This study examined how individual, family, and school-level factors influence the age of sexual initiation in adolescents using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Hierarchical linear models were used to predict age of sexual initiation separately for boys and girls. Results found that more favorable attitudes about sex at the school level were associated with younger age of sexual initiation for both boys and girls. The school-level mean parental education also moderated the influence of individual attitudes about sex on age of initiation. Perception of maternal approval and peer approval were the most important predictors of younger age of initiation for boys, while more factors were significant predictors for girls. The findings support the need for school-wide prevention programs that address attitudes
College Students' Attitude towards Premarital Sex: Implication for Guidance a...AJSERJournal
In many African countries, discussing sexuality still remains a taboo, despite the increasing number of
sexual activities among college students. The study sought to find out college students attitude towards premarital sex
and the implication of guidance and counselling. It was guided by the social learning theory. Using a descriptive survey
design data was collected through personally delivered questionnaire to 452 students who were randomly selected
from middle level colleges in Nakuru County. The questionnaire was validated through piloting in one college outside
Nakuru. Reliability coefficient for questionnaire was estimated through test-retest method and Cronbach’s alpha stood
at R=84. Data was analyzed using qualitative and quantitative data. Study findings indicate that 258 or 57% of the
respondents were liberal about premarital sex and viewed it as a normal act that should not attract criticism. A total of
194 or 43% were conservative and believed that it is against the norms of society and the teachings of the church.
Factors associated with premarital sex, include love, peer pressure, drug abuse and economic factors. Counselling was
seen as the best strategic to handle sex issues, but was not effective due to stigma associated with premarital sex. The
study recommended the college administrators step up strategies to supervise both the social and academic life of the
students. By providing them with information, to make informed consent on sexual matters.
A presentation by Paul Hewett as part of the Comparability of Measurement Instruments Across Ages and Contexts panel discussion at the International Symposium on Cohort and Longitudinal Studies in Developing Contexts, UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti, Florence, Italy 13-15 October 2014
Wekerle CIHR Team - Child Sexual Abuse & Adolescent Development: Moving from ...Christine Wekerle
Child Sexual Abuse & Adolescent Development: Moving from Trauma To Resilience - Findings from The Maltreatment and Adolescent Pathways (MAP) Research Study
EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDAR...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
Keywords:Parental Influence, Sexual behaviors, Sexual problems, Adolescent, Sex related information, Parent.
College Students' Attitude towards Premarital Sex: Implication for Guidance a...AJSERJournal
In many African countries, discussing sexuality still remains a taboo, despite the increasing number of
sexual activities among college students. The study sought to find out college students attitude towards premarital sex
and the implication of guidance and counselling. It was guided by the social learning theory. Using a descriptive survey
design data was collected through personally delivered questionnaire to 452 students who were randomly selected
from middle level colleges in Nakuru County. The questionnaire was validated through piloting in one college outside
Nakuru. Reliability coefficient for questionnaire was estimated through test-retest method and Cronbach’s alpha stood
at R=84. Data was analyzed using qualitative and quantitative data. Study findings indicate that 258 or 57% of the
respondents were liberal about premarital sex and viewed it as a normal act that should not attract criticism. A total of
194 or 43% were conservative and believed that it is against the norms of society and the teachings of the church.
Factors associated with premarital sex, include love, peer pressure, drug abuse and economic factors. Counselling was
seen as the best strategic to handle sex issues, but was not effective due to stigma associated with premarital sex. The
study recommended the college administrators step up strategies to supervise both the social and academic life of the
students. By providing them with information, to make informed consent on sexual matters.
A presentation by Paul Hewett as part of the Comparability of Measurement Instruments Across Ages and Contexts panel discussion at the International Symposium on Cohort and Longitudinal Studies in Developing Contexts, UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti, Florence, Italy 13-15 October 2014
Wekerle CIHR Team - Child Sexual Abuse & Adolescent Development: Moving from ...Christine Wekerle
Child Sexual Abuse & Adolescent Development: Moving from Trauma To Resilience - Findings from The Maltreatment and Adolescent Pathways (MAP) Research Study
EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDAR...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
Keywords:Parental Influence, Sexual behaviors, Sexual problems, Adolescent, Sex related information, Parent.
The impact of athletics and extracurricular activities on academic performanc...MollieMcGee1
This current literature review intends to examine the relationship between extracurriculars and academic achievement. Many consider extracurricular activities to have a positive impact on adolescents and emerging adults. However, this study observes extracurricular involvement and athletes and their positive or negative correlation with academic achievement. Additionally, this study observes the relationship between extracurriculars and academic achievement for differing demographics and motivations, including gender, socioeconomic status, minority status, disability status, and college decision. The findings discussed in this article reveal trends for each demographic. Athletic women tend to have higher GPAs than athletic men, low-income students often cannot afford extracurriculars but benefit greatly when they participate, involved minority students are more likely to be confident about their academics, and students facing mental health issues may be afraid to seek help. As expected, students become more involved in extracurricular activities when their goal is to apply to colleges and universities. This review suggests that involvement in extracurriculars and athletics positively impact adolescents and young adults of various demographics.
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There is robust evidence on the influence of parenting styles on children and adolescents academic achievement. Based on Baumrind’s model of parenting styles, the majority of studies conclude that the authoritative parenting style is the most efficient to enhance academic achievement, in contrast to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles that are most commonly associated with academic achievement in a negative direction. However, there is an important line of research that indicates that culture plays a crucial role in the relation between parenting and academic success and that Baumrind´s model may not always fit the parenting styles observed in non-western societies.
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The impact of athletics and extracurricular activities on academic performanc...MollieMcGee1
This current literature review intends to examine the relationship between extracurriculars and academic achievement. Many consider extracurricular activities to have a positive impact on adolescents and emerging adults. However, this study observes extracurricular involvement and athletes and their positive or negative correlation with academic achievement. Additionally, this study observes the relationship between extracurriculars and academic achievement for differing demographics and motivations, including gender, socioeconomic status, minority status, disability status, and college decision. The findings discussed in this article reveal trends for each demographic. Athletic women tend to have higher GPAs than athletic men, low-income students often cannot afford extracurriculars but benefit greatly when they participate, involved minority students are more likely to be confident about their academics, and students facing mental health issues may be afraid to seek help. As expected, students become more involved in extracurricular activities when their goal is to apply to colleges and universities. This review suggests that involvement in extracurriculars and athletics positively impact adolescents and young adults of various demographics.
What shapes childrens development? Evidence from Young Lives Cohort StudyYoung Lives Oxford
A key contribution of life-course analysis is in exploring the timing of critical influences and experiences that affect children’s outcomes, including factors that increase (or reduce) resilience.
Parenting Styles, Academic Achievement and the Influence of Culture | Crimson...CrimsonpublishersPPrs
There is robust evidence on the influence of parenting styles on children and adolescents academic achievement. Based on Baumrind’s model of parenting styles, the majority of studies conclude that the authoritative parenting style is the most efficient to enhance academic achievement, in contrast to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles that are most commonly associated with academic achievement in a negative direction. However, there is an important line of research that indicates that culture plays a crucial role in the relation between parenting and academic success and that Baumrind´s model may not always fit the parenting styles observed in non-western societies.
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This research paper was done to show proficiency in research analysis and writing. The research topic of single fathers as successful parents was chosen to show that traditional families are not the only way to view family and to study whether fathers can rear successful children in the way that mothers tend to.
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EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDARY ...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
ArticleEffect of a Paraprofessional Home-Visiting Interven.docxfredharris32
Article
Effect of a Paraprofessional Home-Visiting Intervention on
American Indian Teen Mothers’ and Infants’ Behavioral
Risks: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Allison Barlow, M.A., M.P.H.
Britta Mullany, Ph.D., M.H.S.
Nicole Neault, M.P.H.
Scott Compton, Ph.D.
Alice Carter, Ph.D.
Ranelda Hastings, B.S.
Trudy Billy, B.S.
Valerie Coho-Mescal
Sherilynn Lorenzo
John T. Walkup, M.D.
Objective: The authors sought to exam-
ine the effectiveness of Family Spirit, a
paraprofessional-delivered, home-visiting
pregnancy and early childhood interven-
tion, in improving American Indian teen
mothers’ parenting outcomes and moth-
ers’ and children’s emotional and behav-
ioral functioning 12 months postpartum.
Method: Pregnant American Indian teens
(N=322) from four southwestern tribal
reservation communities were randomly
assigned in equal numbers to the Family
Spirit intervention plus optimized stan-
dard care or to optimized standard care
alone. Parent and child emotional and
behavioral outcome data were collected at
baseline and at 2, 6, and 12 months
postpartum using self-reports, interviews,
and observational measures.
Results: At 12 months postpartum, moth-
ers in the intervention group had sig-
nificantly greater parenting knowledge,
parenting self-efficacy, and home safety
attitudes and fewer externalizing behav-
iors, and their children had fewer ex-
ternalizing problems. In a subsample of
mothers with any lifetime substance use at
baseline (N=285; 88.5%), children in the
intervention group had fewer externalizing
and dysregulation problems than those in
the standard care group, and fewer scored
in the clinically “at risk” range ($10th
percentile) for externalizing and internal-
izing problems. No between-group differ-
ences were observed for outcomes
measured by the Home Observation for
Measurement of the Environment scale.
Conclusions: Outcomes 12 months post-
partum suggest that the Family Spirit
intervention improves parenting and in-
fant outcomes that predict lower lifetime
behavioral and drug use risk for partici-
pating teen mothers and children.
(Am J Psychiatry 2013; 170:83–93)
Nearly half (41%) of American Indian and Alaska
Native females begin child-rearing in adolescence, com-
pared with 21% for all races overall in the United States,
and bear twice as many children while in their teens
compared with the general U.S. population (1, 2). Teen
pregnancy and child-rearing are associated with negative
maternal outcomes and poor parenting, which put teens’
children at higher risk for behavioral health problems in
their lifetime (3–5). Compounding the challenge of teen
parenting, American Indian and Alaska Native adolescent
females experience higher drug use rates and related
conduct problems than other U.S. ethnic groups, in-
cluding school dropout, intentional and unintentional
injury, and sexually transmitted disease (1, 6, 7). Native
communities have limited professional health care
resources for young families and face s ...
This article was downloaded by [Texas Womans University]On.docxchristalgrieg
This article was downloaded by: [Texas Woman's University]
On: 30 September 2014, At: 06:11
Publisher: Routledge
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office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Early Child Development and Care
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
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Comparisons of levels and predictors of
mothers' and fathers' engagement with
their preschool-aged children
Sarah J. Schoppe-Sullivan a , Letitia E. Kotila a , Rongfang Jia a ,
Sarah N. Lang a & Daniel J. Bower a
a Human Development and Family Science , The Ohio State
University , Columbus , OH , USA
Published online: 03 Sep 2012.
To cite this article: Sarah J. Schoppe-Sullivan , Letitia E. Kotila , Rongfang Jia , Sarah N. Lang &
Daniel J. Bower (2013) Comparisons of levels and predictors of mothers' and fathers' engagement
with their preschool-aged children, Early Child Development and Care, 183:3-4, 498-514, DOI:
10.1080/03004430.2012.711596
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711596
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and-conditions
Comparisons of levels and predictors of mothers’ and fathers’
engagement with their preschool-aged children
Sarah J. Schoppe-Sullivan∗, Letitia E. Kotila, Rongfang Jia, Sarah N. Lang and
Daniel J. Bower
Human Development and Family Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
(Received 9 December 2011; final version received 30 March 2012)
Self-report data from 112 two-parent families were used to compare levels and
predictors of four types of mothers’ and fathers’ engagement with their
preschool-aged children: socialisation, didactic, careg ...
The adolescent stage is a period of turmoil marked with enormous vibrancy, discovery, innovation and hope and also the time when many of them initiate sexual relationships and involvement. This can be a challenging time for young people who are becoming aware of their sexual and reproductive rights and needs, and who rely on their families, peers, schools, media and health service providers for affirmation, advice, information and the skills to navigate is sometimes a difficult transition to adulthood. The subject on sex has been surrounded by mystery and beclouded by dark silence as neither parents nor teachers are ready to discuss it with teenagers despite unplanned pregnancies, dropping out of school by students, Sexually Transmitted Infections among teenagers. The study investigated influence of teen contraceptive use) on academic achievement among public secondary school students in Bungoma South Sub-County, Kenya. The study adopted Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory postulated in 1986. A descriptive research design was used with target population of 3774 Form 3 students. A sample of 400 students was selected using, Miller, L.R. & Brewer, J.D. (2003) mathematical formula and stratified randomly from 52 schools and conveniently selected equally between boys and girls. Data was collected using structured interview schedule and questionnaire and analyzed descriptively. Results highlights most students were aware about contraceptive use with females slightly more than males and media was the major source of information on contraceptive use while parents/guardians had no significant contribution since teenagers rarely receive their first information on sexual matters from their parents. More than half of the sexually active students used contraceptives though it still interfered with their academic performance. This paper points at sex education curriculum in schools, setting up reproductive health institutions for the youth and distribution of contraceptives among teenagers which has a bearing on students’ performance.
1. Original article
Influence of Family and School-Level Factors on Age of Sexual
Initiation
Candace N. White, Ph.D., M.Ed. *, and Lynn A. Warner, Ph.D., M.S.W.
University at Albany, SUNY, School of Social Welfare, Albany, New York
Article history: Received June 17, 2014; Accepted September 27, 2014
Keywords: Adolescence; Initiation of sexual intercourse; School factors; Family factors; Multilevel models
A B S T R A C T
Purpose: This study examined the association of individual, family, and school-level characteristics
with age of sexual initiation (ASI) and focused specifically on school context as a moderator of
known predictors of ASI.
Methods: Data are from Waves I and IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N ¼
10,596). Predictors include grade point average, physical development, attitudes about sex, likeli-
hood of higher education, alcohol use, delinquency, family structure, parents’ education level,
childhood abuse, maternal approval of sex, parental monitoring, and parentechild relationship
quality. School-level predictors are averages of adolescents’ attitudes about sex and likelihood of
higher education and parents’ education. Hierarchical linear models run separately by sex were used
to predict ASI.
Results: When school-level attitudes about sex are more favorable, both boys and girls report
younger ASI, and school mean parental education attainment moderates the influence of
individual adolescents’ attitudes about sex on ASI. More of the predictors are significant for girls
than boys, whereas perception of maternal and peer approval of sexual activity are the most salient
predictors of younger ASI for boys.
Conclusions: Results highlight the importance of school context for understanding adolescents’
motivations for early ASI. Findings support the need for school-wide prevention interventions that
engage adolescents, peers, and parents in addressing attitudes about early sex.
Ó 2015 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. All rights reserved.
IMPLICATIONS AND
CONTRIBUTION
This nationally represen-
tative longitudinal study
contributes to a better
understanding of the
multiple contexts that in-
fluence adolescent sexual
activity. Findings support
the need for school-wide
prevention approaches
that incorporate parent
echild and peer-to-peer
communication about at-
titudes about early sex and
pregnancy for both boys
and girls.
Bioecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of
considering multiple systems to understand individual behavior
[1]. However, most studies of adolescents’ age of heterosexual
intercourse (hereafter age of sexual initiation [ASI]) have focused
exclusively on individual, peer, and family factors, despite
research that demonstrates the influence of more distal contexts
on other adolescent risk taking behaviors [2,3]. For example, low
neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) has been found to be
associated with adolescents’ viewing sex and pregnancy in a
positive light [4] and with higher rates of early initiation [5].
A better understanding of the influence of school-level fac-
tors, as well as the interaction between school characteristics and
other known ASI predictors, is particularly important because
sexual risketaking behavior has been associated with adoles-
cents’ perceptions of their peers’ attitudes and behaviors [6e11],
and teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease prevention
efforts are often school based [12]. Current intervention evalua-
tions show successful reduction of adolescent sexual risketaking
behaviors using school-based interventions that directly address
the predictors of ASI (e.g., perception of peer norms, academic
Conflicts of Interest: There are no known conflicts of interest for either author.
The study was a secondary analysis using the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (Add Health). Neither author has an affiliation with Add
Health study sponsors. No honorarium, grant, or other form of payment was
given to anyone to produce the article.
* Address correspondence to: Candace N. White, Ph.D., M.Ed., New York State
Office of Mental Health, 44 Holland Ave., Albany, NY 12229.
E-mail address: cwhite2@albany.edu (C.N. White).
www.jahonline.org
1054-139X/Ó 2015 Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.09.017
Journal of Adolescent Health 56 (2015) 231e237
2. failure, parentechild relationship) [13]. However, findings have
been inconsistent, possibly because of variation in the risk factors
addressed, or unique characteristics of the target population.
Moreover, there has been little examination into the effects of
school-wide norms and values with regard to sexual activity, or
the social and economic status of students’ parents who serve as
role models for adolescents by setting expectations for adulthood
achievement such as college attendance. Given that neighbor-
hood SES has been found to moderate the influence on ASI of
parental involvement and decision making regarding youth’s
activities [10], it is also likely that aspects of the more proximal
school context interact with individual and family characteris-
tics. However, to the authors’ knowledge, only one study [14] has
examined the direct effect of “school” characteristics on sexual
initiation, with the finding that initiation occurred earlier in
private versus public schools and in schools with positive norms
about adolescents’ sexual activity. None have examined the
interaction of school characteristics with other known ASI
predictors.
The purpose of the present study is to examine multisystemic
influences on ASI, focusing on school-level characteristics as
possible moderators of previously identified individual and family
characteristics associated with ASI. The study examines the mul-
tiple levels of influence separately for boys and girls, given previous
studies that show sex differences for many ASI risk factors, and that
some prevention interventions have been effective for one but not
both sexes. For example, individual-level factors associated with
early initiation for both boys and girls include delinquency
[6,7,15e17], substance abuse [16,18e22], and childhood sexual and
physical abuse and neglect [23,24]. Low academic achievement
[9,15,18e21,25], low educational aspirations [26], and early physical
development [10,25] have been significantly associated with ASI for
both sexes and for girls only [17,27]. Family characteristics associ-
ated with early ASI for both boys and girls include single-parent
family structure [10,28,29], low parental income and education
[19,28,29], poor parentechild relationship quality [19,25,30,31],
low parental monitoring [30], and parents’ permissive attitudes
about sex [25,30e32]. However, some studies have found these
family factors to be significant for girls only [6,15,17,32e34]. The
adolescent’s sex therefore plays a critical role in which factors are
associated with age of initiation. Existing research on sexual initi-
ation is limited because of the lack of studies that simultaneously
examine the influence of individual, family, and school-level factors
while also noting any sex differences in predictors. The current
analysis of a large sample allows for further examination of these
sex differences and a comprehensive set of multisystemic pre-
dictors to inform evidence-based practice guidelines for social
workers practicing with families and in the schools.
Methods
Data source
This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative
survey that began in 1995, when students were in Grades 7e12
[35]. The Add Health study used a clustered and school-based
stratified random sampling design to ensure that the selected
schools were representative of schools in the United States.
Eighty communities with schools spanning Grades 7e12 were
randomly selected. The randomly selected school in 65 of the
communities did not span all grades, so feeder middle schools
were selected. After random selection of students stratified by
grade level and sex, and oversampling of particular sub-
populations, the baseline sample included 20,745 adolescents.
At Wave I, researchers conducted an extensive in-home
interview with the student and a half an hour interview with
one parent (88% of the sample had a participating parent).
Computer assisted self-interview protocols were used for
respondents to record answers to sensitive questions such as
those regarding sexual intercourse. Wave I respondents were
followed into young adulthood with four in-home interviews.
Wave IV interviews were conducted from 2007 to 2008 when
the sample was aged 24e32 years (N ¼ 15,701). The current
analysis excludes Wave IV respondents who are missing
sampling weights, those who had not had sexual intercourse as
of Wave IV, outliers on age of initiation, individuals who did not
report or inconsistently reported ever having sex or age of
initiation, those with missing family variable information, and
individuals living with foster parents. Because of these exclu-
sions, four strata were missing data and thus were also excluded
from analysis. Compared with the analytic sample (N ¼ 10,596),
the excluded group reported a significantly lower age of initia-
tion at Wave IV (mean, 16.11 years) and includes a significantly
higher proportion of adolescents with characteristics associated
with not completing high school (e.g., African-American,
nonresident fathers).
Measures
Outcome variable: age of sexual initiation
At Waves IeIV, adolescents were asked, “Have you ever had
sexual intercourse?” (“yes” or “no”). Sexual intercourse was
defined for respondents as “when a male inserts his penis into a
female’s vagina.” In Waves IIeIV, respondents who answered
“yes” were also asked “At what age did you have sexual inter-
course for the very first time?” The current analysis uses ASI as
reported at Wave IV.
Independent variables
Most of the independent variables are based on data collected
at Wave I when participants reported on behaviors and feelings
at or before that time. Two-parent family structure includes
having both a mother and father in the house, which could
include biological, step, adoptive, or other. Parentechild rela-
tionship quality is based on five questions concerning warmth,
satisfaction with mother/father relationships, and satisfaction
with communication style with each residential parent. Because
different Likert scale response categories were used for the five
items, “positive” responses (“strongly agree” or “agree,” “quite a
bit” or “very much”) were counted to obtain an overall score,
ranging from 0 to 5, with a higher score indicating more positive
relationship. For individuals in two-parent families, the highest
parent score is used. To address the negative skew, a dichoto-
mous variable was created to differentiate the 79% with a value of
five from the others. Childhood maltreatment, not assessed at
Wave I, was measured by two Wave IV questions about physical
and sexual abuse by parents or other adult caregivers by the time
respondents were in the sixth grade. Responses to both items
were summed to obtain an overall childhood abuse indicator,
ranging from 0 (“never happened”) to 10 (“more than 20 times”),
and then rescaled to a three-point scale to address the high
C.N. White and L.A. Warner / Journal of Adolescent Health 56 (2015) 231e237232
3. positive skew and kurtosis. Residential mother’s approval of
sexual initiation was based on the question, “How would mom
feel about you having sex at this time in your life,” with responses
on a scale of 1 (“strongly disapprove”) to 5 (“strongly approve”).
Informed by results from a previous study [10], parental moni-
toring is based on the summed responses to two items that
capture adolescents’ reports of parental decisions regarding their
“outside activities”: whether residential mother and/or father
decide whom the youth associates with and when the youth
must be home on weekends (0 ¼ no; 1 ¼ yes).
For the current analysis, school-level (Level 2) variables, mean
values were calculated from the responses provided by all ado-
lescents in each stratum. School-level parents’ education level is
based on the highest parental education level or the level of one
parent if the other parent’s information was unavailable, rated on
a scale of 1 (eighth grade or less) to 9 (professional training
beyond 4-year college). The score of 10 (never went to school)
was recoded to 0. For 88% of the sample, parent report is used; for
the remaining 12%, adolescent report is used. School (strata)-
level adolescents’ sex approval is assessed using the mean value
on nine items found to be associated with early sexual initiation
and lower rates of condom use during sex in prior Add Health
analyses [11]. Responses ranged from 1 to 5, indicating strong
agreement to strong disagreement. Items assess attitudes such as
whether sex and pregnancy would lead to gained respect,
embarrassment, guilt, quitting school, marrying the wrong per-
son, and growing up too fast. Alpha reliability was .76. An outlier
indicator was created for two strata that had an average age of
initiation greater than 19 and sex approval averages that were
more than three standard deviations below the average. School-
level higher education likelihood is based on the average of the
adolescent responses in each stratum to a question about how
likely it was she/he would go to college (range, 1e5; higher
values indicate higher likelihood).
Control variables include the variables used in stratification of
the schools (high-school metropolitan location, size, quartile
percentage white, school type, and region of the country) and
oversampling of particular groups; age and a dichotomous
indicator of high school versus middle school status at Wave I to
address the multicohort sampling design; a dichotomous indi-
cator of sex initiation before Wave I; individual-level variables
known to contribute to early initiation (race/ethnicity, sex,
alcohol use, delinquency, early physical development, and grade
point average); and the individual-level variables that would be
aggregated to the school level in the final model (higher educa-
tion likelihood, sex approval, and parents’ education level).
Dummy variables were created for all race categories except
Native American and other (62 individuals were Native American
and 79 individuals were in the other group). In addition to
African-American race and parents’ education level, an interac-
tion variable was included in the multivariate analyses to address
the oversampling of African-American adolescents with college
educated parents [36]. Academic achievement is assessed using
the mean, on a 4.0 scale, of self-reported grades from Wave I
because transcripts were not available for those in Grades 7 and 8
at Wave I. Scaled responses to the question “During the past
12 months, on how many days did you drink alcohol?” is used to
assess alcohol use. Responses ranged from 1 (every day/almost
every day) to 7 (never) and were reverse scored, so higher scores
represent higher alcohol use. Delinquency is assessed using the
average of the 15-item Wave I self-report of delinquent behaviors
occurring over the past 12 months, rated on a scale of never (0),
one or two times (1), three or four times (2), or five or more times
(3). Alpha reliability was .84. This is categorized according to
quartile distribution to address the high positive skew and
kurtosis. Physical development is assessed using Wave I adoles-
cent responses to the question, “How advanced is your physical
development compared to other girls/boys your age?” Response
choices ranged from 1 (look younger than most) to 5 (look older
than most), with a higher score indicating earlier maturation.
Analyses
Univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted to describe
the sample and examine sex differences on all variables. A series
of hierarchical linear models was estimated to determine the
influence of individual factors, family factors, school-level char-
acteristics, and the cross-level interaction of school level with
individual and family factors, on age of first sexual intercourse. A
multilevel approach is appropriate when using Add Health data
because participants are nested within schools, therefore
violating the assumption of independence across observations
[37]. Given previous sex difference findings, all steps were con-
ducted separately for the two sexes as follows: a null model with
no predictor variables; all control and individual-level variables;
all family variables; school-level variables; and the cross-level
interaction of school-level parental educational attainment
with family characteristics, and with the individual-level sex
approval variable. The intercept was random, and all predictors
were fixed in all models; except for the model with the cross-
level interaction, all models were fully nested. Level 1 variables
were group mean centered, and all models were estimated using
restricted maximum likelihood because the dependent variable
is normally distributed. The use of restricted maximum likeli-
hood and fixed predictors allows for examination of improve-
ment in model fit using Akaike Information Criterion [38]. For all
these measures, smaller values represent better fitting models.
SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC) was used for all analyses.
All research was approved by the institutional review board at
[institution blinded for peer review] and an “Agreement for the
Use of Restricted-Use Data” and “Pledge of Confidentiality” were
provided to the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and
Social Research at the University of Michigan where Add Health
data are stored.
Results
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for girls and boys and
significant differences between the sexes based on bivariate
analyses. The average age of the sample at Wave IV is 29 years,
with 24% in middle school and the remainder in high school at
Wave I. There is a slight over representation of female adoles-
cents (55%). Girls score significantly higher on more of the family
risk factors, and boys score significantly higher on more of the
individual-level risk factors. School-level descriptives for the
entire sample are reported in Table 2. There are no significant sex
differences at the school level or on age of initiation.
Hierarchical linear model results
The null models for both boys and girls show variation in the
average age of initiation across schools, and convergence criteria
are met for these and all subsequent models. Table 3 presents
results of the last three hierarchical linear model steps for males
C.N. White and L.A. Warner / Journal of Adolescent Health 56 (2015) 231e237 233
4. and females separately. Model 3 includes all control and family
variables. All the individual-level factors are associated with age
of initiation for both sexes. For girls, all family factors are
significant predictors of age of initiation. For boys, although other
family factors are significant, parentechild relationship quality
and parental monitoring are not significant predictors, even
when all other family variables are removed in a post hoc
analysis.
Model 4 shows results of the addition of school-level factors.
For girls, all school-level factors are significant. For boys, all
school-level factors are significant except school-level parental
educational attainment. It was significant however in a post hoc
analysis where it was the only school-level variable included,
suggesting that other school-level characteristics might mediate
the relationship of school-level parental education attainment
with ASI.
Cross-level interactions are reported in Model 5. The
interaction of school mean parents’ education level with
individual-level sex approval is the only significant interaction
for both girls (p < .01) and boys (p < .05). The coefficient for the
sex approval interaction is negative; as the school-level parents’
education level increases, the influence of individual-level atti-
tudes on age of initiation decreases. None of the interactions
with family variables are significant for either sex, nor are they
when the school-type indicator is removed. Removal of the
insignificant school parents’ education with family factors cross-
level interactions results in the best fitting model for both sexes.
Results for both sexes are shown in Table 4.
Discussion
Results confirm the influence of multisystemic factors and
their interactions on ASI. For both sexes, family- and school-level
factors explain the variation in ASI, even after controlling for
previously identified fixed (race and physical development)
and mutable (delinquency, alcohol use, grade point average)
individual-level factors. Consistent with prior research, single-
parent family structure, maternal approval of sex, and child-
hood abuse are associated with earlier age of initiation for both
boys and girls. Among girls, but not boys, the significance of
parentechild relationship quality and parental monitoring is also
consistent with previous sex difference findings [15,32e34].
The relationship between school-level higher education
likelihood and ASI, and attitudes about early sex/pregnancy and
ASI, is consistent with previous research showing the strong
influence of peer attitudes on sexual risk behaviors for both sexes
[6e11]. Teitler and Weiss [14] had also demonstrated that school
norms about acceptable timing of youths’ transitions mediated
the relationship between neighborhood SES and early initiation.
The current findings extend this research by showing that
attendance at a school where students disapprove of early sex
and pregnancy, and will likely pursue higher education, is a
protective factor against early sex. In addition, as demonstrated
by the significance of cross-level interactions for both sexes,
Table 2
Descriptive results for school-level variables (N ¼ 76)a
School-/community-level variables
(strata N ¼ 76)
Frequency (%)
or mean (SD)
Range of
strata means
School type
Proportion public school 68 (90%)
Proportion private school 6 (8%)
High school proportion white students
67% or more
41 (54%)
Metropolitan location
High school in urban location 23 (30%)
High school in rural location 14 (18%)
High school in suburban location 39 (51%)
High school has 351 or more students 38 (50%)
High school region West or Midwest 33 (44%)
Number of participating schools in a strata 1.68 (.47) 1e2
Number of participating students per strata 139 (113) 47e885
Proportion male students per strata .45 (.05) .35e.59
Parents’ education 6.07 (.99) 3.78e8.62
Approval of sexual activity 2.53 (.22) 1.73e3.15
Proportion pregnant .01 (.01) 0e.04
Higher education likelihood 4.18 (.30) 3.53e4.93
GPA 2.84 (.20) 2.36e3.48
Age of initiation 16.93 (.77) 15.36e19.74
GPA ¼ grade point average; SD ¼ standard deviation.
a
All Level 2 (“school level”) variables are calculated based on the 76 randomly
selected strata/communities, which contain one to two schools: one combined
high/middle school or one high school and one middle/junior high school.
Table 1
Sample description and sex differencesa
Variable Girls
(N ¼ 5,821)
Boys
(N ¼ 4,775)
Mean (SD) or
frequency (%)
Mean (SD) or
frequency (%)
Dependent variable
Initiation age 16.91 (2.76) 16.93 (2.81)
Independent family-level variables
Two-parent family structure 4,005 (69%)** 3,412 (71%)
Mother’s approval of sexual activity 1.59 (.84)*** 1.86 (.92)
Residential parentechild relationship
quality
4.47 (1.10)*** 4.68 (.82)
Residential parental monitoring 1.15 (.60)*** 1.25 (.64)
Childhood abuse .66 (1.61)** .58 (1.41)
Control variables
Initiation before Wave I 2,185 (37%) 1,834 (38%)
Age at Wave IV 28.98 (1.65)*** 29.18 (1.66)
Grade at Wave I
7th grade 673 (12%) 516 (11%)
8th grade 742 (13%) 637 (13%)
9th grade 1,078 (19%) 894 (19%)
10th grade 1,207 (21%) 979 (21%)
11th grade 1,160 (20%) 985 (21%)
12th grade 949 (16%) 755 (16%)
Ethnicity
White 3,263 (56%)** 2,812 (59%)
African-American 1,274 (22%)*** 858 (18%)
Latino 870 (15%) 726 (15%)
Asian American 340 (6%) 312 (7%)
Native American 37 (.64%) 25 (.52%)
Other 37 (.64%) 42 (.88%)
Parents’ education 6.01 (2.33)*** 6.19 (2.27)
Alcohol use 2.04 (1.34)*** 2.18 (1.52)
Delinquency .24 (.29)*** .33 (.38)
Physical development 3.26 (1.09)* 3.22 (1.11)
GPA 2.89 (.75)*** 2.69 (.77)
Self-reported approval of sexual
activity
2.53 (.71)*** 2.58 (.65)
Self-reported higher education
likelihood
4.34 (1.03)*** 4.08 (1.16)
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
GPA ¼ grade point average; SD ¼ standard deviation.
a
All independent variables are taken from Wave I report with the exception of
childhood abuse, which is taken from Wave IV. Age of initiation is taken from
Wave IV report. If initiation age was missing, it was taken from a previous
wave. Although the parentechild relationship quality, childhood abuse, and
delinquency variables were categorized for the multivariate analyses, descriptive
information for the original scale values is reported here.
C.N. White and L.A. Warner / Journal of Adolescent Health 56 (2015) 231e237234
5. school-level parents’ education appears to be an important
moderator of the association between attitudes about sex and
ASI. Attendance in a school where the parents’ education level is
high reduces the influence that approving attitudes about
sex/pregnancy have on age of initiation for girls. The lack of
moderation of the family characteristics by the school-level
variables is not consistent with results of a prior study in
which neighborhood SES moderated the influence of parental
monitoring and involvement [10], but that study includes only
middle school students and uses a neighborhood rather than
school-level indicator of SES as a moderator. It could be that
school-level parents’ education and related factors protect
against the risk of more liberal attitudes of individuals about sex,
but they do not impact the stronger influence of family factors.
The findings should be interpreted in light of study limita-
tions. Adolescents’ self-reports of ASI may not be recalled reli-
ably, and some adolescents may misrepresent parenting aspects
and approval, possibly to justify their behaviors. To minimize the
consequence of nonreliable ASI reports, only adolescents with
consistent reports across data collection waves were included in
the analyses. Future research using methods to estimate and
account for possible social desirability bias may be needed.
Because of missing data exclusions, youth with risks for a range
of negative outcomes were not included in this study. These
youth, however, would likely benefit from targeted and more
intensive interventions in addition to the universal prevention
programs suggested by the current analysis. Finally, in-
terpretations of causal relationships between the predictors and
ASI should be made cautiously, especially given possible lack of
temporal precedence between predictors and ASI for the 38% of
the sample who had sex before Wave I.
Despite these limitations, the present study has notable
strengths. Although previous studies identified contextual level
factors like neighborhood SES, none examined the influence of
Table 3
Hierarchical linear model results of Models 3e6: individual-, family-, and school-level predictors of age of initiation, Add Health, coefficient (SE)
Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Girls
(N ¼ 5,821)
Boys
(N ¼ 4,775)
Girls
(N ¼ 5,821)
Boys
(N ¼ 4,775)
Girls
(N ¼ 5,821)
Boys
(N ¼ 4,775)
Intercept 17.25 (.47)*** 17.12 (.49)*** 17.66 (1.8)*** 18.77 (1.95)*** 17.67 (1.81)*** 18.77 (1.95)***
Region
West .35 (.24) .5 (.25) .32 (.18) .38 (.19) .33 (.18) .37 (.19)
Midwest À.09 (.23) .09 (.24) À.04 (.16) .12 (.17) À.04 (.16) .12 (.17)
South À.16 (.22) À.03 (.22) À.25 (.15) À.11 (.16) À.24 (.15) À.11 (.16)
Northeast 0 0 0 0 0 0
Metropolitan location
Urban .3 (.26) .31 (.27) .21 (.18) .22 (.19) .21 (.18) .22 (.19)
Suburban 0 (.22) .06 (.23) À.06 (.15) 0 (.16) À.05 (.15) À.01 (.16)
Rural 0 0 0 0 0 0
School type
Public À1.41 (.36)*** À1.71 (.37)*** À.15 (.31) À.32 (.34) À.15 (.31) À.32 (.34)
Catholic À.91 (.53) À1.05 (.54) .17 (.39) .09 (.41) .17 (.39) .1 (.41)
Private 0 0 0 0 0 0
Proportion white .11 (.1) .26 (.11)* .08 (.09) .19 (.09) .08 (.09) .18 (.09)
High school size .11 (.11) .13 (.11) .16 (.08)* .17 (.08)* .17 (.08)* .17 (.08)
African-American À.21 (.1)* À.41 (.12)*** À.16 (.09) À.34 (.12)** À.16 (.09) À.35 (.12)**
Latino .24 (.11)* À.11 (.13) .26 (.11)* À.1 (.13) .26 (.11)* À.09 (.13)
Asian .4 (.15)** .45 (.17)** .42 (.15)** .47 (.17)** .42 (.15)** .46 (.17)**
Age at interview .48 (.03)*** .39 (.03)*** .48 (.03)*** .39 (.03)*** .48 (.03)*** .39 (.03)***
In high school at Wave I À.1 (.1) .09 (.12) À.09 (.1) .08 (.12) À.1 (.1) .09 (.12)
Sex before Wave I À2.56 (.07)*** À2.39 (.08)*** À2.56 (.07)*** À2.4 (.08)*** À2.57 (.07)*** À2.4 (.08)***
Approval of sex À.45 (.05)*** À.33 (.06)*** À.45 (.05)*** À.33 (.06)*** .32 (.28) .44 (.37)
Parents’ Ed level .03 (.01)* .03 (.02) .03 (.01) .02 (.02) .03 (.01) .02 (.02)
African-American  parents’ Ed À.03 (.03) À.02 (.04) À.03 (.03) À.02 (.04) À.03 (.03) À.02 (.04)
Higher Ed likelihood À.01 (.03) .04 (.03) À.01 (.03) .04 (.03) 0 (.03) .04 (.03)
Physical development À.17 (.03)*** À.06 (.03)* À.17 (.03)*** À.06 (.03)* À.17 (.03)*** À.06 (.03)*
GPA .25 (.04)*** .25 (.05)*** .25 (.04)*** .25 (.05)*** .25 (.04)*** .25 (.05)***
Alcohol use À.18 (.02)*** À.16 (.03)*** À.18 (.02)*** À.16 (.03)*** À.18 (.02)*** À.16 (.03)***
Delinquency À.23 (.03)*** À.24 (.03)*** À.23 (.03)*** À.24 (.03)*** À.23 (.03)*** À.24 (.03)***
Two parent family .24 (.07)*** .24 (.08)** .25 (.07)*** .24 (.08)** .25 (.07)*** .24 (.08)**
Parentechild relationship quality .15 (.07)* À.08 (.09) .15 (.07)* À.07 (.09) À.1 (.43) À.04 (.59)
Childhood abuse À.25 (.04)*** À.15 (.05)** À.25 (.04)*** À.15 (.05)** À.25 (.04)*** À.15 (.05)**
Maternal approval of sex À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)**
Parental monitoring .14 (.05)** .05 (.05) .14 (.05)** .05 (.05) .22 (.3) À.45 (.34)
School mean parents’ Ed level À.35 (.11)** À.21 (.12) À.36 (.11)** À.21 (.12)
School outlier indicator À1.48 (.52)** À1.44 (.55)* À1.49 (.52)** À1.43 (.55)*
School mean sex approval À1.6 (.4)*** À1.7 (.44)*** À1.59 (.4)*** À1.71 (.44)***
School mean higher Ed likelihood 1.44 (.37)*** 1.02 (.4)* 1.45 (.37)*** 1.01 (.39)*
School mean parents’ Ed  parental monitoring À.01 (.05) .08 (.06)
School mean parents’ Ed  parentechild relationship .04 (.07) À.01 (.1)
School mean parents’ Ed  individual approval of sex À.13 (.05)** À.13 (.06)*
AIC 25,595 21,676.9 25,540.4 21,630.9 25,543.5 21,634.8
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
AIC ¼ Akaike Information Criterion; Ed ¼ education; GPA ¼ grade point average; SE ¼ standard error.
C.N. White and L.A. Warner / Journal of Adolescent Health 56 (2015) 231e237 235
6. students’ attitudes about sex and likelihood of higher education
aggregated to the school level. In addition, previous studies
did not account for the clustering of individuals within these
contexts, and relied heavily on cross-sectional data and logistic
regression models that used dichotomous outcome variables.
Their smaller sample sizes also precluded analysis of the
comprehensive list of predictors possible in this study.
Implications
The present study provides information about the ecological
systems involved in adolescents’ initiation of sex. The nationally
representative findings underscore the need for universal
prevention efforts that involve the adolescents’ families and
schools and interventions that address not only individual-level
risk factors but the adolescents’ and parents’ attitudes about
early sex. The present study found, for example, that boys report
more maternal approval of sex than girls, and this was one of only
a few significant predictors of initiation age for boys. Increased
efforts should be made to help parents understand the potential
protective effect of the expression of disapproval of early sexual
activity to girls and boys. Previous intervention research supports
the need for communication about these attitudes. For example, a
decrease in rates of early ASI was achieved with an intervention
aimed at increasing parentechild communication about the social
consequences of early sex in clinics [39], rather than just the health
and economic consequences on which parents commonly focus.
Parentechild and peer-to-peer communication regarding
these attitudes as well as education that addresses the social
pressures to engage in sexual behavior and provides opportunity
to practice refusal skills can be facilitated in the schools [12]. The
present study supports the need for interventions that address
not only the attitudes of immediate peers but also the school-
wide peer culture. Previous intervention has shown success in
changing school-wide attitudes about academic achievement
[40]. Similar efforts could be facilitated with regard to attitudes
about early sex and pregnancy, for example, with alumni groups
who can model resistance skills and have achieved higher edu-
cation and other positive milestones. Given the sex difference
findings, prevention programs might also consider implement-
ing programs that focus on strengthening family relationships
for girls and providing positive peer role models for boys.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Drs. Carolyn Smith, Kathryn Schiller,
and Glenn Deane for helpful comments and statistical assistance,
the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research at
the University of Michigan for access to the Add Health data, and
the University of North Carolina’s Carolina Population Center for
access to Add Health user guides and technical assistance. Find-
ings from the present study were presented at the Add Health
Users Conference in June 2014. C.N.W., PhD, wrote the first draft
of this article.
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Table 4
Hierarchical linear model results for the best fitting model, Add Health, coeffi-
cient (SE)
Girls
(N ¼ 5,821)
Boys
(N ¼ 4,775)
Intercept 17.68 (1.81)*** 18.72 (1.96)***
Region
West .33 (.18) .37 (.19)
Midwest À.04 (.16) .12 (.17)
South À.24 (.15) À.11 (.16)
Northeast 0 0
Metropolitan location
Urban .21 (.18) .22 (.19)
Suburban À.05 (.15) À.01 (.16)
Rural 0 0
School type
Public À.15 (.31) À.32 (.34)
Catholic .17 (.39) .1 (.41)
Private 0 0
Proportion white .08 (.09) .18 (.09)
High school size .17 (.08)* .17 (.08)*
African-American À.16 (.09) À.34 (.12)**
Latino .26 (.11)* À.09 (.13)
Asian .42 (.15)** .46 (.17)**
Age at interview .48 (.03)*** .39 (.03)***
In high school at Wave I À.1 (.1) .09 (.12)
Sex before Wave I À2.57 (.07)*** À2.4 (.08)***
Approval of sex .33 (.27) .42 (.37)
Parents’ Ed level .03 (.01) .02 (.02)
African-American  parents’ Ed À.03 (.03) À.02 (.04)
Higher Ed likelihood 0 (.03) .04 (.03)
Physical development À.17 (.03)*** À.06 (.03)*
GPA .25 (.04)*** .25 (.05)***
Alcohol use À.18 (.02)*** À.16 (.03)***
Delinquency À.23 (.03)*** À.24 (.03)***
Two parent family .25 (.07)*** .24 (.08)**
Parentechild relationship quality .15 (.07)* À.08 (.09)
Childhood abuse À.25 (.04)*** À.15 (.05)**
Maternal approval of sex À.12 (.04)** À.12 (.04)**
Parental monitoring .14 (.05)** .05 (.05)
School mean parents’ Ed level À.36 (.11)** À.21 (.12)
School outlier indicator À1.5 (.52)** À1.43 (.56)*
School mean sex approval À1.59 (.4)*** À1.7 (.44)***
School mean higher Ed likelihood 1.45 (.37)*** 1.02 (.4)*
School mean parents’ Ed  individual
sex approval
À.13 (.05)** À.13 (.06)*
AIC 22,536.3 21,630.3
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
AIC ¼ Akaike Information Criterion; Ed ¼ education; GPA ¼ grade point average;
SE ¼ standard error.
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