritation (ZnO,
Starch).
5. Industrial uses: papers, clothes.
6. Antidote in case of poisoning
from Iodine.

Enzymes that break down
Starch
1. Salivary amylase or ptyalin
2. Pancreatic amylase
Starch Preparations:
1. Pregelatinized starch
2. Sodium starch glycollate
3. Hetastarch

INULIN - FRUCTOSAN
• Isolated from subterranean organs
of the plants belonging to plant
family Compositae
• Abundant in Dandelion (Taraxacum
officinale)
• Use:
– in culture media as a fermentative
identifying agent for certain bacteria
– in special lab methods for the
evaluation of renal function
• Filtered only by glomerular
filtration

DEXTRAN – A GLUCOSAN
• Produced by a microbe Leuconostoc
mesenteroides
• Used as a plasma expander
Dextran Vs Dextrin?
A sweetening agent
Product of incomplete
hydrolysis of starch

CELLULOSE – A GLUCOSAN
• Preparations:
– Purified cotton/absorbent cotton from
the hair of the seed of cultivated
species of Gossypium hirsutum
– Pyroxylin or soluble guncotton
obtained by the action of a mixture of
nitric and sulfuric acids on cotton; it is
a pharmaceutic acid in the preparation
of collodion and flexible collodions,
topical protectants

GUMS AND MUCILAGES
PLANT EXUDATES
Acacia from Acacia
senegal aka Gum arabic
Excellent emulsifier; a suspending
agent; demulcent and emollient;
An adhesive and binder in tablet
granulations
Tragacanth from
Astragalus gummifer
Suspending agent for insoluble
powders in mixtures; emulsifier
for oils and resins; MOST resistant
to acid hydrolysis
Karaya from Sterculia
urens aka sterculia gum
One of the least soluble of the
plant gum exudates; a bulk
laxative; agent for emulsions and
suspensions; dental adhesive;
ingredient in Movicol drug.

GUMS AND MUCILAGES
SEED GUMS
Psyllium from Plantago
psyllium aka plantago
seed, plaintain seed
Used as cathartic; bulk laxative
Cydonium from Cydonia
vulgaris aka quince seed
Ingredient in some wave setting
lotions
Guar from Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus aka
guaran
Bulk laxative, thickening agent,
tablet binder; disintegrator
Locust bean gum from
Ceratonia siliqua aka
carob pulp, St. John’s
bread
Thickening agent, stabilizer

GUMS AND MUCILAGES
MARINE GUMS
Agar from Gelidium
cartilagineum and
Gracilaria confervoides
aka Japanese isinglas
Laxative, suspending agent,
emulsifier, gelating agent for
suppositories; tablet disintegrant;
extensively used as a gel in culture
media and aid in food processing
Sodium alginate from
Macrocystis pyrifera aka
algin
Brown seaweed; suspending agent;
food industry (ice creamm
chocolate milk, salad dressings,
icings, confectionery)
Carrageenan from
Chondus crispus and
Gigartina mamillosa
Red algae, red seaweeds; used to
form gels, stabilizer for emulsions
and suspensions; demulcent;
laxative

GUMS AND MUCILAGES
MICROBIAL GUM
Xanthan gum from
Xanthomonas campestris
Excellent emulsifier and
suspending agent; pseudoplastic
property of this gum enable
toothpastes and ointments both to
hold their shape and to spread
readily.

• Pectin
– Isolated from the inner rind of citrus fruits
and apple pomace.
– Used as a protectant, suspending agent and
ingredient in many antidiarrheal formulations
GUMS AND MUCILAGES

Glycosides
• Known as
• Have two portions
– Glycone
– Aglycone
Sugar portion
Non - Sugar portion ;
GENIN
SUGAR ETHERS

• Solubility:
glycosides are water soluble
compounds and insoluble in the
organic solvents.
Glycone part: water soluble,
insoluble in the organic solvents.
Aglycone part: water insoluble,
soluble in the organic solvents.
Some glycosides are soluble in
alcohol.

Stability of Glycosides:
1- Effect of acid hydrolysis:
• Acids split sugars from the aglycones.
• The acetal linkage is more readily cleaved
than the linkage between the individual
sugars of the sugar chain.
• C-glycosides are resistant to acid hydrolysis.

2- Effect of alkaline hydrolysis:
A- Strong alkalis:
• Hydrolysis of ester groups.
• Opening of lactone rings e.g. Cardiac
glycosides.
B- Mild alkalis:
• Hydrolysis of ester groups e.g. Lanatoside A
to Purpurea A
• Opening of lactone rings e.g. Cardiac
glycosides.

3- Enzymatic hydrolysis:
– Split the sugars stepwise starting from the
terminal sugars.
– All plants producing glycosides have enzyme
that can hydrolyze these glycosides.
– Enzymes are specific for the type of glycosidic
linkages:
• Emulsin can hydrolyze b- glycosides
• Invertase can hydrolyze a- glycosides
• Myrosin can hydrolyze s-glycosides.

Classification of the glycoside
based on the chemical nature of
the aglycone part.
1. Cardioactive group
2. Anthraquinone group
3. Saponin group
4. Cyanophore group
5. Isothiocyanate group
6. Flavonol group
7. Alcohol group

Classification of the glycoside
based on the chemical nature of
the aglycone part.
8. Aldehyde group
9. Lactone group
10. Phenol group

CARDIOACTIVE GLYCOSIDES
 Identification Test:
Aglycone part has steroidal nucleus
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene
Classification of the aglycone:
1. Cardenolide (one double bond, lactone ring) :
Has five member lactone ring (unsaturated) attached at C17 B position of
steroidal nucleus; MORE ABUNDANT IN NATURE
2. Bufadienolide: (contain two double bonds, lactone ring)
Has six member ( unsaturated ) lactone ring attached at C-17 alpha –
position; FIRST OBTAINED FROM BULL FROG
Keller – Killiani Test
Use: Inotropic agents

PLANTS CONTAINING
CARDIOACTIVE
GLYCOSIDES
SCIENTIFIC NAMES
Grecian Foxglove Digitalis lanata
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea
Lily of the Valley or Convallaria Convallaria majalis
Adonis or Peasant’s eye Adonis vernalis
Strophantus Strophantus kombe
Black Hellebore / Christmas
rose
Helleborus niger
Apocynum or Black Indian
Hemp
Apocynum canabinum
Adelfa Nerium oleander
Squill Urgenia maritima

Chemical tests :
1) Keller Kiliani test : C.G + CH3COOH + H2SO4 + FeCl3 brown
2) Legal test : C.G + pyridine sodium nitroprusside Red to pink
General properties :
1- Amorphous powder
2-bitter taste
3- sol. In H2O
4-Insol. In Org. solvents
5- Very toxic compounds
6- Odorless

Anthraquinone group of glycosides
Aglycone portion: Anthracene
Identification test: Borntrager’s test
Use: Drastic cathartics
except: Chrysarobin  very irritating
used as a keratolytic agent

Anthraquinone glycosides
Cascara sagrada
LN: rhamnus purshiana
EN: Sacred bark
Syn: Chitten wood bark
SN: Rhamnus purshianus
FN: Rhamnaceae
PU: dried bark
Const: Emodin; frangulin
Uses: cathartic; restores the natural tone to the
colon (1 mL = bitter cascara; 5mL = sweet
cascara) PP: Cas – Evac

Frangula
Syn: buckthorn buck
- The dried bark of Rhamnus frangula Linne.
Use: cathartic
PP: Movicol

Aloe
From Aloe barbadensis, Aloe vera Linne, Aloe ferox,
Aloe africana and Aloe spicata.
Syn: Cape aloe, Curacao aloe
FN: Liliaceae
Aloe  shining, bitter substance
Vera  true
Barbadensis  from Barbados island
Ferox  wild or ferocious
Africana  habitat of plant from Southern Africa
Spicata  flowers in spikes

Aloe
Principal constituent: barbaloin (aloe – emodin
anthrone C-10 glucoside), aloin
Uses: cathartics, treatment of burns, emollient,
moisturizer
Rhubarb
Syn: Rheum, chinese rhubarb
From Rheum officinale, Rheum palmatum
FN: Polygonaceae
Rheum  from the latin name Rha of the Volga
river where the species grow

Rhubarb
Palmatum  large spreading leaves
Principal constituents: rhein anthrones
Use: Cathartic
Senna
From Cassia acutifolia (Syn: Alexandria senna),
from Cassia angustifolia (Syn: Tinnevelly senna)
FN: Leguminosae

Senna
Senna  arabic sena, native name of the drug
Cassia  hebrew qetsiah, to cut off
Acutifolia  latin, sharply pointed leaves
Angustifolia  latin, narrow – leaved
Blue green leaves are the best; yellowish leaves are
the poorest
Const: sennoside
Uses: cathartic, dose = 2g
PP: Senokot, Gentlax, Senexon, Senokap, Senolax

Chrysarobin
From Goa powder
SN: Andira araroba
FN: Leguminosae
Const: chrysophenolanthrone or
chrysophenolanthranol; emodinanthrone;
dihydroemodinanthrone
Uses: keratolytic agent; treatment of psoriasis,
trichophytosis, and chronic eczema.
PP: Anthra Derm, Drithocreme, Lasan

Danthron
Syn: chrysazin, 1-8 dihydroxyanthraquinone
Use: cathartic, dose = 75 to 150mg
PP: Akshun, Dorbane, Modane, Tonelax
Danthron + surfactant
PP: Doctate P, Dorbantyl, Doxan, Doxidan,
Guarsol, Pro-Cal-Thron, Valax

Saponin group of glycoside
S
S
S
S
oaplike properties
teroidal
apogenin  aglycone
apotoxin  toxic aglycone

Chemical Tests:
a. Froth Test  formation of honeycomb froth (after
10 mins)
b. Hemolysis test  in blood agar medium
c. Keller – Killiani test  to decide 2 deoxysugar
usually found in steroids

1. Glycyrrhiza or Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra)
1. 50x sweeter than sugar
2. Easily oxidized to glycerrhetic acid
3. Uses: foaminess of root beer
treatment of Addison’s disease
antiinflammatory
2. Dioscorea (Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea
spiculiflora, Yam)
1. Dioscorea floribunda  Best source of steroid
2. Dioscorea spiculiflora  contains diosgenin
w/c is a glucocorticoid precursor.

3. Ginseng (Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius)
1. Panax ginseng  Asian / Korean ginseng
2. Panax quinquefolius  American ginseng
Constituents:
panaxosides, ginsenosides and chikusetsusaponins
Uses:
aphrodisiac, tonic

Cyanogenic Glycosides
 Cyanogenic glycosides (Cyanogentic or
Cyanophore Glycosides) are O-glycosides yielding
HCN gas on hydrolysis .
 They are condensation products of HCN to a
carbonyl compounds (Cyanohydrin).
C
R
R
O C
R
R OH
CN
HCN
C
R
R O-Sug
CN
Glycosylation
Unstable Stable

1- Amygdalin
Source: Bitter Almond.
Structures: It is a Bioside of mandelonitrile.
CH
CN
O glc glc
CH
CN
O glc
Amygdalin Prunasin
1-6 blinkage
CH
CN
O H
Mandilonitril
CHOHCN +
Amygdalase Prunase

2- Linamarin
Source: Linseed.
Structures: It is the glycosidic derivative of the
cyanohydrin of acetone.
Uses:
Linamarin has a molluscecidal activity.
Amygdalin is used for the preparation of Benzaldehyde.
Cyanogenic glycosides have role in cancer treatment.
C
H3C
CNH3C
O glc

3- Laetrile or Vitamin B17
 Source: obtained from seed of Rosaceae
 Use: Has anticancer claims

Thioglycoside
Glucosinolates- Sulfur Glycosides
• They are S-glycosides widely distributed in family
Cruciferae.
• Sinigrin: In seeds of Brassica nigra (black mustard).
• Sinalbin: In Seeds of Brassica alba (white mustard).
• Uses: Rubefacients, Counter irritants and condiment.
H2C
H
C C
H2
C
N-O-SO3K
S-Glc
Sinigrin

These plants contain also enzyme myrosin
(myrosinase) which hydrolyze these glycosides 
yields mustard oils
Properties of Mustard oil Sinigrin (allyl
isothiocyanate) :
1.Irritant for mucous membrane
2.Volatile
3.Pungent
4.Characteristic odor
 Also called volatile mustard oil.
The uses of Mustard seeds : counter irritant
rubefacient, condiment, emetic in large doses.
Drug :Acne aid soap®- Agis
Treatment of Acne .

Sinalbin (from white mustard) : upon hydrolysis
yield acrinyl isothiocyanate.
Properties of acrinyl isothiocyanate.
1.Less irritant than allyl isothiocynate.
2.Less volatile.
3.Odorless.
4.Pungent.
Uses of white mustard seeds
Condiment, carminative, counter irritant, emetic

Garlic
• It consists of the bulb of Allium sativum Fam. Liliaceae.
• The intact cells of garlic contain an odorless, sulfur-
containing amino acid derivative (+)-S-allyl-L-cysteine
sulfoxide, commonly known as alliin.
• Alliin is hydrolyzed by the effect of alliinase enzyme
present in different cells after crushing into allicin (diallyl
thiosulfinate).
• Allicin is responsible for the characteristic odor and flavor
of garlic.
• Allicin is a potent antibacterial, antihyperlipidemic, and it
inhibits platelet aggregation and enhances the blood
fibrinolytic activity.
S
H
O
NH2
COOH
S
S
O
Alliinase
+ H2O
Alliin Allicin

Alcoholic group of glycosides
Such as: Salicin which obtained from Salix bark, Willow bark,
Poplar barks.
Salicin is obtained from several species of Salix and Populus.
(Salix purpurea and S. fragilis)
Salicin hydrolyzed by:
1.Enzyme emulsin
2.Acid like HCl,HNO3
3.Alkaline solutions like NaOH
Populin (benzoyl-salicin), associated with salicin in the barks
of Salicaceae.

Alcoholic Glycosides
1- Salicin
Source: Salix species (Willow bark).
Nature: Primary achholic and Phenolic glycoside
(monoside).
Uses: Analgesic- Antipyretic- Anti-inflammatory.
CH2OH
O-glc
Enzyme
CH2OH
OH
Saligenin
(Salicyl alch.)
+
Glucose
Acid
O
CH2OH
HOH2C
+
Glucose
Saliretin

The effect of salicylic acid :
1. Analgesic.
2. Anti-pyretic.
3. Anti-coagulant (anticlotting agent).
4. Anti- inflammatory activity (Rheumatism)
5. Wart and corn remover
6. Prevents colon cancer

Phenolic group of glycosides
A
B
U
Arbutin ; Astringent
Bearberry (isolated from)
Uva Ursi

OH
O-glc
OCH3
O-glc
OH
OH
+ GlucoseHydrolysis
Hydroquinone
ArbutinMethylarbutin
Arbutin & Methyl Arbutin
Source: Uva Ursi (Bearberry leaves).
Nature: Primary Phenolic glycoside (monoside).
Uses: Diuretic- Bactericidal.

Aldehydic group of glycoside
Vanilla  a drug that has an aldehydic aglycone known as
vanillin (methylprotocatechuic aldehyde).
Green vanilla has two glycosides, known as
1. Glucovanillin which obtained from :
Vanilla beans (fruits) – curing process
** Vanillin : volatile oil which used as flavoring agent
** vanillin : 1.phenolic group volatile oils
2.aldehyde group of volatile oils
- yields glucose and vanillin
2. Glucovanillic alcohol
- yields glucose and vanillic alcohol oxidized to vannillic
aldehyde (vanillin)

Aldehydic Glycosides
1- Glucovanillin
Source: Vanilla pods.
Uses: Flavouring agent- Spray reagent.
CHO
O-glc
OCH3
CHO
OH
OCH3
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Vanillin
Green vanilla pods
Bitter in taste
Odourless
Brown vanilla pods
Sweet in taste
Vanilla odour
+ Glucose
Glucovanillin

Flavonoids
Large group of glycosides which widely distributed in the
plants kingdom and in all plants parts (leaves, roots,
rhizomes, fruits peels)
Various colors in flowers( yellow, orange, red, purple.)
 benzo-gama-pyrone derivatives, chemical structure based
on (C6 C3 C6 ).
USES:
1. Increase elasticity of blood vessels specially Rutin and
hesperidin which known as vitamin (p)
2. Anti inflammatory activity like Taxifolin

3. Anti spasmodic activity like Thyme and sage flavonoids.
4. Cytostatic activity.
Classification of Flavonoids according to the main
nucleus
Flavonoids glycosidesflavonoidsMain nucleus
Quercitrin
Rhamnoglucoside
quercetinFlavonol unsaturated
yellow
VitexinDiosmetinFlavone (unsat)
Yellow
NaringenHesperitinFlavanone (satur)
colorless

Lactone Glycosides
Glycosides containing coumarin are rare.
C
P
C
oumarin from Tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata)
antharides; aka blistering fly, russian fly or
spanish fly
hotosensitizing furocoumarins; treatment of
vitiligo

Tannins
 are polyphenols that are obtained from various
parts of different plants belonging to multiple
species.
 Derived from the word “tanning” (meant
converting animal hides to leather through
chemical processes

Tannins are classified into:
1.True tannins (hydrolysable)+ (non-
hydrolysable).
2. Pseudo tannins.

Differences Hydrolyzable Non-
Hydrolyzable
Chemically
related to
Pyrogallol Catechol
+ HCl  Phenolic acids &
sugars
Polymerize forming
Phlobaphenes (red
compounds)
+ ferric oxide  Bluish black ppt Greenish black ppt
Resultant
leather
produces
Pale – colored
sediment called
“Bloom” (pale
color from creamy
or yellowish to
light brown
Tanner’s red; solid
color leathers of
pink, red or dark
brown
+ bromine
water test
( - ) ppt ( + ) ppt

USES
INDUSTRIAL MEDICINAL
Dyes
Leather
Astringent
Precipitants

Tannin – containing Plants
1. Hamamelis or Witch Hazel leaves
(Hamamelis virginiana) Const:
hamamelitannin
2. Nutgall (from plant Quercus infectoria and
from insect producing nutgall Cynips
tinctoriae)
3. Betel nut (Areca catechu)
4. Tea (Camellia sinensis)

Definition
 Alkaloids are basic nitrogen containing
compounds. They are generally obtained from
plants, animals and microorganisms and
often demonstrate a marked physiological action

ALKALOID DESCRIPTION
 Alkaloids are basic -they form water soluble
salts. Most alkaloids are well-defined crystalline
substances which unite with acids to form salts.
In plants, they may exist
 in the free state,
 as salts or
 as N-oxides.
 Occur in a limited number of plants. Nucleic acid
exists in all plants, whereas, morphine exists in
only one plant species .

TESTS FOR ALKALOIDS
 Most alkaloids are precipitated from neutral or
slightly acidic solution by
 Dragendorff's reagent (solution of potassium
bismuth iodide)orange coloured precipitate.
 Mayer's reagent (potassio mercuric iodide
solution) Cream coloured precipitate.
 Wagner’s reagent (iodine in potassium iodide)
red-brown precipitate
 Hagers reagent (picric acid) yellow precipitate
 Caffeine does precipitate

OCCURRENCE, DISTRIBUTION& LOCATION OF
ALKALOIDS
 Occur in bacteria(Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and
rarely in fungi (pscilocin from hallucinogenic
mushrooms).
 Some alkaloids occur in several genera from
different species (caffeine), but most occur in closely
related species.
 Some occur in certain families (hyoscyamine), while
others occur only in a specific species (morphine).
 Rarely do plants contain more than 1 type of
alkaloid.
 All alkaloids of one plant will have a common
biogenenetic origin

• Alkaloids occur in all
plant parts, but are
usually localized in
one organ (e.g. the
bark or seeds).
• Within the plant,
[alkaloid] can vary
widely from part to
part –some parts may
contain no alkaloids.

• Occasionally, different
alkaloids also form in
different parts of the
plant.
• Alkaloid concentrations
occur in wide ranges –
e.g. Madagascar
periwinkle contains 3g
per (anti-cancer)
alkaloids per tonne of
leaves.

PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALKALOIDS
 MW: 100 –900
 Most bases which do not contain O2 are liquid at
room temperature (nicotine), while those that do
are solids. In rare cases they are colored.
 Most solid bases rotate the plane of polarized light,
have high melting points.
 Normally are not soluble in water (occasionally
slightly soluble).
 Soluble in a polar or slightly polar organic solvents.
Soluble in concentrated hydroalcoholic solutions

 The basicity of alkaloids depends on the availability of the
lone pair of e-on the N2 atoms: e-donating groups
enhance basicity, while e-withdrawing groups decrease it.
 Because some alkaloids have a carbonyl group on the
amide, they can also be neutral (colchicine & piperine).
 Basic characteristic renders complex alkaloids unstable,
so that in solution they are sensitive to heat, light &
oxygen.
 Basic character of alkaloids also allows them to form salts
with mineral acids (such as hydrochlorides, nitrates and
sulphates) or inorganic acids (tartrates, sulfamates).
 Alkaloid salts are soluble in water and dilute alcohols.
 Solid salts can be conserved well and are a common
commercial form of alkaloids.

NAMING OF ALKALOIDS
Numerous methods can be used to name
alkaloids
1-Generic plant name –atropine from Atropa
belladonna
2-Specific name of the plant –cocaine from
Erythroxylum coca.
3-Common name of the herb –ergotamine from
ergot (rye)
4-Physiological action of the plant –emetine
producing emesis
5-Other –e.g. morphine derived from ancient Greek
mythology –Morpheus –god of dreams

EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS
 Extraction is based on the basicity of alkaloids
and on the fact that they normally occur in plants
as salts (i.e.: on the solubility of bases and salts
in water and organic solvents).
 Herbs often contain other materials which can
interfere with extraction such as large amounts of
fat, waxes, terpenes, pigments and other
lipophilic substances (e.g by forming emulsions)
–avoided by defatting the crushed herb (using
petroleum ether and hexane.

EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS
 Extraction method normally depends on the
raw material, the purpose of extraction &
the scale on which is to be performed.
 For research purposes: chromatography
allows for quick and reliable results.
 If larger amounts of alkaloids need to be
extracted, one of the following methods can
be used.

GENERAL METHOD
Step 1
• Powdered, defatted herb is
mixed with an alkaline
aqueous solution.
• Free bases are then
extracted with organic
solvents.
• Normally aqueous ammonia
is used, but a carbonate
solution is used when
alkaloids contain fragile
elements such as a ester or
lactone.

GENERAL METHOD
• In some cases, e.g.
Cinchona bark, a mixture of
calcium hydroxide & sodium
hydroxide should be used as
the alkaloids are bound to
tannins.
• Organic solvent: chloroform,
dichloromethane or ethyl
acetate –depends on the
toxicity, safety, cost & ease of
recovery and recycling of the
solvent).

Step II
 Organic solvent containing alkaloids
(bases) is separated from residue &
concentrated by distillation under
pressure if needed.
 Solvent is stirred with an acidic
aqueous solution: alkaloids go into the
solution as salts. Impurities remain in
the organic phase.

• Aqueous solution of
alkaloid salts is
washed with an
apolar solvent
(hexane)
• Alkalinized with a
base using an
organic solvent not
miscible with water.
• Alkaloids precipitate
and dissolve in the
organic phase.

• Extraction of aqueous
phase continues till all
alkaloids have moved
into the organic phase
(tested when Mayer’s
reaction on the aqueous
phase becomes
negative).
• This purification step
may be carried out in a
separation funnel or in
centrifugal extractors

 Step III
 Organic solvent containing alkaloid bases is
decanted, freed from water traces (drying over
anhydrous salt e.g. sodium sulphate) and evaporated
under reduced pressure.
 A dry residue remains: total basic alkaloids.

Extraction of liquid alkaloids
2 Methods possible
1-Plant powder is extracted directly
with acidified water
2-Plant powder is extracted with
acidified alcoholic or a hydroalcoholic
solution. This is then followed by
distillation under vacuum (eliminates
that alcohol, leaving behind and acidic
aqueous solution of alkaloid salts)

Classification of
Alkaloids
1. Biological origin
Sedatives : Morphine
Vasodilatation : Ephedrine,
Ergonovine .
Local anesthetic : Cocaine
Hallucinating : Mescaline,
Psilocybin.

2-Biosynthetic pathway
Ornithine- Tropane, Pyrrolidine,
Pyrrolizidine
Tyrosine-Benzyl isoquinoline
Tryptophane- Indole alkaloids, Quinoline
Pyridine- Pyridine
Lysine- Quinolizidine, Piperidine

3- Chemical classification
 True (Typical) alkaloids that are derived from
amino acids and have nitrogen in a heterocyclic
ring. e.g Atropine
 Proto alkaloids that are derived from amino
acids and do not have nitrogen in a
heterocyclic ring. e.g Ephedrine
 Pseudo alkaloids that are not derived from
amino acids but have nitrogen in a heterocyclic
ring. e.g Caffeine
 False alkaloids are non alkaloids give false
positive reaction with alkaloidal reagents.

A. Proto alkaloids
 These are also called Non heterocyclic or Atypical
alkaloids or Biological amines.
 These are less commonly found in nature.
 These molecules have a nitrogen atom which is
not a part of any ring system.
 Examples of these include ephedrine, colchicine,
erythromycin and taxol etc.
 Table below shows the chemical structure and
biological significance of these compounds:

Name Structure
Biological
Significance
Ephedrine
Adrenergic agent-
used for asthma and
hay fever
Colchicine Relieves gout
Erythromycin Antibiotic

Taxol
(Paclitaxel)
Used in the treatment
of ovarian cancer,
breast cancer and
non-small cell lung
cancer

B. Heterocyclic Alkaloids or Typical Alkaloids:
 Structurally these have the nitrogen as a part of a
cyclic ring system.
 These are more commonly found in nature.
 Heterocyclic alkaloids are further subdivided into
14 groups based on the ring structure containing
the nitrogen

No. Heterocycle Example
1.
Pyrrole and
Pyrrolidine
Hygrine, Stachydrine
2.
Pyrrolizidine
Senecionine, Symphitine, Echimidine,
Seneciphylline

3.
Pyridine and Piperidine
Lobeline, Nicotine, Piperine, Conine,
Trigonelline
4.
Tropane (piperidine/N-methyl-
pyrrolidine)
Cocaine, Atropine, Hyoscyamine, Hyoscine
5.
Quinoline
Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine,
Cinchonidine

6.
Isoquinoline
Morphine, Emetine, Papaverine, Narcotine,
Tubocurarine, Codeine
7.
Aporphine (reduced
isoquinoline/naphthalene)
Boldine
8.
Quinolizidine
Lupanine, Cytisine, Laburnine, Sparteine

9.
Indole or
Benzopyrole
Ergometrine, Vinblastine, Vincristine, Strychnine, Brucine,
Ergotamine, Yohimbine, Reserpine, Serpentine,
Physostigmine
10.
Indolizidine
Castanospermine, Swainsonine
11.
Imidazole or
glyoxaline
Pilocarpine, Pilosine

12.
Purine (pyrimidine/imidazole)
Caffeine, Theobromine
13.
Steroidal (some combined as
glycosides)*
Conessine, Solanidine
14. Terpenoid*
Aconitine, lycaconitine, Aconine
*Note- Steroidal and terpenoid classes are also treated as separate classes or along with glycosides.

LIPIDS
• Such as fixed oils, fats and waxes
are esters of long – chain fatty
acids and alcohols, or of closely
related derivatives.
• SIMPLE: fixed oils, fats and
waxes
• COMPLEX: phosphatides, lecithins

LIPIDS
• CHIEF difference between these
substances is the type of alcohol
1) In fixed oils and fats, the alcohol
is glycerol, combines with the
fatty acids
2) In waxes, the alcohol has a
higher molecular weight, e.g.,
cetyl alcohol [CH3(CH2)15OH]

Characteristics Volatile Oils Fixed Oils
Chemical
consitituents
Mostly consist of terpenoids;
mixtures of eleoptenes and
stearoptenes
Mostly consist of glyceryl
esters of fatty acids
Spot Test Does not leave any spot on
filter paper
Leaves a permanent spot
on paper
Saponification Test Not applicable Saponifies with alkalies
Obtained by distillation evaporation
Rancidity Not applicable Becomes rancid on storage
Exposure to air
and light
Easily oxidized and undergo
resinification
Not applicable
Refractive index High Low
Fragrance Distinctly marked and
specific
Not applicable

FATS VERSUS FIXED OILS
Animal fats Plant fats or vegetable fats
Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
More stable Less stable
Contain saturated glycerides e.g.
glyceryl stearate
Contain unsaturated glycerides e.g.
glyceryl oleate
Iodine number will be relatively less Iodine number will be more than
compared to animal fats
Relatively higher value of Reichert-
Meissl number
Relatively lower value of Reichert-
Meissl number
Oxidative rancidity is observed more
frequently
Oxidative rancidity is relatively less
Relatively higher melting point Low melting point
Stored in liver, beneath the skin etc. Stored in fruits and seeds
Example: butter fat, beef fat Example: coconut oil, olive oil,
sunflower oil

Iodine number denote the degree of un-saturation
in fatty acids
Reichert-Meissl number indicate how much
volatile fatty acid can be extracted from a fat through
saponification
DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS

Applications of fixed oils and fats
1. Soap manufacture
2. Suppositories, tablet coating
3. Dietary supplements
4. Emulsifying agents
5. Manufacture of paints, varnishes
and lubricants
6. Therapeutic uses (castor oil).

Examples
• Castor oil
• Olive oil
• Peanut oil
• Soybean oil
• Sesame oil
• Almond oil
• Cottonseed oil
• Corn oil
• Safflower oil
• Cocoa butter

• Wax is also produced by
insects, e.g. the honeycombs
of bees and wasps.
USES OF WAX
1. Wax is used in pharmacy to
make soft ointments harder
and to prepare lip salves.
2. The technical uses of waxes
are substantial, e.g. in shoe
polishes and car waxes.

Examples
• Jojoba wax (Simmondsia chinensis)
• Carnauba wax (Copernicia cerifera)
• Beeswax (Apis mellifera)

VOLATILE OILS
• Aka essences, essential oils or ethereal oils

VOLATILE OILS
All official volatile oils are
of vegetable origin.
Normally pre-exist in the
plant – stored in a special
secretory tissue (e.g.
Citrus peel oil cells or oil
ducts in umbelliferous
fruits).
EXCEPTION: Oil of bitter
almond – formed by
hydrolysis of the
glycosides.

USES OF VOLATILE OILS
• Therapeutically (Oil of
Eucalyptus)
• Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
• Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
• Starting materials to
synthesize other compounds
(Oil of Turpentine)
• Anti-septic – due to high
phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also
as a preservative (oils interfere
with bacterial respiration)
• Anti-spasmodic (Ginger,
Lemon balm, Rosemary,
Peppermint, Chamomile,
Fennel, Caraway)
• Aromatherapy

DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS
Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in
composition, consisting of the volatile principles
contained in plants, and are more or less modified
during the preparation process.
Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oils
i. Steam distillation
ii. Expression
4 Main types of volatile oils
i. Concretes
ii. Pomades
iii. Resinoids
iv. Absolutes

CONCRETES
Prepared from raw materials of
vegetable origin (bark, flowers,
leafs, roots etc.)
Extracted by HC type solvents,
rather than distillation or
expression – Becomes
necessary when the essential
oil is adversely affected by hot
water or steam (e.g. jasmine).
Produces a more true-to-nature
fragrance.

CONCRETES
Concretes contain about
50 % wax and 50 %
essential oil
(jasmine).
Ylang ylang (concrete
volatile) contains 80 %
essential oil and 20 %
wax.
Advantages of concretes:
they are more stable
and concentrated
than pure essential
oils.

POMADES
True pomades are (volatile
oil) products of a process
known as enfleurage (hot
or cold).
Enfleurage is used for
obtaining aromatic
materials from flowers
containing volatile oils to
produce perfume long
after they were cut.

ENFLEURAGE: METHOD
A glass plate is covered with a
thin coating of especially
prepared and odourless fat
(called a chassis).
The freshly cut flowers are
individually laid on to the fat
which in time becomes
saturated with their essential
oils. The flowers are renewed
with fresh material.
Eventually the fragrance-
saturated fat, known as
pomade, may be treated with
alcohol to extract the oil from
the fat.

RESINOIDS
Prepared from natural
resinous material (dried
material) by extraction
with a non-aqueous
solvent, e.g. Petroleum
ether or hexane.
E.g. Balsams – Peru balsam
or benzoin; resins
(amber or mastic);
Oleoresin (copaiba
balsam and turpentine);
Oleogum resins
(frankincense and myrrh)

RESINOIDS
Can be viscous liquids,
semi-solid or solid.
Usually homogeneous
mass of non-
crystalline character.
Uses: in perfumery as
fixatives to prolong
the effect of a
fragrance.

ABSOLUTES
Obtained from a concrete,
pomade, or a resinoid by
alcoholic extraction.
The extraction process may
be repeated.
The ethanol solution is
cooled & filtered to
eliminate waxes.
The ethanol is then removed
by distillation.
They are usually highly
concentrated viscous
liquids.

Fx OF VOLATILE OILS
In most cases, the biological
function of the terpenoids
of essential oils remains
obscure – it is thought
that they play an
ecological role –
protection from predators
& attraction of
pollinators.

LOCALIZATION
Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are
generally associated with the presence of
specialized histological structures, often located
on or near the surface of the plant:
- Oil cells of Zingiberaceae
- Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae
- Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae
- Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae
(Compositeae)

VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION
• Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated
compounds derived from these HC’s.
– Oil of turpentine – mainly HC’s
– Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated
compounds
• EXCEPTION: Oils derived from
glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil &
mustard oil).
• Oxygenated compounds – responsible for
the odour/smell of the oil. They are
slightly water soluble – Rose water &
Orange Water; more alcohol soluble.
• Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are
aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with
terpenes.
• Some compounds are aromatic, but
terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based
on their biosynthetic origin
i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate
mevalonic acid pathway)
ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic
acid-phenylpropanoid route)
iii. Miscellaneous Origin

Terpene derivatives
CH3
OH
H3C CH3
Menthol
(peppermint oil)
CH3
O
H3C CH2
Carvone
(caraway oil)
CH3
H3C CH3
OH
Thymol
(thyme oil)

Aromatic compounds
OH
OCH3
Eugenol
(clove oil)
OCH3
CH3
Anethole
(anise oils)
CHO
Cinnamaldehyde
(cinnamon oil)
CH2

A. TERPENES
Terpenes, or terpenoids,
are the largest group
of secondary products
(metabolites).
They are all formed
from acetyl CoA or
glycolytic
intermediates.

CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
All terpenes are formed
from 5-C elements
Isoprene is the basic
structural element.

CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms they
contain
10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) – monoterpenes
15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called sesquiterpenes.
20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.
Larger terpenes (30 Carbons) are called triterpenes
(triterpenoids), 40 Carbons – called tetraterpenes and
polyterpenoids.

TERPENOIDS
Terpenoids contain only the
most volatile terpenes
(i.e. molecular weight is
not too high)  mono
and sesquiterpenes
May occur as oxygenated
derivatives, e.g. alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones,
phenols, oxides & esters.

EXAMPLES OF TERPENES
i. LIMONENE
ii. MENTHOL
iii. BORNEOL
iv. SESQUITERPENES

i. LIMONENE
Structural classification:
Monocyclic terpene
Functional
Classification:
Unsaturated HC
Occurrence: Citrus fruit

ii. MENTHOL
Structural classification:
Monocyclic with
hydroxyl group
Functional
classification:
Alcohol
Occurrence: Peppermint

iii. BORNEOL
Functional
Classification: ////
Occurrence: Cinnamon

iv. SESQUITERPENES
(Contain 3 isoprene units)
Acyclic – E.g. Farnesol
Monocyclic – E.g. Bisobolol
Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene
(Chamomile)

B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Many are phenols are
phenol esters
E.g. Vanillin

PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS
• Almost entirely volatile without
decomposition.
• Density: Most are less than 1g/ml.
– 2 are heavier – Oil of Cinnamon and
Clove oil.
• Soluble in ether, chloroform &
alcohol.
• Slightly soluble in water: give it a
characteristic odour & taste.
• Leaves a temporary translucent
stain on paper which disappears as
the oil volatilizes.
• Most are colorless. Oxidize on
exposure to air and resinify 
colour becomes darker (odour
changes slightly).
• All are characteristic odors.
• Most are optically active.

PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL
OILS
Essential oils may be produced
i. By steam
- Simple steam distillation
- Saturated steam distillation
- Hydrodiffusion
i. By expression
ii. Other Methods
Concretes & Resinoids may be produced
i. By solvent extraction
ii. By methods using oils & fats
iii. By extraction by supercritical gasses

ESSENTIAL OILS:
i.STEAM DISTILLATION
a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION
Plant material is immersed directly in a still
filled with water. This is then brought
to a boil.
Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a
cold surface.
Essential oil separates based on difference in
density and immiscibility.

b. SATURATED STEAM
Plant does not come into contact with the water 
steam is injected through the plant material
placed on perforated trays.
It is possible to operate under moderate pressure.
Advantages: Limits the alteration of the
constituents of the oil
It shortens the duration of the treatment
It conserves energy
It can also be conducted on on-line in automated
set ups.

c. HYDRODIFFUSION
Pulses of steam is sent through the plant
material at very low pressure from (top to
bottom).
ADVANTAGE: Normally produces a
product of high quality.
Saves time and energy.

ii. EXPRESSION
(E.G.OF CITRUS EPICARPS)
The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the
ruptured secretory cavities are recovered.
CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action is applied
on the surface of the fruit in a flow of water. The
solid waste is eliminated, and the essential oil
separated from the aqueous phase by
centrifugation.
OTHER machines break the cavities by depression,
and collect the essential oil directly  prevents
the degradation linked to the action of water.

EXPRESSION OF CITRUS
EPICARPS
Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or
sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the
essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray of
water after the abrasion (scarification – puncture
by pins) before or during the expression of the
fruit juice.
Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows
recycling, and markedly increases the final yield
of essential oil.
Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruit
juices (by vacuum de-oiling)

iii. OTHER METHODS
- Steam distillation by microwaves under
vacuum. In this procedure, the plant is heated
selectively by microwave radiation in a chamber
inside which the pressure is reduced
sequentially.
- fresh plants require no added water.
- ADVANTAGE: This method is fast, consumes
little energy and yields a product which is most
often of a higher quality than the traditional
steam distillation product.

PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES &
RESINOIDS
i. SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Extraction is generally preceded by a
process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or
semi-desiccated organs, chopping
herbaceous drugs, pounding roots &
rhizomes or turning wood into chips or
shavings.
The procedure is conducted in specialized
facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION
The solvent selection is influenced by technical &
economical factors
- Selectivity (being a good solvent for the specific
constituents).
- Stability (chemical inertness)
- Boiling point should not be so high that the solvent
can be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit
losses & control cost
- Handling safety
Solvents most used are aliphatic HC’s – petroleum ether,
hexane, propane & liquid butane.
Although benzene is a good solvent, its toxicity
increasingly limits is use.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION
At the end of the procedure, the solvent contained
in the plant material is recovered by steam
injection.
Main disadvantages of solvent extraction
- Lack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances
may end up in the concretes & render further
purification necessary.
- The toxicity of solvents  leads to the restrictive
regulations regarding their use
- Residues in the final product.

ii. METHODS USING OILS &
FATS
These procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of
the fragrant components of plants in fats.
a. “Enfleurage” – the plant material is placed in contact
with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by
- Cold diffusion into the fat
- Digestion – carried out with heat, by immersing the
plant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage).
The final product is known as a floral pomade.

METHODS USING OILS & FATS
b. PNEUMATIC METHOD: similar in principle
to the enfleurage process.
It involves the passage of a current of hot air
through the flowers.
The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatile
oil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat
in which the volatile oil is absorbed.

iii. EXTRACTION BY
SUPERCRITICAL GASSES
Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the density of a
liquid & the viscosity of a gas  therefore diffuses well
through solids, resulting in a good solvent.
CO2 is the main gas used
Advantages of CO2
- It is a natural product
- chemically inert, non-flammable
- non-toxic
- easy to completely eliminate
- selective
- readily available
- Inexpensive

EXTRACTION BY
DISADVANTAGE: Technical constraints
- High cost of initial investment
ADVANTAGES:
- obtain extracts which are very close in
composition to the natural product.
- It is possible to adjust the selectivity &
viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature &
pressure
- All result in the increase of popularity of this
type of method

EXTRACTION BY
USES
Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare
hops extracts or to remove nicotine from
tobacco, the method is now used to
- Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)
- Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)
- Plant oils
- To produce specified types of a certain
product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.

TREATMENTS OF THE OILS
Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize,
neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.
i. Steam jet under vacuum
Allows for the elimination of smelly or irritating
products, and to obtain a final product of
desired “profile”.
ii. Chromatrographic techniques
This permits a good separation of the essential oil
from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.

VARIABILITY FACTORS OF
ESSENTIAL OILS
i. Occurrence of Chemotypes
ii. Influence of the vegetative cycle
iii. Influence of environmental factors
iv. Influence of preparation method

i. CHEMOTYPES
Chemical breeds
commonly occur in
plants containing
volatile oils, e.g.
Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris) – has 7
different chemotypes,
each with slightly
different types &
amounts of volatile
oils.

ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE
Proportions of the different
constituents of a volatile
oil may vary greatly
throughout its
development. Wide
ranges are commonly
found in fennel, carrot
and coriander (linalool is
higher in ripe fruit than
unripe fruit). Mentha
(peppermint) is also
greatly affected by the
vegetative cycle.

iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Temperature, humidity,
duration of daylight
(radiation), and wind
patterns all have a direct
influence on volatile oil
content, especially in those
herbs that have superficial
histological storage
structures (e.g. glandular
trichomes). When the
localization is deeper, the oil
quality is more constant.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
e.g. Peppermint: long days
& temperate nights 
higher yields of oil &
menthofuran. Cold
nights lead to an increase
in menthol.
Laurus nobilis (Bay) [volatile
oil] is greater in the
southern hemisphere
than the northern.
Citrus: higher temperatures
= higher oil content.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Cultivation practices
also play an
important factor to
the yield & quality of
the final product.
Fertilization and the
amounts of N, P and
K have been studied
for various species.
The watering regiment
also plays an
important role.

PREPARATION METHOD
Because of the volatile nature of the
constituents of essential oils, the
composition of the product
obtained by steam distillation is
often different from the
constituents originally found in
the secretory organs of the plant.
During steam distillation, the water,
acidity and tempereature may
induce hydrolysis of the esters.
Rearrangements, isomerizations,
racemiazations, oxidations and
other reactions also occur, all of
which change the composition.

GINGER: Zingiber officinale
• Definition: Ginger is the
peeled or unpeeled
rhizome of Zingiber
officinale (Zingiberaceae).
• Common Names:
Jamaican ginger, Ginger

Zingiber officinalis - Ginger
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Jamaica
• China
• India Africa
HISTORY
Cultivated in India from the
earliest times. Used by
Greeks and Romans and
was a common article of
commerce in the European
Middle Ages.

CULTIVATION & PREPARATION
• Grows well in subtropical
temperatures with high
rainfall.
• Grown by vegetative means.
• Mulching or is necessary as
the plant rapidly exhausts
minerals from the soil.
• When the stems wither, the
rhizomes are ready for
collection.
• Dried.

MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
• Scraped/peeled herb has little
resemblance to the fresh herb
(loss in weight & shrinkage).
• Occurs in branched pieces
“hands” or “races”.
• Buds
• No cork
• Aromatic odour & pungent
taste.
• Unscraped rhizome: resembles
scraped herb –
• Covered with cork (brownish
layers)

MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
• Cork cells – high starch
content
• Cork cells are absent in
the scraped drug.
• Outer zone of flattened
parenchyma & inner
zone of normal
parenchyma.
• Oil cells scattered in the
cortex.

Zingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (1 – 2%)
– Camphene
– Cineole
– Citral
– Borneol
• Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory
• Shogaols – increases bile secretion
• Sesquiterpene HC’s
– Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)
• Resins
• Starch
• Mucilage

Zingiber officinale
• VARIETIES
– Chinese Ginger – sliced
– African ginger – darker (cortex is
grey – black in colour); lacks the
odour but more pungent than
Jamaican herb.
• ALLIED DRUGS
– Japanese ginger – Z. mioga
– Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes
preserved by boiling in syrup.
• ADULTERANTS
– Spent ginger
– Vegetable adulterants (detected with
microscopical examination).

USES & ACTIONS
ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Stimulant
• Anti-emetic
• Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal
• Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer
• Gingerol – pungent component –
Anti-inflammatory
• Shogaols– increases bile secretion &
enhanced GIT activity
USES
• Motion Sickness
• Morning Sickness

CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
DEFINITION: Cardamom
consists of the dried, nearly
dried ripe fruits of Elettaria
cardamomum var miniscula
(Zingiberaceae).
PARTS USED: Seeds (should
be kept in the fruit until
ready to be used – Prevents
loss of volatile oils).
(3RD most expensive spice).

Elettaria cardamomum
• GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
– Sri Lanka
– India
– Guatemala
• HISTORY
– Traditional Indian
ceremonies

PRODUCTION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
• Mainly obtained from
cultivated plants
(propagated by seedlings
or vegetatively
[problematic due to virus
infection]).
• Capsules on the same
plant ripen at different
times – important to
collect them before they
split.

COLLECTION & PREPARATION
• Fruits are dried slowly
(outdoors or indoors).
• Too rapid drying – capsules
split & shed seeds
• Calyx at the apex of the stalk
and the stalk at the base may
be removed.
• Fruits are graded with a sift
into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’,
‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.
• If they have been sulphur –
bleached (improved colour),
it will be aired outdoors
before packed for transport.

• Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves
growing from the rhizome.
• Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
• Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.
• Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.
• Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell
contains x2 row of seeds.
• Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm
broad.
• Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) 
paler in unripe seeds.
• Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
• Pungent taste

• Oil cells
• Predominant
Parenchyma
(yellow colour)
• Cells containing
silica
• Starch grains

VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
• ADULTERATION
– Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp
(powdered).
• ALLIED HERBS
– Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula
– Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated &
sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)
– Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)
– Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)
– Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
• 2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil
• Abundant starch (up to 50%)
• Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
• Calcium oxalate

Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES
• Flavouring agent
(curries & biscuits)
• Liqueur manufacture
• Small amount is used
for pharmaceutical
manufacture
(Compound Tincture of
Cardamom).

CINNAMON: Cinnamomum
zeylanicum
• DEFINITION:
Cinnamon is the dried
bark of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum (Lauraceae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
South India, Seychelles,
Madagascar, Martinique,
Cayenne, Jamaica &
Brazil.

CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
Grown from seed
Cut down when 2-3 years
old.
After 5-6 shoots grow from
the stump (18 months),
shoots are harvested,
trimmed and fermented.
Bark is removed.
Peeled bark is then
stretched over a suitable
stick
Outer cortex is removed.

PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum
Individually scraped
barks are placed
inside each other.
Compound quills are
dried on wooden
frames in the open air
without exposure to
direct sunlight.
Sorted into grades.

Normally received in shorter lengths
known as ‘cigar lengths’.
Consists of a single or double
compound quill about 6-10 mm
diameter of varying length.
Thickness of the quill varies according
to grade (good quality: Not >
0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm.
External surface: is yellow-brown,
shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres)
and occasional scars & holes
(leave/twig positions).
Inner surface: darker, longitudinally
striated.
Odour: fragrant
Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic

• Transverse: absence of epidermis & cork
• Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)
• Secondary phloem is composed of phloem
parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells,
phloem fibres & medullary rays.
• Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.
• Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage
• Calcium oxalates

Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (at least
1.2 %)
• Phlobaphenes
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
• Starch

CINNAMON OIL –
ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBS
Adulterants
• Cinnamon Leaf Oil
• Oil of Cassia
Allied Herbs
• Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicum grown in
Brazil – not used in Britain
• C. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles
C. cassia

Cinnamomum zeylanicum - USES
Flavouring agent
Mild astringent
Oil: Carminative
Germicide

LEMON PEEL
Definition: Dried lemon
(Limonis Cortex) peel is
obtained from the fruit of
Citrus limon (Rutaceae).
Botanical Description:
Small tree, growing to 3-5 m
in height.
Geographical Sources
Mediterranean Regions

Limonis Cortex –
Lemons are collected in
January, August &
November, before the
green colour changes to
yellow.
The smaller fruit, which
would not be sold on the
produce market, are used
in the preparation of oil
of lemon - the peel is
removed with a sharp
knife in the form of a
spiral band.

Limonis Cortex –
CHARACTERISTICS
Dried lemon peel occurs
in spiral bands (2 cm
wide; 2-3 mm thick).
The outer surface is
rough & yellow; the
inner surface is pulpy
& white (anatomically
similar to that of an
orange peel).
Odour: Strong &
characteristic
Taste: aromatic & bitter

Limonis Cortex –
CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Should contain at least 2.5%
volatile oil
Vitamin C
Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
Mucilage
Calcium Oxalate
USES
Flavouring purposes

LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis
Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of
the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon
(Rutaceae).
BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without
the use of heat, from the fresh peel.
Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields
oil of inferior quality.
Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by
expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical
purposes.
Geographical Sources:
Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of

Preparation of Lemon Oils
i. Hand Methods
No longer applicable to
pharmaceutical oils

Production of Lemon Oils
ii. Machine Processes
Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.
Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,
rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing
action of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge
method is due to the fact that there is no contact between the
oil & the inner white part of the skin.
The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older
ones and give a higher yeild
iii. Distilled Oils
Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by
distillation, mainly from the residue of the expression
processes. It is much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-
made oil.

Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS
Terpenes – mainly limonene
Sesquiterpenes
Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)
Esters
Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and
should be protected from the action of air
& light as much as possible.

Oleum limonis –
ADULTATION & USES
ADULTERATION
Oil of turpentine
Terpenes from ‘terpeneless oil
of lemon’
Distilled oil of lemon
Oil of lemon-grass
USES
Perfumery
Flavouring

TERPENELESS LEMON OIL
Definition: Oil prepared by
concentrating lemon oil
in vacuum until most of
the terpenes have been
removed, or by solvent
partition. The
concentrate is a
terpeneless oil, which has
a citral content of 40-50
%.
It is equal in flavouring to
10-15 times its volume of
lemon oil

Agathosma betulina –
CONSTITUENS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils
• Pulegone
• Menthone & isomenthone
• limonene
Diosmin
Mucilage
Resin
Calcium oxalates
Buchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action
USES/ACTIONS
Diuretic
Urinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s

NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL
Definition: Nutmeg is the
dried kernel of the seed
of Myristica fragrans
(Myristicaceae).
Indigenous to the Molucca
Islands (Spice Islands)
Cultivated in Indonesia,
Malaysia & the West
Indies.

NUTMEG – Myristica fragrans
HISTORY
First Introduced to the
Europeans by the Arabs.
Portuguese lost control of
the spice trade to the
Dutch, who maintained
complete monopoly by
destroying all trees in the
neighbouring islands &
preventing the export of
living seeds.

CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
Trees can be grown from fresh seed
gown in the shell. The seeds
germinate after about 5 weeks.
When the plants are 6 months
old, they are transplanted to the
fields.
Nutmegs are dried in the shells
(process differs according to local
conditions). Normally they are
dried in the sun & covered at
night & rainy weather. They can
also be dried in the oven or over
low flames.
When completely dried, the kernel
rattles in the testa, which is then
cracked & the nutmeg extracted.

Nutmeg trees are evergreen,
growing up to 20 m in
height.
Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm
long & 2 cm broad.
If not heavily limed, the
surface is a brown or grey
brown in colour.
Odour: Strong & aromatic
Taste: Pungent and slightly
bitter.

Potassium acid tartrate
crystals
Parenchym with thin
brown walls
Oval oil cells
Feathery crystals of fat
Few tannin cells
(containing tannin &
starch)

NUTMEG – ALLIED HERBS
Papua nutmegs –
from M. argentea
(New Guinea) – little
odour & a
disagreeable taste.
Bombay nutmegs –
M. malabarica (India) –
lack the characteristic
odour of the genuine
herb.

NUTMEG OIL
Nutmeg oil is distilled from the
kernels of Myristica fragrans.
CONSTITUENTS
Pinene
Sabinene
Camphene
Dipentene
Safrole
Eugenol & eugenol derivatives
Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to
humans (large does of nutmeg
or nutmeg oil may cause
convulsions).

MACE
Common mace or Banda
mace consists of the
dried arillus or arillode
of M. fragrans.
Description: bright red
colour & lacks in aroma.

MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils (similar to that
of nutmeg) – eugenol
derivatives are the main
active constituents –
responsible for the anti-
bacterial effects.
Also has 2 anti-microbial
resorcinols (Malabaricone
B and C)
Nutmegs, maces & their
oils, are all used for
• Carminatives
• Flavouring
• Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea
of nutmeg – Ayurveda).

CLOVE
DEFINITION: Cloves are
the dried flower buds of
Syzygium aromaticum
(Eugenia caryophyllus),
(Myrtaceaea).
Molucca or Clove Islands,
Zanzibar, Pemba,
Madagascar, Indonesia &
Brazil.

HISTORY OF CLOVE
Cloves were used in China as
early as 266 BC, and by the
4th century, they were known
in Europe, although very
expensive.
Same as with nutmeg, the
Dutch also destroyed all trees
from surrounding native
islands to secure a monopoly,
and cultivated them only in a
small group of islands.
In 1770, the French managed to
introduce clove trees to
Mauritius, and started
cultivating them there, as
well as in Zanzibar, Penang
and Sumatra.

The flower buds are
collected when the lower
part turns green-crimson.
The cloves are dried in
the open air on mats &
separated from their
peduncles (forming clove
stalks which are also sold
commercially).
If left on the tree for too
long, the buds open & the
petals fall, leaving
“brown cloves”. Later
the fruits (“mother
cloves”) are produced.

Cloves are 10-17.5 mm long.
The head consists of 4
slightly projecting calyx
teeth, 4 membranous
petals and numerous
incurved stamens around
a large style.
Odour: Spicy & Pungent
Taste: Aromatic

Heavy cuticularized epidermis
Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)
Stomata (epidermis of sepals)
Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)
Lignified sclereids

CONSTITUENTS
14-21% Volatile oils
• Mainly eugenol & isoeugenol
• Sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol
Tannins
Triterpene acids & esters
Glycosides

USES OF CLOVE
Stimulant aromatic
Spice
For the preparation of
volatile oil
Sesquiterpenes:
potential anti-
carcinogenic
compounds

CLOVE OIL
Oil distilled in Europe
and the US normally
does not need
purification, while oil
distilled in other areas
(e.g. Madagascar)
does. After
purification the oil is
sold with varying
eugenol contents.
Oil of cloves is yellow
or colourless, is
slightly heavier than

CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol
Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes)
Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils –
should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight
container, & should be protected from light &
heat.

CLOVE OIL - USES
Anti-septic
Aromatic
Stimulant
Flavouring Agent

EUCALYPTUS LEAF
DEFINTION: Eucalyptus
leaf consists of the whole
or cut dried leaves of the
older branches of
Eucalyptus globulus,
(Myrtaceae).
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Portugal, SA, Spain, China,
Brazil, Australia, India &
Paraguay.

Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION
MACROSCOPICAL
• Older dried leaves are
grey-brown & have
lateral veins. Secretory
oil cells are visible in
leaves held to the light.
MICROSCOPIC
• Epidermal cells have a
thick cuticle.
• Anisocytic stomata
• Mesophyll has
schizogenous oil glands
• Calcium oxalate crystals:
Prisms & Cluster crystals

Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile Oil (at least 2
%)
sesquiterpene - Anti-
bacterial action
against oral
pathogens.

EUCALYPTUS OIL
Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves
of various species of Eucalyptus and rectified.
They are produced in the same countries which
produce the dry herb.
Only a certain amount of species produce oil
suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a
high cineole content and low amounts of
phellandrene and aldehydes.
Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E.
smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.

CHARACTERISTICS &
CONSTITUENTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Colourless or pale yellow
liquid
Aromatic & camphoraceous
in odour.
Pungent & camphoraceous
in taste, which is
followed by a sensation
of cold.
CONSTITUENTS
At least 70 volatile oils
(mainly cineole).

EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES
Alleviating the symptoms of
nasopharyngeal
infections
Treating coughs
Decongestant.
Official preparations
Mixtures, inhalations,
lozenges and pastilles;
also applied externally as
ointments and liniments.

FENNEL
DEFINITION: Fennel
consists of the dried ripe
fruits of Foeniculum
vulgare (Umbelliferae).
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Europe, India, China &
Egypt. Mediterranean
origin.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1-4 % Volatile oil
• trans-anethole
• Antethole
• Estragole
• Fenchone
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Glycosides

ACTIONS & USES
ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Expectorant
• Aromatic
- All due to anethole (and
fenchone)
USES
Flatulence
Dyspepsia
Chronic coughs & catarrh

Foeniculum vulgare – USES
Culinary purposes
Used in medicine as a
flavouring
Carminative

CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL
DEFINITION: Caraway
consists of the dried, ripe
fruits of Caram carvi
(Umbelliferae).
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Wild & Cultivated in
Central & Northern
Europe, Holland,
Denmark, Germany,
Russia, Finland, Poland,
Hungary, Britain, Egypt,
Morocco, Australia &
China

A biennial herb growing up
to 1 m in height.
Herb: Normally consists of
mericarps separated from
the pedicels. Fruits are
slightly curved, brown &
glabrous.
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm
wide
Often the stigma & style are
still attached.
Characteristic aromatic
odour & taste

Pitted sclerenchyma
secretory canals
Dark, red-brown cells
containing a pale
yellow or colourless
oleoresin
Thick cellulose walls
Calcium oxalate crystals

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1-7 % Volatile oils
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Carveole
8-20 % Fixed oils
Proteins
Calcium oxalates
Colouring matter
Resin

CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL
DEFINITION: Coriander is
the dried, nearly ripe
fruit of Coriandrum
sativum (Umbelliferae).
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Indigenous to Italy. Also
cultivated in Holland,
Central & Eastern
Europe, Mediterranean
(Morocco, Malta &
Egypt), China, India &
Bagladesh.

Annual herb growing 0.7 m
in height with white or
pink flowers.
Drug: Normally consists of
whole cremocarps –
straw yellow & 2-4 mm in
diameter when ripe.
Considerable variation
occurs (e.g. Indian variety
> oval).
Apex has 2 styles.
Fruits have an aromatic
odour & spicy taste.
Unripe plant: unpleasant
mousy odour  same
odour oil has when made
from unripe fruit.

Outer pericarp: stomata
& calcium oxalte
prisms.
Thick sclerenchyma
Testa:= brown flattened
cells
Endosperm is curved &
consists of
parenchymous cells
containing fixed oils.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1.8 % Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols & esters
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Phenolic acids
High fat content (16-28%)
Protein (11-17%)

Coriandrum sativum - USES
Domestic purposes
(cooking - curries)
Pharmaceutically:
flavouring agent &
Carminative

PEPPERMINT
& PEPPERMINT OIL
DEFINITION:
Peppermint is the
dried leaves of
Mentha piperita
(Labiate). It should
contain at least 1.2 %
volatile oil.
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES:
Europe & America

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